Landforms and Resources

I) Mountains and Highlands

A) Andes Mountains
a) longest mountain chain in the world
b) contains many active volcanoes
c) act as a barrier from the Pacific to the interior
(i) includes rain shadow effect
d) once contained the Inca Empire
B) Highlands
a) includes areas nearby mountains that have high altitude, but not high enough to be
mountains
b) many highlands regions stretch around near the coasts of South America
II) Plains for Grain and Livestock
A) Llanos of Colombia and Venezuela
a) the llanos are vast areas of grassy, treeless plains
b) typically used for livestock grazing and farming
(i) similar to Great Plains
B) Plains of Amazon River Basin
a) mostly flat savannas with moderate rainfall used for farming in Brazil
C) Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay
a) another name for grassy plains
b) mostly used for cattle and growing wheat
III) The Amazon and Other Rivers
A) Central America
a) US and Mexico share use of the Rio Grande- longest river in Central America
b) while there are other rivers, since countries in CA are surrounded by other bodies of
water, they don’t depend on rivers for transportation as much as South America
B) South America
a) Orinoco River
(i) runs through the north, mainly Venezuela and Colombia
(ii) flows over 1500 miles
b) Amazon River
(i) flows about 4000 miles from the Andes in the west to the Atlantic in the east
(ii) fed by over 1000 tributaries
(iii) carries more total water than any other river in the world, and is the
second longest in the world to the Nile
c) Parana River
(i) flows about 3000 miles through Paraguay and Argentina
IV) Major Islands of the Caribbean
A) Bahamas
a) made up of hundreds of islands off the tip of Florida and north of Cuba
b) Nassau is the capital and largest city
B) Greater Antilles
a) larger islands in the Caribbean
b) includes Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico
 C) Lesser Antilles
a) includes smaller islands southeast of Puerto Rico
V) Resources of Latin America
A) Minerals
a) contains many precious metals, including gold, silver, iron, copper, etc
b) South America is one of the world’s leaders in mining raw materials
c) many countries mine raw materials, then ship to other places for manufacturing goods
B) Energy
a) oil, coal, natural gas, uranium, and hydroelectric power are abundant
b) Venezuela and Mexico have major oil reserves
(i) Venezuela’s primary export is oil
(ii) changing oil prices have hurt both economies
c) Brazil takes advantage of its many rives for hydroelectric power

Climate and Vegetation

I) Tropical Climate Zones

A) Tropical Wet
a) The rain forest dominates large areas of Latin America
(i) The Amazon Rain Forest covers more than 2 million square miles
(ii) We are still discovering things about the rain forest
1 So far, we’ve counted more than 2500 varieties of trees
2 Recently, we discovered a group of Natives never before contacted
B) Tropical Wet and Dry
a) These areas support savannas, mostly found in South America
II) Dry Climate Zones
A) Semiarid
a) Dry with some rain
b) Found in Mexico, Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina
B) Desert
a) Found in Mexico, Peru, Argentina, and Chile
(i) Chile has the driest desert in the world, the Atacama Desert, due to the rain
shadow effect
1 Some areas in the Atacama haven’t had rain in over 100 years
III) Mid-Latitude Climate Zones
A) Humid Subtropical
a) Rainy winters with hot, humid summers
(i) Found in Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Bolivia, and Argentina
B) Mediterranean
a) Hot, dry summers and cool, moist winters
(i) Found in Chile
C) Marine West Coast
a) Cool, rainy winters and mild, rainy summers
(i) Found in Chile, Argentina
D) Highlands
a) Vary from moderate to cold depending on elevation
 b) Found in the mountains of Mexico and South America

Human-Environment Interaction

VI) Agriculture Reshapes the Environment

A) Slash and Burn
a) old technique used to clear land for farming using the ashes for fertilizer
(i) many overuse the soil and then move on, and since the soil is exhausted nothing
can grow back in the area
1 this is leading to a steady shrinking of the rain forests
B) Terraced Farming
a) ancient technique for growing crops on hillsides or mountain slopes
(i) basically cut giant steps into mountains or hills that allow any rainfall to catch on
different levels, allowing them to farm the land
VII) Urbanization: The Move to the Cities
A) From Country to City
a) Argentina, Uruguay, and Venezuela are the most urbanized at 90% of the population
living in cities or towns
b) people go to cities hoping to improve their lives
(i) typically go for jobs
(ii) the same push and pull factors that lead to migration influence people’s decisions
to move to cities
B) Rapidly Growing Cities
a) there are 6 massive cities in Latin America
(i) Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, Buenos Aires in Argentina, Lima in Peru,
Bogota in Colombia, and Santiago in Chile
1 the largest city in Central America is Mexico City, with 9 million living
within the city and over 21 million in the metropolitan area
 New York City is 8.4 million and 19.8 million
b) all cities have similar problems
(i) high population leads to unemployment and low income housing, which leads to
crime
(ii) large scale transportation leads to pollution
(iii) lack of infrastructure leads to issues like disease
VIII) Tourism: Positive and Negative Impacts
A) Advantages- describe one
a) high levels of tourism provide an influx of cash and creates jobs
(i) many people in cities work in hotels, restaurants, boutiques, etc
(ii) cruises bring large numbers of people, so those areas have steady income
B) Disadvantages- describe one
a) resorts are built in previously unused areas, leading to traffic congestion and pollution
b) poor areas are avoided by tourists, so the gap between the poor and well off increases,
leading to resentment and increased crime
c) local governments often run up debt in order to build tourist facilities
d) many owners of hotels, restaurants, and resorts don’t live in the country, so money
that they bring in goes to their country of origin (typically the US)
Mexico

IX) Colonialism and Independence

A) Native Americans and Spanish Conquest
a) Mexico contained many Native groups
(i) Olmec, Toltec, Mayan, Zapotec, and Aztec are some of the major tribes
b) by the time Cortez landed in Mexico, the Aztecs were dominant over the others
(i) Cortez was able to dominate the Aztecs and take control of Mexico by using
unknown technology, disease, and Native allies who hated the Aztecs
B) Colony and Country
a) Mexico became New Spain, and the Spanish strip-mined much of the resources,
especially gold and silver
b) gained independence in 1821
(i) before and after independence, there was distinct separation between the rich and
poor
c) after a civil war, a new constitution gave almost half of Mexico’s farmland to
peasants in 1917
C) One Party Rule
a) Mexico became dominated politically by the Institutional Revolutionary Party for the
next 70 years, which held power through fraud and corruption
(i) Vicente Fox won the election in 2000, and was the first president outside the PRI
since 1929
(ii) the PRI took power back in 2012 and currently holds the majority
X) A Meeting of Cultures
A) Aztecs and Spanish
a) the capital of the Aztec Empire was Tenochtitlan, which is current day Mexico City
b) Spanish conquerors brought the Spanish language and Catholicism, which the Natives
adopted
(i) the Spanish enslaved much of the Native population, so cultural assimilation was
natural
c) many of the Spaniards who came to the New World were men, and many turned to
the Natives to seek wives
(i) this led to a very high mestizo population- mixed Spanish and Native heritage
B) Architecture
a) Natives built massive temples in the general shape of pyramids (ziggurats)
b) the Spanish built missions and later huge cathedrals for the Church
(i) many of these take a unique style that is easy to recognize as Mexican
XI) Economics: Cities and Factories
A) Population and Cities
a) as with other areas, Mexico has many people moving to cities to seek jobs
b) much of the population is very young, which makes finding work even harder
(i) leads to emigration (migration out of the country)
B) Oil and Manufacturing
a) large parts of the Mexican industry focus on oil in the Gulf
 (i) money made off oil has allowed development to occur, especially for
manufacturing
b) many of the factories in Mexico are along the border with the US
(i) because of NAFTA (now USMCA), there are no tariffs between Mexico and the
US, which means they can sell to Americans cheaply and make more money
XII) Facing Challenges
A) Safety
a) billions of dollars of drugs cross the border between the US and Mexico
(i) gangs (cartels) fight for control of the trade
1 many try to flee to the US to escape the violence
2 the violence has also greatly hurt the tourist industry
B) Emigration
a) many Mexicans cross the border to the US, both legally and illegally, to find work
(i) if they are successful, and large number of them send much of the money they
make to families still on the other side
C) Work and School
a) Mexico has high unemployment, which forces many to turn to crime to survive
b) education has recently become a focus for Mexico, and now 85% of school aged kids
are in school

Central America and the Caribbean

XIII) Native and Colonial Central America

A) Mayan Influence
a) Mayans dominated today’s Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras
b) structured as city-states each ruled by god-kings
B) Spanish in Central America
a) after dominating Mexico, Spain swept through Central America
(i) at this time the Mayan influence was tiny and they lived in very small villages
b) after Mexico declared independence from Spain in 1821, Central America declared
independence from Mexico in 1823
(i) very soon after, the region split into separate nations
1 the last to form was Panama, who broke from Colombia when America
wanted to build the canal and Colombia wouldn’t do it, so America helped
Panama gain independence in order to get permission
XIV) Native and Colonial Caribbean
A) Caribbean Influences
a) after Columbus ran into the Bahamas, he thought he’d made it to India, and therefore
called the Natives “Indians”
(i) he (and others) enslaved the population and forced them to work on plantations
1 the Natives were very susceptible to European diseases, and died easily
 to replace the Native slaves, Europeans brought a group they knew could
handle their diseases- African slaves
B) Caribbean Independence
a) by the 1800s, the islands were claimed by the Spanish, French, British, Dutch, and
Danish
 b) the first slave revolt was in Haiti against French rule, and they achieved independence
in 1804
c) Cuba was next and became independent after the Spanish-American War in 1898
(i) American forces occupied the island until 1902, and still have a guaranteed plot of
land called Guantanamo Bay
d) after Cuba, other islands began to follow suit
XV) Cultural Blends
A) Culture of Central America
a) culture blends Native American influence with Spanish
(i) the language remains Spanish (with some German and English), and the religion
is dominantly Catholic
B) Culture of the Caribbean
a) since many other nations claimed lands in the Caribbean, the islands have much more
variety
(i) African influences are strongest here due to the islands being used to grow
sugarcane by African slaves
b) the primary religions are Catholic and Protestant (Anglican)
(i) also prevalent are Santeria (Hispanic dominance) and Voodoo (African
dominance)
1 both mix African traditional (spiritual) traditions with Catholicism
c) languages include Spanish, French, English, and a little Dutch and Danish
XVI) Economics: Jobs and People
A) Farming and Trade
a) historically, early success for crops did not benefit the places where they grew
because they were exported to other areas
b) today, sugar is the primary export in the Caribbean
(i) other exports include bananas, citrus fruits, coffee, and spices
c) trade is particularly important in this region due to the Panama Canal
(i) since it links the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, ships can quickly cross to one side
or the other for a fee
B) Where People Live and Why
a) in Central America, most people work on farms, so most live in rural areas
b) in the Caribbean, the islands are highly populated, so people live close together
(i) larger cities attract those looking for jobs, and if they are unsuccessful many turn
to crime and end up living in slums
XVII) Popular Culture, Tourism, and Jobs
A) Music of the Caribbean
a) reggae and calypso started in the Caribbean
(i) calypso started in Trinidad and combines musical elements from Africa, Spain,
and the Caribbean
(ii) reggae started in Jamaica and deals with social problems and religion, blending
African, Caribbean, and American music
1 Bob Marley is the most famous of all the reggae artists
b) music in the Caribbean is one of the elements that draws tourists to the area
B) Tourism and the Informal Economy
a) rapid population growth has led to high unemployment, especially for young people
 b) tourism is a very important industry, and many young people are taught how to work
in tourist industries
(i) they make a living as guides on fishing trips, sailing, snorkeling, hiking, and other
things
c) the informal economy refers to those making a living in jobs like street vending,
shining shoes, and other services that do not have a base of operations

Spanish-Speaking South America

XVIII) Conquest and the End of Spanish Rule

A) The Inca
a) centered in the Andes Mountains of Peru
b) able to dominate other tribes in South America and spread their influence from
Ecuador to Argentina, with a 20,000 mile long road system that criss crossed the
empire
B) The Spanish Conquest
a) Pizarro had dreams of gaining riches and glory like Cortez had, so he moved south to
seek another great civilization
(i) he found the Inca, and was able to trick the Incan Emperor into meeting with him,
then took him captive and forced the rest of the Incans to surrender
1 he then enslaved them and forced them to work in silver mines
b) the Spanish continued this policy, and many Natives died from disease and being
overworked
(i) Spain also forced the Spanish language on Natives, but many were able to secretly
retain their language and today many people still speak it
C) Independence Movements
a) South Americans were inspired by the American and French Revolutions, and soon
after revolted from Spanish rule
(i) Simon Bolivar helped liberate Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Bolivia
(ii) Jose de San Martin helped liberate Argentina, Chile, and Peru
b) the new nations had trouble dealing with the harsh realities of geography- the land
was difficult to cross
(i) this means most of the population (even today) is found on the outer edges nearest
the coasts
1 this has contributed to less development and political instability
D) Government by the Few
a) many governments are held by oligarchies (small groups of people with absolute
power) and military rule
b) many authoritarians still rule the region
XIX) A Cultural Mosaic
A) Literature
a) recently, literature in South America has gained attention
(i) Gabriel Garcia Marquez won the Nobel Prize for literature
B) Music
a) music and dance are important artistic traditions
 (i) street music is common, combining Indian, African, and European elements that
is very recognizably uniquely South American
C) Arts and Crafts
a) each country has different specialties, but all of them have unique handmade items
(i) these include pottery, textiles, glasswork, and metalwork
XX) Economics: Resources and Trade
A) Economies of the Region
a) since the region is large and has varied resources, the economies provide a wide
variety of products
(i) many produce crops, others have large fishing and shipping industries, livestock,
and others mine precious metals
B) Chile’s Success Story
a) Chile has been the most successful economy, with large mines and farms
(i) the mines provide huge deposits of copper, and Chile also is able to export fruits
and vegetables to North America
b) recently, Chile has begun to focus on improving their neighbors to bring prosperity to
the region
XXI) Education and the Future
A) Literacy
a) many countries in South America have higher literacy rates than those in Central
America or the Caribbean
(i) Chile and Uruguay, for instance, top 95% literacy
(ii) these countries also typically have the same rates for men and women
B) Chile Again
a) overall literacy in Chile is about 96%, and for people 15-24 it is 99%
(i) despite this, while education for 6-13 is free, higher education is rare due to
political unrest

Brazil

XXII) History: A Divided Continent

A) Native Peoples and Portuguese Conquest
a) small groups of Natives lived in the region, which was dangerous due to the massive
rain forest and wildlife
b) the Portuguese first discovered Brazil by accident, and later colonists showed up to
begin farming
(i) this is about the same time Spain has discovered the Bahamas
c) due to territorial concerns and an impending war between Spain and Portugal, the
Pope brokered an agreement and set the Line of Demarcation in the Treaty of
Tordesillas
(i) this line determined all lands east would be open to Portuguese colonization, and
lands west would be open to Spain
1 he had no idea how much land was west, because North and South America
had not been explored yet
(ii) the line gave Portugal a slice of Brazil, and the rest of the continents to Spain,
which is why Brazil is the only country in the region that speaks Portuguese
 d) as with other areas, after enslaving the Natives, the Portuguese brought African slaves
to replace the Natives who died of disease
B) Independence
a) in 1822, thousands of colonists signed a petition to be independent of Portugal
(recently freed from Napoleon’s rule), and they were allowed to break away without
fighting
XXIII) National Culture
A) The People of Brazil
a) Brazil is a very diversified nation
(i) over 500,000 are Natives, most are ethnically Portuguese, and others are German,
Italian, Spanish, Asian, and Middle Eastern
B) Language and Religion
a) the primary language is Portuguese
b) Catholicism is the largest religion, with Protestantism hitting about 15%
(i) Brazil has the largest Catholic population in the world
XXIV) Economic Giant
A) Industrial Power
a) the sheer size of Brazil means they have numerous natural resources
(i) precious metals, water (power), natural gas, oil, timber
b) one of the most industrialized nations of Latin America
B) Urbanization
a) there is a vast gap between the rich and poor, which means many move to cities to try
to improve their lives
C) Migration
a) about 80% of people live within 200 miles of the sea
(i) the government has been encouraging people to move inland to develop resources
XXV) Brazilian Life
A) Carnival to Martial Arts
a) most well-known and colorful festival in Brazil is Carnival (Mardi Gras)
(i) massive floats and dancing is traditional, and have African influences
b) Brazil is also known for various forms of martial arts with African origins
B) Rio de Janeiro
a) while not the capital, Rio is the cultural center of Brazil
b) it has a high population due to the natural beauty of the region
(i) high population leads to higher crime rates
(ii) poverty leads to people living in slums