IMAGES

Real and Virtual Images

An image is a reproduction of an object via light. If the image can form

on a surface, it is a real image and can exist even if no observer is present.
If the image requires the visual system of an observer, it is a virtual image.

Image Formation

Spherical mirrors, spherical refracting surfaces, and thin lenses can form
images of a source of light — the object — by redirecting rays emerging
from the source. The image occurs where the redirected rays cross (forming
a real image) or where backward extensions of those rays cross (forming a
virtual image). If the rays are sufficiently close to the central axis through
the spherical mirror, refracting surface, or thin lens, we have the following
relations between the object distance p (which is positive) and the image
distance i (which is positive for real images and negative for virtual images):

1. Spherical Mirror:

1 1 1 2
+ = = ,
p i f r
where f is the mirror’s focal length and r is its radius of curvature. A
plane mirror is a special case for which r → ∞, so that p = −i. Real
images form on the side of a mirror where the object is located, and
virtual images form on the opposite side.

2. Spherical Refracting Surface:

n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ = ,
p i r
where n1 is the index of refraction of the material where the object
is located, n2 is the index of refraction of the material on the other
side of the refracting surface, and r is the radius of curvature of the
surface. When the object faces a convex refracting surface, the radius
r is positive. When it faces a concave surface, r is negative. Real
images form on the side of a refracting surface that is opposite the
object, and virtual images form on the same side as the object.

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 3. Thin Lens:
 
1 1 1 1 1
+ = = (n − 1) − ,
p i f r1 r2

where f is the lens’s focal length, n is the index of refraction of the lens
material, and r1 and r2 are the radii of curvature of the two sides of the
lens, which are spherical surfaces. A convex lens surface that faces the
object has a positive radius of curvature; a concave lens surface that
faces the object has a negative radius of curvature. Real images form
on the side of a lens that is opposite the object, and virtual images
form on the same side as the object.

Lateral Magnification

The lateral magnification m produced by a spherical mirror or a thin

lens is
i
m=− .
p
The magnitude of m is given by

h0
|m| = ,
h
where h and h0 are the heights (measured perpendicular to the central
axis) of the object and image, respectively.

Optical Instruments

Three optical instruments that extend human vision are:

1. The simple magnifying lens, which produces an angular magnification

mθ given by

25 cm
mθ = ,
f
where f is the focal length of the magnifying lens. The distance of 25
cm is a traditionally chosen value that is a bit more than the typical
near point for someone 20 years old.

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2. The compound microscope, which produces an overall magnification M
given by

s 25 cm
M = mmθ = − ,
fob fey

where m is the lateral magnification produced by the objective, mθ

is the angular magnification produced by the eyepiece, s is the tube
length, and fob and fey are the focal lengths of the objective and
eyepiece, respectively.

3. The refracting telescope, which produces an angular magnification mθ

given by

fob
mθ = − .
fey