Landforms and Resources

I) Peninsulas and Islands

A) a peninsula is just a landmass surrounded on three sides by water
a) this means Europe itself is one large peninsula
B) Northern Peninsulas
a) major peninsulas in the north include the Scandinavian Peninsula and Jutland
Peninsula
(i) in Norway, glaciers once carved deep inlets (called fjords) that today are bordered
by many small peninsulas
C) Southern Peninsulas
a) the Iberian Peninsula includes Spain and Portugal
b) the Italian (or Apennine) Peninsula is the boot shape
c) the Balkan Peninsula includes Greece
(i) also part of the Balkan Peninsula is the Peloponnesian Peninsula
D) Islands
a) larger islands include Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland, and Greenland
b) other major islands in the Mediterranean are Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Crete, and
Cyprus
II) Mountains and Uplands
A) mountains form natural barriers between people, trade, and have presented obstacles in
the transfer of ideas
a) in many cases this has led to a separation between languages and ethnicities, which
has historically caused many tensions (wars)
B) Mountain Chains
a) most famous is the Alps that cross France, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and
part of the Balkan Peninsula
b) the Pyrenees separate the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) from France
c) the Apennine Mountains run down Italy and separate it between east and west
d) the Balkan Mountains block the Balkan Peninsula from the rest of Europe
C) Uplands
a) uplands include areas that have a high altitude, but are not mountains
(i) sometimes these are ancient mountains that have been worn down
b) these include the Scottish highlands, the Central Uplands of Germany, and the Meseta
of Spain
III) Rivers: Europe’s Links
A) rivers are widely used for quick transportation, primarily of goods between countries
a) the largest and most important are the Danube and Rhine
B) historically, rivers helped people migrate and helped to spread ideas
IV) Fertile Plains: Europe’s Bounty
A) widely used for agriculture
a) the most fertile area stretches across France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany,
Denmark, and Poland
B) these areas historically are the locations of massive troop movements during various wars
because they’re easy to traverse
V) Resources Shape Europe’s Economy
 A) Natural Resources
a) two most popular are coal and iron ore
(i) as these are non-renewable, they are valuable, but will run out
(ii) the two together make steel, allowing the region to industrialize quickly and
cheaply
1 areas with the highest deposits were the first to industrialize and continue to
be the most advanced
b) other resources include fish, silver, copper, etc
B) Energy
a) oil and natural gas allowed Europe to remain relevant as those resources gained value
b) France doesn’t have much oil and gas, so they are very dependent on nuclear energy
(i) use more nuclear energy than any other nation on earth
C) Agriculture
a) a large part (about 33%) of Europe’s land has very healthy soil, allowing many areas
to nearly be self-sufficient and trade only for luxury foods
VI) Resources Shape Life
A) because resources aren’t evenly distributed, the region has complex trade
a) Poland developed mining, and trade for food and other resources
B) some areas learned to live without certain resources
a) Ireland, for instance, collects peat to burn as fuel instead of oil or coal
(i) peat is partially decayed plant matter found in bogs

Climate and Vegetation

VII) Westerly Winds Warm Europe

A) much of Europe is a marine west coast climate
a) despite the latitude of Europe, the climate is surprisingly comfortable
(i) much of this is caused by the North Atlantic Drift (Gulf Coast Stream) that brings
warm water across the Atlantic Ocean
1 in 2021, scientists reported the current is slowing to dangerous levels, and
could soon result in much of northern Europe becoming like Canada
(ii) wind then carries warm air from the warm water to heat up much of Europe
1 this also brings moisture, which in part is why much of the soil is healthy
(iii) since the wind comes from the northwest, most of Europe is affected
because there are no barriers blocking the wind
B) much of Europe used to be covered in thick forests, but over the years the area was
stripped to allow for farms to expand
VIII) Harsher Conditions Inland
A) those who are far from the northern winds are much colder
a) these areas include Sweden, Finland, Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, and Romania
b) most vegetation in the region tends to be coniferous, which can more easily survive in
colder climates
IX) The Sunny Mediterranean
A) the Mediterranean climate covers southern Spain and France, and covers all of Italy,
Greece, and much of the Balkan Peninsula
a) hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters
 b) the climate is able to remain in the area without drifting north due to the many
mountain ranges that help to contain wind and rain
B) Special Winds
a) an exception to this pattern is the mistral, a cold dry wind in France in an area
unprotected by mountains
b) most countries have the sirocco, a hot steady wind from North Africa
C) Tourists
a) due to the natural beauty of the vegetation of the Mediterranean coupled with the
warm, dry summers, the area is able to gain lots of money from tourism
b) the climate also means certain crops, like citrus fruits, olives, grapes, etc, are
available, which the region is famous for
X) Land of the Midnight Sun
A) northern Scandinavia has a tundra climate, and much of it is frozen throughout the year
a) very little grows there and they must import most of their food
b) due to the latitude, the area receives lots of sun during the summer (months of it) and
no sun during the winter
(i) because of this, it is often called the Land of the Midnight Sun

Human-Environment Interaction

XI) Polders: Land from the Sea

A) the Dutch needed more farmland, and ended up draining a swampy area
a) this area is Holland today
B) Seaworks
a) the Dutch erected seaworks to control the sea
(i) these include dikes (dams) and terpen (high platforms made of dirt)
b) this has been happening for centuries, and the Dutch have added to the structures until
the area is quite safe
(i) to clear the water, pumps were installed run by windmills
1 today they are electric
C) Transforming the Sea
a) the Dutch also blocked an area of the North Sea and created a lake, which eventually
lost the salt and became freshwater
(i) the area around it was drained, leaving even more farmland
XII) Waterways for Commerce: Venice’s Canals
A) Venice is made up of 118 islands mostly linked together
a) the largest two are San Marco and Rialto
b) everything in the city must be brought by boat
B) An Island City Grows
a) Venice was started by people looking for a safe place to live in a time when outside
attacks were frequent
(i) some islands were natural, and others were constructed with large trees placed in
the water that support the land- these are now petrified and as hard as rock
1 the buildings are too heavy, so Venice is slowly sinking
2 the number of tourists each year also helps to sink it
C) Problems Today
 a) sewage, industrial waste, and saltwater eat away at the foundations and damage the
buildings themselves
b) flooding has damaged many historic buildings and artwork
c) a special algae grows easily, which uses up the oxygen in the water, which leads to
dead fish, which leads to bugs and bad smells
XIII) A Centuries-Old Problem: Deforestation
A) forests have been being cleared for hundreds of years to provide lumber, clear space for
farms, and burn for fuel
B) Acid Rain
a) in the 1960s people began to notice many trees were becoming discolored and dying
(i) scientists found this was due to acid rain, a byproduct of extreme industrialization

Mediterranean Europe

XIV) A History of Ancient Glory

A) the region has a distinct and extensive history
a) this is because the climate was mild, making survival easier and allowing more time
to develop complex institutions
b) also a central area for quick sea trade
B) Greece
a) around 2000 BCE, Greece was inhabited by nomads
b) interaction with the Minoan Civilization on Crete made them excellent sailors
c) various wars put them in charge of sea trade, so cities began to grow
(i) most famous are Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Macedon, and Thebes
d) Athens developed a form of direct democracy, giving all free adult males equal say in
policies of the city
(i) a period of stability in Athens and control of vast wealth allowed for quick
expansion of the arts, architecture, philosophy, and education
e) in the 400s BCE, Greece was weakened by continuous wars with Persia and each
other
(i) after the Peloponnesian War with Sparta and her allies, Athens was nearly
completely destroyed
f) Greece was then conquered by Philip II of Macedon, whose son Alexander would go
on to conquer everything from Greece and Egypt to India
(i) his conquests spread Greek culture, but his death led to his empire splintering and
never regaining unity
C) Rome
a) the Hellenistic Kingdoms (the splinter groups of Alexander) held power for a few
hundred years, but were soon challenged by a new, powerful city, Rome
b) Rome started as an agricultural village, but was conquered by a war-like kingdom the
Etruscans
(i) after a few hundred years under their rule, the Romans fought and conquered the
Etruscans and developed a new form of government- the Republic
c) the Republic stood for hundreds of years and saw the Romans steadily conquer cities
in Italy and beyond
(i) the greatest struggle was with Carthage, a powerful trade city in Africa
 d) after various civil wars, a general by the name of Julius Caesar took power and
expanded his rule until the Republic was in name only
(i) his adopted son and nephew Octavian would end up ending the Republic and
becoming the first emperor, Augustus Caesar
e) the Empire ruled for nearly 500 years and was able to control the entire
Mediterranean and beyond
(i) eventually they lost power due to many civil wars
1 various groups invaded over the course of 100 years, and eventually the
Empire was basically finished- they moved the seat to Constantinople in
Turkey, and the Catholic Church was left in charge in Rome
 Constantinople ruled a new empire from what used to be the Eastern
Roman Empire, now called the Byzantine Empire
 the Byzantines ruled for 1000 years until they were conquered by
Muslim Ottoman Turks
 arguments over the next 400-500 years led to an official split between the
Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church
XV) Moving Toward Modern Times
A) Medieval Period
a) from about 476-1450, much knowledge from the old world was lost in Europe
(i) aka Dark Ages
B) Crusades leads to Renaissance
a) the Crusades were a series of religious wars with Muslims in the Middle East in the
1200s
b) beginning about 1300, knowledge regained from contact with Muslim Turks in the
Crusades led to a resurgence of knowledge, and by 1450 Europe saw the beginnings
of the Renaissance, or rebirth of knowledge
(i) the Renaissance began in Italian city-states that had developed after Rome’s fall
1 the most important was Florence
C) Age of Exploration
a) by the 1500s explorers had left Europe and sailed around the tip of Africa and across
the Atlantic to the Americas
b) Spain was also started at this time, and quickly they became the strongest and
wealthiest nation due to their conquering the Aztecs and Inca
(i) Ferdinand and Isabella are the first king and queen of Spain, and they kicked out
all Muslims and Jews in what we now call the Spanish Inquisition
D) also at this time the Church was highly corrupt (after ruling much of Europe for 1000
years), leading to the Protestant Reformation (more on this later)
XVI) A Rich Cultural Legacy
A) Rome
a) many languages spoken in Europe trace their roots to Latin
b) Rome also gave us Christianity
B) Art
a) both Rome and Greece gave us the arts, and though many forms exist, all in Europe
can trace their beginnings to Rome and Greece
(i) this includes architecture, like the dome and columns
XVII) Economic Change
 A) Agriculture to Industry
a) generally, the Mediterranean region is less industrialized than the North and West
(i) even during the industrial revolution, the region focused on fishing and
agriculture
b) by the 1980s, the region began to specialize in certain markets
(i) textiles in Portugal, automobiles in Spain, and clothing and shoes in Italy
1 service industries are also major today
c) many countries joined the European Union
(i) this is a loose federation of independent states that have open trade, loose borders,
and a (mostly) shared currency
B) Economic Problems
a) Italy suffers from underdevelopment of the southern half
b) Greece has made poor decisions regarding finance and borrowing, and was forced to
borrow over 320 billion Euros and is now in massive debt
XVIII) Modern Mediterranean Life
A) WWII
a) two dictators, Benito Mussolini in Italy and Francisco Franco in Spain, ruled for long
periods
b) many historical areas were destroyed by the war
c) both countries developed governments to prevent more dictators from taking power
B) The Basques
a) Spain struggles with a group of people living in the Pyrenees
(i) they are the only people who still speak a pre-Roman language in that part of the
world
b) in the 1970s Spain granted them self rule (like we did with Natives), but some
Basques want total independence and are willing to fight for it
C) City Growth
a) as is the case everywhere else in the world, increased industry and a move to service
means jobs can be found in cities, so people urbanize
(i) problems generated include increased pollution, overcrowding and housing
shortages, and traffic jams
b) many cities are historical, and they have modern buildings mixed with classical ones,
even ruins
(i) these include Florence, Rome, Athens, and Granada

Western Europe

XIX) A History of Cultural Divisions

A) Rome to Charlemagne
a) the Roman Empire fully conquered Gaul (France), but was unable to completely
conquer the German area for an extended time
(i) this led to France having a Romance language, while Germany mostly kept their
Germanic languages
b) after the fall of the Empire (about 300 years later), a new powerful ruler took control
of parts of Germany, later extending into France, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, etc
 (i) he was crowned the Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope, and today is known as
Charlemagne- Charles the Great
1 after his death, his descendents were unable to keep the empire and it
devolved into local rule
B) Reformation
a) after Charlemagne, the Medieval Period followed
(i) this was ended by the Renaissance and Age of Exploration
b) during the Medieval Period, the Church was the most powerful institution, and all
kingdoms and rulers had to have Church approval
(i) this power led to corruption, and by 1500 many were upset with how the Church
was run
c) Martin Luther, a monk who was studying the Bible, believed that the Church was a
human institution and did not have all the answers
(i) he preached that people should study the Bible themselves and come to their own
conclusions
(ii)
1 this led to numerous new ideas, which developed into new Christian groups
 Lutheranism, Calvinism, Ana-Baptism, and Anglicanism were the most
popular
d) the separation between faiths led to many religious wars (the 30 Years War was the
deadliest until WWI)
C) The Rise of Nation-States
a) starting as early as the middle of the Medieval Period, people began thinking of
themselves according to where they were born, what language they spoke, their
religion, and other cultural markers
(i) small kingdoms expanded to become France, Britain, Germany, Spain, etc
1 this led to nationalism
 loyalty to the nation, including the people that share land, culture, and
history
b) by the 1600s (after the Renaissance, Reformation, and Age of Exploration), kings
began taking absolute power over the populace
(i) France and Britain were especially powerful
1 this power was broken by the American Revolution and French Revolution
 the revolting groups formed new governments based on the people
 France’s was weak and fell to a powerful general, Napoleon
Bonaparte, who went on to conquer most of Europe for a time
 he was defeated by Britain (and others), and France eventually
came under the rule of a president
(ii) between the 1600s and 1945, numerous wars were fought for dominance,
especially between France, Germany, and Austria
1 Germany had unified into one government in 1871
(iii) increased industrialization in the late 1800s led to larger conflicts and a
race to dominate other areas for raw materials (imperialism)
1 nationalism was increased by long-term state education, propaganda, and
politicians using hatred of differences and old grudges to turn the masses
against the few
  this would first lead to WWI, and later to WWII
D) Modern Conflicts
a) nationalistic rivalries and competition for colonies around the world led the European
nations to declare loyalties to various other nations
(i) this was simply a show of force, but when things finally happened, the whole
continent either had to go to war or admit they were bluffing- started WWI
b) after harsh punishments against Germany (even though they technically didn’t start
WWI) left them bankrupt with no end in sight, Germans looked to anyone who
promised to save them
(i) Adolf Hitler was a politician with a strong persona and practiced words that
played on the same old hatreds, and he was an expert at stoking those flames
1 his words and actions gradually became worse and worse, until finally war
broke out in Europe
 secretly, he also began the extermination of the Jews and other groups
labeled “un-German” (Catholics, gypsies, communists, etc)
c) after WWII, the Soviets and other Allied powers split Germany into West and East,
the East going to the communist Soviet Union
(i) Berlin itself was split in two by the Berlin Wall, which came to represent the
divide between capitalists and communists
(ii) in 1989, anti-communist reforms came through, opening Germany once again
1 in 1990 the Soviet Union fell, and France and Germany decided to come
together under the European Union
XX) Economics: Diversity and Luxury
A) Agriculture to High Tech
a) farming and livestock are still important industries in the area
b) this region was one of the first to industrialize
(i) it was rich in coal and iron ore, both important for industry
(ii) France, Germany, and the Netherlands are some of Europe’s main manufacturing
nations
c) technology and service industries are also major
(i) France
1 has the most advanced train system and one of the world’s fastest trains
2 80-90% of the energy produced is nuclear power
(ii) Germany
1 known for producing advanced electronics and specializing in trade/banking
(iii) Switzerland
1 especially known for banking
 laws are written to protect clients and the country refuses to take part in
wars, so people feel secure putting their money in Swiss banks
B) Tourism and Luxury
a) history, comfortable climate, and varied scenery lead to tourism
b) the region is wealthy enough to produce and sell luxury goods, like cars and watches
(i) owning these is considered a status symbol
C) Economic Problems
a) due to increased immigration and damage left from Soviet rule, East Germany has
double the unemployment as West Germany
XXI) Great Music and Art
A) Music
a) Germany and Austria are especially known for music
(i) Bach, Beethoven, Mozart
b) Painting
(i) France and the Netherlands have hosted many important painters
1 Vermeer, Rembrandt, Monet, van Gogh
XXII) Modern Life
A) City Life
a) generally have lower crime rates than cities in the US
b) typically also have more public transportation than the US
c) smaller homes than in the US, which promotes meeting friends/family in public
places like cafes and restaurants
d) cities generally have many parks throughout for people to relax
e) Europeans also usually get more paid vacation days than Americans
B) Recent Conflicts
a) immigration has led to some tensions, and very recently an influx of refugees from
Syria and Turkey have led to hate crimes
(i) in addition, more terrorist attacks have occurred, though they are comparatively
small when taken with other attacks across the world
b) politically some leaders have emerged with Nazi sympathies, but most do not remain
in office for very long

Northern Europe

XXIII) A History of Seafaring Conquerors

A) Early Conquerors
a) many groups pushed in waves across Northern Europe
b) in 80 CE, the Romans conquered southern Britain
(i) they were later pushed out by Germanic invaders called the Anglos and the
Saxons (who were pushed by invaders from the east, the Huns)
c) around 795 CE, a group of warriors began to raid various villages from the sea
(i) called Norsemen or Vikings
(ii) their ships were long and shallow, allowing them to quickly travel up rivers and
over long distances
1 they even sailed to Iceland, Greenland, and one group made it to North
America before being turned back by Natives
(iii) Vikings stopped attacking when they converted to Christianity, and
settled in northern France (now called Normandy)
1 in 1066 a descendent of the Vikings took over England named William the
Conqueror
B) Dreams of Empire
a) Denmark, Sweden, and Norway all developed kingdoms, but none had a lasting
impact on the direction of Europe
b) Great Britain built an empire that spanned much of the world
(i) first conquered Wales, Ireland, and Scotland
 (ii) sent out ships to colonize North America, Australia, and parts of Africa
1 these colonies led to riches and helped develop overseas trade
2 until WWII, Britain remained the strongest naval power and one of the
world’s strongest powers period
XXIV) Moving into the Modern Age
A) Representative Government
a) Britain began the process of forming a representative government in 1215 CE with
the signing of the Magna Carta
(i) this document gave certain powers to the aristocracy rather than the king
(ii) this document would lead to a series of laws over the next 300 years expanding
the power of the aristocracy
1 this would be further expanded by a civil war in which Parliament beheaded
their king, then eventually put his son on the throne to share power
b) the Nordic countries also developed representative government
(i) Iceland’s parliament is the oldest in the world
B) Industrial Revolution
a) Britain contained coal and iron ore that helped them industrialize
(i) they started the Industrial Revolution
b) Britain also used its vast empire to import raw materials for industrialization
(i) by the mid-1800s industry had spread throughout the world
C) Since 1900
a) the Nordic countries were mostly unaffected by WWI, but were drawn into WWII-
Norway was conquered by Nazis, Sweden stayed neutral, and Finland worked with
the Nazis against the Soviets, who had attacked them first
b) Great Britain was a major player in both wars
(i) with the greatest navy and a huge air force, Great Britain was a major target,
especially in WWII
(ii) the losses suffered between the two wars knocked Great Britain from the top, and
the US was able to wrestle the number 1 position from the USSR
1 this loss of power likely led to numerous holdings gaining independence, and
these areas have since mostly suffered from instability
D) The Irish Question
a) for hundreds of years the Catholics in Ireland and Protestants in England have not
gotten along
(i) Protestant English rulers took Catholic lands and distributed them to their
supporters
(ii) Catholicism was outlawed for a time, leading to many Irish being violently
persecuted by English Protestants
(iii) in the 1840s, the Irish Potato Famine caused many Irish to flee to other
countries, often to the US
b) in 1921 Britain divided Ireland into north and south
(i) the north remained in the United Kingdom since it was mostly Protestant
1 Catholics remaining in this area carried out attacks against the British hoping
one day to reunite Ireland- mostly ended in the 1990s when borders were open
(ii) the south became the Republic of Ireland since it was mostly Catholic
XXV) Economics: Diversity and Change
 A) Industry and Resources
a) Sweden and the UK have major manufacturing industries
B) High-Tech
a) Ireland has been producing computer software and hardware since the 1970s
(i) these companies recently relocated to Eastern Europe to cut costs
C) Union or Independence
a) most nations in the region are members of the EU
(i) Britain recently voted to leave, and their economy is beginning to suffer because
of it- this has been exacerbated by Covid
XXVI) Life in Northern Europe
A) Social Welfare
a) most Nordic countries feel a duty to take care of the poor, disabled, and elderly
(i) these regions have some of the most extensive social programs in the world
1 they also pay some of the highest taxes in the world
 their people generally get many free services (education, healthcare, etc)
and by many reports do not mind the high taxes
B) Distinctive Customs
a) Britain is known for afternoon tea
b) Finns are known for saunas
c) Swedes are known for the smorgasbord (large assortment of hot and cold food served
buffet style)

Eastern Europe

XXVII) History of Cultural Crossroads

A) Cultures Meet
a) the region is full of places where various cultures have met over the years between
Europe and Asia
b) because of this, it has been subject to more wars than the rest of Europe
B) Empires and Kingdoms
a) in 100 CE, Rome held the Balkans, Bulgaria, Romania, and parts of Hungary
b) after the split of East and West, the new Byzantine Empire held these lands
c) in the 1300s and 1400s, the Ottoman Turks (Ottoman Empire) gradually took over
(i) various small groups held lands in kingdoms, but these were gradually taken by
the Ottomans
d) in the 1400s, the Austrians began to carve out a kingdom
(i) they drove the Ottomans out of Hungary
(ii) in the 1700s, Austria, Prussia (large German state), and Russia divided up Poland
XXVIII) Turmoil in the 20th Century
A) War After War
a) in the early 1900s, various Balkan groups (Bulgarians, Greeks, Serbs, Romanians,
etc) rebelled against the Ottomans and fully pushed them out of Europe
(i) once successful, they fought each other over who should rule the region
1 they broke into small independent groups, but tensions remained
b) WWI
 (i) Serbia wanted ethnic Serbs living in Austria-Hungary to join Serbia and carve out
land in the Austrian Empire
1 in 1914, Serb assassins successfully assassinated an Austrian noble, Archduke
Francis Ferdinand
 leading up to this, large countries like Germany, Russia, France, and
Britain had all pledged they would go to war if one of their opponents
went to war on Austria’s behalf against the Serbians
 when Germany declared war on Serbia, England, France, and Russia
declared war on Germany, then Austria and Italy declared war on them
 all of these countries participated in imperialism, and the war spread
across the world (WWI)
 eventually the US was brought in, and in one year the war ended
(ii) Results
1 Austria and Hungary split
2 Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia became
independent
3 the Ottoman Empire ended and became Turkey
4 Europe enacted harsh punishments on Germany
c) WWII
(i) 1939 Germany had recovered from the punishments by continuously pushing their
limitations set by the other nations, who were too weary of war and suffering
from the Great Depression to do anything about it
(ii) September 1, 1939 Nazi Germany invaded Poland, which was finally the last
straw for Europe, and Britain and France declared war
1 Germany was nearly unstoppable, but key mistakes made in Russia, Africa,
and the involvement of the US forced them to fight on 3 fronts until they were
defeated
B) Recent Changes
a) after WWII, the USSR took full control of Eastern Europe until the late 1980s
(i) economic issues forced the leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, to make reforms
1 almost immediately people in Eastern Europe demanded more political and
economic reforms, until in 1989 and 1990 almost all Eastern nations were free
of Soviet control
b) the people had lived for 40 years under Communist rule, and had no idea how to
come together
(i) people went back to ethnic loyalties, and various wars and small scale uprisings
resulted
XXIX) Developing the Economy
A) due to the control of the Soviet Union, the government controlled facilities specialized by
region, so some areas had too much of one product and not enough of others
a) they ended up having to trade with Russia, who needed their products, and didn’t
develop close trade ties with the West because the West didn’t need their products
(i) outdated factories and processes increased pollution
b) slowly, some areas have been successful at creating a market economy, and they’ve
been able to grow economically
(i) the region is still far poorer than the West
XXX) A Patchwork Culture
A) Cultural Diversity
a) old grudges and hundreds of languages/dialects keep people from coming together
(i) these were in many ways made worse by some groups working with Nazi
Germany in WWII
b) the region is also split between Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox
(i) this is further complicated by Protestant faiths from the West and Islam from the
Ottomans
c) years ago there were many Jews living in the region, but after the Holocaust in WWII
many survivors fled to other areas
(i) the region still has rampant anti-Semitism