Transportation Engineering Loksewa

Transportation Engineering
LOK SEWA COURSE
OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
FOR
Engineer
Prepared by: Associate Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C.
mohandhoj@gmail.com
Website: www.dor.gov.np
www.dolo.gov.np
www.dudbc.gov.np
4.1 Highway engineering

4.1.1 Highway Planning and Survey Approach to road planning: establishing economic and
environmental viability, evaluating alternatives, historical development of road construction in Nepal,
classification of roads, national road network of Nepal , road survey and quantity calculation, process of
identifying best route location, map study and reconnaissance survey, preliminary and detail survey,
recommendation for best alignment, highway alignment and controlling factors, Asian Highway in Nepal
and NRS–2045, NRS 2070
P a g e 1 | 111 Prepared By: Associate Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C.

Introduction to transportation system
A transport system may be defined as considering of fixed facilities, the flow entities and the control system that
permit people and goods to overcome the friction of geographical space efficiently in order to participate in a timely
manner in some desire activity. The major components of transportation system are: -
• Fixed Facilities
• Flow entities
• Control System
Fixed facilities are the physical components of the system that are fixed in a space and constitute the network of
links and nodes of transportation system.
Flow entities are the unit that traverse the fixed facilities. They include vehicles, container units, cars etc.
The control system consists of vehicle control and flow control.
Planning is the process of thinking before doing with the process of work. Planning is a pre-requisite for any
development work.
Major steps of planning process

 Fixed the goals and objective
 Data collection
 Data analysis and model development
 Travel forecasting
 System analysis and evaluation
Planning Objective
 To plan road network
 To fix the priorities for the road development
 To plan for future requirements
 To plan for future improvements
 To work out financing system
 To decide the priority of road segment
Terai Range- 2-hour walk reached road edge

Mountain range-4-hour walk reached road edge
Himalayan range-6 hour walk road edge
Economic and environmental viability
Economic analysis is done for the project in order to assess the economic viability from the view point of the national
economy: -
 Present worth method
 Future worth method
 Net present value method
 IRR method
 ERR method
 B/C ratio method
Environmental effect: -
• Deforestation
• Air pollution
• Noise pollution
• Water management
• Quarries and borrow pit
• Stone scouring
• Loss of soil
• Biological effect

• Soil disposal
• Plants and wildlife compare operation
Historical development of road construction

 During Rana regime-road office-” Bato Kaj Goshwara”
 Naya bato kaj Goshwara and Purano Bato Kaj Goshwara merged Public Works Department (PWD)-
2027B.S.
 PWD (Road sector, building (all civil engineering works except road))
 Bagmati valley road project was set survey and construction of kantipath Rajpath in 2011 [Starting
Point: Hetauda, Makwanpur (0+000).
End Point: Satdobato, Lalitpur (92+000) Major River Crossing: Jitpur & Simat at 31km, Bagmati at 51km
and Nallu at 82+400. ]
 2017 B.S. Rajdal Army Battalion completed the construction 70km of 90 km long kanthi Rajpath
 2017 B.S. –Road sector (construction, planning, maintenance)
 2027 B.S. DoR was established
Many wide roads with hard surface in Nepal (particularly in Kathmandu) may have been developed during Mall’s
period, when a large number of temples were constructed. These roads were basically intended to horse driven
carts. These roads consisted of hard broken brick over which flag stone slab were laid over a base of lime concrete.
such road is still visible & in use even today.
Modern road development progressed firstly with the completion by the mid 1970 A.D. of the eastern section of
East-West highway & links to Pokhara from the south as well as Kathmandu. In the following (up to 1985) the East-
West highway. After completion from east to Nepalgunj with significant section as north –south routes penetrating
the hill & connection with the east-west highway.

In 1970, only a single north-south route existed linking in China border at kodari via Kathmandu & Tribhuvan
Rajpath to Indian Border at Raxual.
The NH & FR comprise to strategic road network which is the main responsibility of DoR The district roads &
village roads together with main trail network to remote areas round road network. The responsibility of these
roads & trails lies primarily with the district & village development committee although historically & in practice
the DoR continues to retain a considerable involvement in both the design & construction of local road networks.
Urban roads are the responsibility of the relevant municipality.
Classification of road in Nepal

Roads in Nepal are classified as follows:
A. Administrative Classification
Administrative classification of roads is intended for assigning national importance and level of government
responsible for overall management and methods of financing. According to this classification road are classified
into:
National Highways
Feeder Roads
District Roads and
Urban Roads
National Highways: National Highways are main roads connecting East to West and North to South of the
Nation. These serve directly the greater portion of the longer distance travel, provide consistently higher level of
service in terms of travel speeds, and bear the inter-community mobility. These roads shall be the main arterial
routes passing through the length and breadth of the country as a whole. They are designated by letter „H‟ followed
by a two-digit number.
Feeder Roads: Feeder roads are important roads of localized nature. These serve the community's wide interest
and connect District Headquarters, Major economic centers, Tourism centers to National Highways or other feeder
roads. They are designated by letter „F‟ followed by 3-digit number.
District Roads: District Roads are important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets,
and connecting with each other or with the main highways.
Urban Roads: Urban Roads are the roads serving within the urban municipalities.
In Nepal the overall management of National Highways and Feeder Roads comes within the responsibility of the
Department of Roads (DOR). These roads are collectively called Strategic Roads Network (SRN) roads. District
Roads and Urban Roads are managed by Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads
(DOLIDAR). These roads are collectively called Local Roads Network (LRN) roads.
Technical/ Functional Classification: For assigning various geometric and technical parameters for design,
roads are categorized into classes as follows:
Class –I
Class I roads are the highest standard roads with divided carriageway and access control (Expressways) with ADT
of 20,000 PCU or more in 20 yrs perspective period. Design speed adopted for design of this class of roads in plain
terrain is120 km/h.
Class II
Class II roads are those with ADT of 5000-20000 PCU in 20 yrs perspective period. Design speed adopted for design
of this class of roads in plain terrain is 100 km/h.

Class III
Class III roads are those with ADT of 2000-5000 PCU in 20 yrs perspective period. Design speed adopted for design
of this class of roads in plain terrain is 80 km/h
Class IV
Class IV roads are those with ADT of less than 2000 PCU in 20 yrs perspective period. Design speed adopted for
design of this class of roads in plain terrain is 60 km/hr
RURAL ROAD CLASSIFICATION
District Road (Core network) - An important road joining a VDC HQ's office or nearest economic centre to the
district headquarters, via either a neighboring district headquarters or the Strategic Road Network.
Village Road - Smaller roads not falling under District Road (Core Network) category are Village Roads, including
other Agriculture Road.
Design Speed: Design speed is one of the basic parameters that determine geometric design features. The choice of
design speeds is linked to terrain and road function and is shown in the table below. Normally ruling design speed
should be the guiding criterion for the purpose of geometric design. Minimum design speed may, however, be
adopted where the site condition and cost does not permit a design based on 'Ruling Design Speed'
Road Categories Hills Terai
Ruling Minimum Ruling Minimum

District Road (Core Network) 25 20 50 40
Village Road 15 30

National Road Network of Nepal: The following are the road network of Nepal
1)the strategic road network 2). The district transport network 3). The urban road network
4). the village transport network
Classification of Urban Roads: # Arterial Road, #Sub-arterial road #Collector street #Local Street
Road survey and quantity calculation

Planning survey comprises: -
 Economic studies
 Financial studies
 Traffic or road user studies
 Engineering or Technical studies
Economic studies
 Population & its distribution pattern
 Trend of population growth.
 Agricultural & industrial products of the area
 Possibility of industrial & agricultural development
 Existing facilities with regard to communication, education, health etc.
 Per capita income
Financial studies
• Source of income & estimated revenue.
• Living standards
• Resources of local level, toll taxes (a tax paid for the use of a public road, loss or damage caused by a
disaster), vehicle registration & fines
• Future trends in financial aspects
Traffic or road user studies
• Traffic volume, Annual average daily traffic, etc
• Origin & destination studies
• Traffic flow patterns
• Accidents, their cost analysis & causes
• Future trend in traffic volume & pattern
Engineering or Technical studies
• Topographic surveys
• Soil surveys
• Location & classification of existing roads
• Estimation of possible developments in all aspects due to the proposed highway developments.
• Road life studies
• Traffic studies- origin & destination studies
• Study & planning on drainage system, construction & maintenance of roads.
• All the data collected from fact finding surveys, should be plotted & tabulated as the real map of the area.
Long –term planning
• Population model
• Economic activity model
• Land use model
• Trip generation model
• Trip distribution model
• Model split model.
• Traffic assignment model.

Radial pattern: - radial or star & block pattern
• Radial or star & circular pattern
• Radial or star & grid pattern
• Ring roads
Haulage assessment of earthwork
Haul distance: - it is the distance at any time between the working face of an excavation and the tip end of
the embankment formed from the hauled material
Average haul distance: - it is the distance between the centre of gravity of cutting and centre of gravity of
filling.
Haul: it is the sum of the products of each volume by its haul distance
Free haul distance: - it is the specified distance in terms of contracts, up to which the excavated material, is
transported regardless to the haul distance
Overhaul distance: - if the excavated material from a cutting has to be removed to a greater distance than
free haul distance, the extra distance is known as overhaul distance.
Characteristics of the mass haul diagram

• The ordinate at any station along the curve represents the earthwork accumulation of that point
• Max. ordinate (+) change from cut to fill and Min. ordinate (-) change from fill to cut
• Rising curve excess of excavation and Depressing curve excess of filling
• Steep rise or fall indicates heavy cuts or fills

• Loops concave upwards indicates a direction or haul from right to left and loops concave downwards
indicates a direction of haul from left to right
• The algebraic difference between any two ordinates is a measure of total earthwork in that section.
• A horizontal line intersecting the mass diagram at two points indicates that in zone excavation and fill
balance each other. These lines are known as balance lines.
• Length of balance line gives the average haul distance
• Balance line need to be continuous
Process of identifying best route Location

The selection of best route is made keeping in view the requirements of alignment and the
geological, topographical, social and other features of locality.
The basic requirement of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations is that it
should be: -Short, Easy, Safe, Economical(SESE)
• Short: - the alignment should be short as far as practicable. However, sometimes various
factors cause to deviate from these criteria.
• Easy: - easy to construct, maintain & vehicle operation.
• Safe: - safe for construction, maintenance from view point of stability & also safe for
traffic operation,
• Economical: - total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost & vehicle operation cost is
lowest.
Stages of survey/ Physical Survey/ Engineering Survey
The four stages are namely: -
Map study
Reconnaissance
Preliminary surveys
Final locations & detail survey
Map Study: Topographical map of the place where project has to be done could be
available from department of survey, GoN. The new maps are available in 1:25000 to 1:
50000 scale. The main features like rivers, hills, valleys including land use are carefully
shown in color. By careful study of such a map, it is possible to have an idea of several
possible alternative routes so that their detail may be studied in detail in site.
The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following details available on
map: -
• Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes.
• When road has to pass a row of hills, possibility of crossing through mountain passes.
• Approximate location of bridge site.
• When a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the top & other on the foot of
the hill, then alternative route can be suggested keeping in view the permissible gradient,
say ruling gradient.
Thus from the map study the alternative routes can be suggested.
Reconnaissance: a field survey party (group) inspects a fairly broad stretch of land along
the proposed alternative routes of map in the field survey using simple instrument like
abney level. Some of the details to be collected during reconnaissance are:
• Valley, ponds, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures & other obstructions along
the route which are not available in map.
• Approximate value of gradient, length of gradient & radius of curves of alternative
alignments
• Number & types of cross-drainage structure, maximum flood level & natural ground
level.
• Soil type & geological features
• Sources of construction material
• For hill road geological formations, types of rocks, dip of strata, seepage flow etc.
• When the area is vast or terrain is difficult reconnaissance may be done by aerial survey.
As a result of the reconnaissance, a few alternative alignments may be chosen for further
study.
Preliminary surveys: -
• Objectives:
• To survey the various alternative alignment & collect necessary physical information &
details of topography, drainage & soil.
• To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.
• To estimate quantity of earthworks & construction aspects & workout the cost of
alternatives proposals
• To finalized the best alignment from all considerations.
Methods: (Conventional approach)
• Preliminary traverse: primary or secondary traverse following the line recommended by
reconnaissance. Length is measured by chaining or tachometry.
• Topographical Features: all geological & man-made features along the traverse & certain
width on either side are surveyed & plotted.
• Leveling work: leveling work is also carried out to give centerline profiles & typical cross
section. For contour mapping, cross section level is taken up to 100 to 200 meters’
intervals in Terai, 50 meters in rolling & 30 meters in hilly region
• Drainage study & hydrological data collected to estimate type, number & approximate
size of drainage structures, vertical alignment is also based on that.
• Soil survey: it helps in earth works, slopes, stability of material, subsoil & surface
drainage requirements pavement type & approximate thickness.
• Material survey: survey of naturally laying materials.
• Traffic survey: it is used in deciding number of traffic lanes, width, pavement design &
economic evaluation, O-D surveys is carried out
• Determination of final centre line.
Final location & detail survey:
The alignment that is finalized by preliminary survey is located on the field by establishing
centerline. Next detail survey is carried out for collecting the information necessary for the
preparation of plan & construction details for the highway project. The data are;
• Topographical detail
• Soil profile
• Drainage
Highway Alignment and controlling Factors

The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed as: -
• Obligatory points
• Composition of traffic
• Geometric design / features
• Economy
• Other considerations
In hill roads additional care has to be given for: - Stability, drainage -geometric
standard of hill roads
In terai Consideration of drainage
Obligatory points: - these are the control points governing the alignments of highways & area of
two categories: -
Obligatory points through which a highway is to pass such as;
• An industrial area or mine zone to which a highway is to serve additionally
• Tourists spot - bridge site (suitable) - tourist spot -hill pass
• Link with intermediate town -health post, -VDC, - DDC
• School areas, -College areas
Obligatory points through which highway should not pass
• Marshy place, Water logged area etc
• Historically & archeologically important property
• Restricted zone for defense, national security
• Costly structural elements requiring heavy compensation
• Densely populated area/ densely forest due to eye of environment
Composition of traffic: for a highway with intensive heavy vehicles & high volume of traffic
alignment yielding minimum length of steep ascend/ descend is much more desirable than the
shortest route. Similarly, a highway leading to recreation spot, picnic spot or tourist spot which
might have predominant by light passenger car had a few buses alignment may be chosen with
higher slope. Also the alignment should be chosen based on origin/ destination study, traffic
desire lines, flow patterns etc.
Geometric features: permissible limit of descending or ascending slopes, sight distance
requirements, degree of curvatures, bends, width of road & so many other dimensional features
of road also may dictate the alignment.
Economy: the alignment finalized on the basis of the above requirements should also be the
economical. As noted down in the criteria for ideal highway alignment, the sum of total cost of all
road components should be minimum. However, due to budget constraints, sometimes initial
construction cost might be the governing factor & alignment selected accordingly even if the
road yield highest maintenance cost & vehicle operation cost.
Others:
• Necessity to break monotony
• political pressure
• social pressure
• Defense purpose
• foreign territory
• hydrological factors

4.1.2 Geometric Design of Highway Basic design control and criteria: design speed, vehicle
characteristics, traffic volume & its composition, topography, elements of highway cross section, highway
curves: tangents, type of curves, transition curves, reverse curves and their functions, circular curves,
super elevation, stopping sight distance, vertical curves, gradients, average gradients and ruling gradient,
Crest curve and sag curves, design considerations of horizontal and vertical alignment, extra widening,
set back distance
The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions & layout of visible features of highway such as
alignment, sight distance & intersections. In fact, it is the design of geometric elements of road with which the road
user is directly concerned. But it does not deal with the design of pavement, structural & drainage components.
Geometric of highway should be designed for providing
• Optimum efficiency in traffic operations
• With maximum safety/ comfort
• At reasonable cost
Geometric design of highway deals with the following elements: -
1)Cross –section elements 2) Sight distance considerations 3) Horizontal alignment details
4)Vertical alignment details 5) Intersection elements
Horizontal alignments details: -
• Sight distance along the road plan, Radius, Deflection angle, Tangents, EC, BC, MC, super elevations
Vertical alignment details: -
• Sight distance along the road profile- grade & curves (summit &valley)
Sight distance: - SSD, OSD
Intersection elements: - for safe & efficient traffic movements

Criteria for geometric design: -
The geometric features of a highway with the consideration of above mentioned governing factors are designed to
meet the following four major objectives: -
1) Speed 2) Safety 3) Comfort 4) Economy
Basic design control & criteria:

Factors controlling geometric design are: -
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Topography, physical & manmade features
• Traffic volume & composition/ traffic factors
• Traffic capacity
• Road user behavior
• Environmental & other factors: - aesthetics, air pollution, landscaping & noise pollution etc.
Design speed: -
• The design speed is the maximum permissible safe speed of a light vehicle on a given road considered for
the design of road elements. It is the speed which may be adopted by a majority of skilled drivers when
there is no hindrance on road. NRS 2045 have recommended the following values of design speed for the
following different types of road in different topographical conditions.
Design Vehicle: -
• The geometric elements of road naturally depend on the design vehicle, its characteristics, size, & shape
using the road. It is therefore, essential to examine various types of vehicles in use in the country.
Traffic volume & composition: -
Traffic volume is the number of vehicle crossing a section of road per unit time at any selected period. The ratio of
volume to capacity affects the level of service of the road.
Topography, physical & manmade features: -
Topography in general influences the physical location of highway. The design elements of a highway in hilly region
are affected to a considerable degree by the physical features such as hills, valleys, steepness of slope, stream
crossings etc. whereas in plain area the influencing factor may be the slope from drainage point of views, grade
separation etc.

Man-made features have pronounced effect on the highway geometrics. Road in rural area may designed for higher
speed where as in urban areas speed is limited.
Traffic capacity: -
Traffic capacity of a highway is the sum total capacity of each lane
C= 1000* V/S C= veh/hr
Where V= Speed in Km/hr, S= average centre to centre spacing of vehicles in m.
Road user characteristics: -
Once constructed the roads are used by peoples having different level of education, awareness, knowledge & civic
traffic sense. This parameter cannot be related with any mathematical formulae.
Environmental
Friction: -
friction plays vital role on moving, stopping & accelerating the vehicle. Lateral friction required to counteracts the
centrifugal force, while the vehicle negotiates the horizontal curves.
Friction & braking efficiency are the important factors for vehicle operation & safe driving.
Skid: - skid occurs when slide without revolving of wheel or when the wheels partially revolves.
• Path travelled along the road surface is more than the circumferential movements of wheels due to their
rotation.
• Lateral skidding occurs in horizontal curves when centrifugal force is greater than the counteracting force
i.e. (e+f)
• Lateral skidding considered dangerous since vehicle goes out of track leading to an accident.
Slip: - slip occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movements along the road.
• It occurs normally when vehicle rapidly accelerates from stationary position or from slow speed on
pavement. (i.e. slippery or with loose mud)
• Coefficient of Friction: -
• Coefficient of longitudinal friction is 0.34 to 0.40
• Coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15 (As per IRC)
Highway Curves: In geometry, the tangent line (or simply tangent) to a plane curve at a given point is
the straight line that "just touches" the curve at that point
Types of curves
Highway Curves: - 1) Horizontal curves 2) Vertical curves
Horizontal curves: - 1) Circular curves (Simple, Reverse, Compound) 2) Transition curves (Spiral,
Leminiscate, Cubic parabola)

Circular curves (Simple, Reverse, Compound)
Simple Curves:
The simple curve is an arc of a circle. It is the most commonly used. The radius of the circle determines the
“sharpness” or “flatness” of the curve. The larger the radius, the “flatter” the curve.
Compound Curves:
Surveyors often have to use a compound curve because of the terrain. This curve normally consists of two simple
curves curving in the same direction and joined together.
Reverse Curves:
A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together but curving in opposite directions. For safety reasons,
the surveyor should not use this curve unless absolutely necessary.
Transition curve is a curve whose radius changes from infinity to some finite value. This curve is also called
easement curve. When a transition curve is introduced between a straight & circular curve, the radius of the
transition curve decreases & becomes minimum at the beginning of the circular curve.
The main objectives of providing transition curves in a horizontal alignment of highway are: -
• To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point &the beginning of circular curve,
avoiding a sudden jerk.
• To enable the driver, turn the steering gradually for his own comfort & security.
• To enable gradual introduction of designed super elevation & extra widening at the curve.
• To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road.
Types of transition curves are: -
1)Spiral (also called clothoid) 2) Leminiscate 3) Cubic parabola

Super elevation
Horizontal curves:
• P=wv2/gR, Here
P= centrifugal force, Kg v= speed of vehicle m/sec w= weight of vehicle, Kg
g= acceleration due to gravity 9.8 m/sec 2 R=radius of the circular curve
The ratio of the centrifugal force to the weight of the vehicle, P/W is known as the centrifugal ratio or the impact
factor. The centrifugal ratio is thus equal to v 2/gR.
The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve has two effects:
• tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels &
• Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally outwards.
Overturning effect:
Centrifugal force= P*h
Restoring moment to weight of vehicle=w*b/2
At equilibrium, P*h= w*b/2…...1 OR, p/w=b/2h…………2 from 1 &2, v2/gR=b/2h
• Note: - there is danger of overturning when the centrifugal ratio attains value of b/2h
Transverse skidding effect:

The centrifugal force developed has also the tendency to push the vehicle outward in the transverse direction.

At equilibrium,
P=Fa+Fb P= f (Ra+Rb)
P= fw
Here f is the coefficient of friction between the tyre & pavement in the transverse direction Ra &Rb are normal
reactions.
W is the weight of the vehicle Since p=fw p/w=f
• Note: - when the centrifugal ratio attains a value equal to the coefficient of lateral friction there is a danger
of lateral skidding.
# Thus to avoid overturning & lateral skidding on a horizontal curve, the centrifugal ratio should be less than b/2h
& also f.
Super elevation
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force & to reduce the tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the
outer edge of the pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge, thus providing a transverse slope throughout the
length of the horizontal curve. Thus transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as super elevation or
cant or banking.
The value of e depends on; -
• Speed of the vehicle (v) -
• Radius of the curve (R)
• Lateral frictional resistance (f)
Analysis of super elevation

The forces acting on the vehicle while moving on a circular curve of radius R meters, at the speed of v m/sec
The centrifugal force p= wv2/gR acting horizontally outwards through the center of gravity CG
The weight W of the vehicle acting vertically downwards through the CG
The frictional force developed between the wheels & the pavement counteracts transversely along the pavement
surface towards the centre of the curvature.

For the equilibrium condition,
P cosϴ= w sinϴ+ Fa + Fb= wsinϴ+fRa+ fRb= wsinϴ+f (Ra+Rb) = wsin ϴ+f

(wcosϴ+Psinϴ)
p(cosϴ-finϴ) =wsinϴ+fwcosϴ dividing both side by wcosϴ
p/w(1-ftanϴ) =tanϴ+f p/w= (tanϴ+f)/(1-ftanϴ)
since coefficient of lateral friction, f=0.15 for design purpose tanϴ= super elevation=0.07 or above 1/15.
Then value of ftanϴ= 0.01, hence 1-ftanϴ=1-0.01= 0.99~ Approx.1
So, p/w=f + tanϴ
v2/gR= e+f
e+f = v2/gR
here, R= Radius of the horizontal curve g= acceleration due to gravity, 9.8m/sec2
f= design value of lateral friction coefficient=0.15 v=speed of the vehicle m/sec
if v in Kmph, then
e+f= (0.278v)2/9.8R= v2/127R
(Hint: condition, e=0 or f=o)
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):

SSD is the minimum distance required with in which a vehicle moving at designed speed can be stopped without
colliding with an object on the road surface. The sight distance available on road to a driver at any instances
depends on features of the road ahead, height of the drivers’ eye above the road surface & height of the object above
road surface.
Factors affecting stopping sight distances are: -
• The speed of the vehicle
• Efficiency of brakes
• Frictional resistance between road surface & vehicle tyres
• Longitudinal slope of the road/ gradient of the road
• Total reaction time of the driver (Perception time + Brake reaction time)
Perception time: - the perception time is the time required for a driver to realize that brakes must be applied. The
brake reaction time also depends on several factors including the skill of the driver, type of problems & various
other environmental factors. Often the total brake reaction time of the driver is taken together.
PIEV Theory:
• Perception: perceiving through eye & ear etc
• Intellection: analyzing the situation i.e. knowledge
• Emotion: time lapsed for emotional feeling like fear, anger etc
• Volition: time to take final action/ to make final decision
The PIEV time of a driver depends on several factors such as physical & psychological characteristics of a driver,
type of the problem involved, environmental condition & temporary factors (e.g. motive of the trip, travel speed,

fatigue, consumption alcohol etc.). The total reaction time of an average driver may vary from 0.5 seconds for simple
situation to as much as 3 to 4 sec.
Analysis of stopping Distance:

Lag distance: distance travelled by the vehicle during the total reaction time= v* t (2.5 seconds, IRC)
Braking distance: distance travelled by vehicle after applying brakes.
Braking distance is obtained by equating work done in stopping= kinetic energy of moving vehicle
F*L=0.50 mv2
If F is the maximum frictional force developed & the braking distance is L, then work done against friction force in
stopping the vehicle is F*L=f wL, where w is the total weight of the vehicle.
0.50 mv2=F*L fwL=wv2/2g L=v2/2gf
where, L= braking distance
v=velocity of vehicle m/s f=design coefficient of friction (0.40 to 0.34 depending on speed 20 t0 120 Kmph)
g= accelerating due to gravity=9.8 m/sec 2
stopping distance (SD), m= lag distance + braking distance
= v*t + v2/2gf
If speed in Kmph, SD, m=0.278 v*t + v2/254f
Stopping distance at slopes:
S.D (m) = v*t + v2/2g (f±0.01n) S.D. (m) = 0.278 v*t+ v2/254 (f±0.01n)

Set back distance
The clearance or set back distance depends upon the following factors: -
-Required sight distance -Radius of horizontal curve
- Length of the curve, Lc which may be greater or less than SD.
Case I, Length of curve (Ls) > sight Distance (s).
• For the narrow roads or single lane, the angle subtended at the centre, α=s/R
• For the half central angle is given by α/2=s/2R radians= 180s/2πR
The distance from the obstruction to the centre is R cos α/2
#setback distance (m) = R-R cos α/2
# For wide roads with two or more lanes, d= the distance between the centre line of the road& the centre line of the
inside lane in meters
• in such conditions, sight distance is measured along the middle of the inner side lane & the setback distance,
m is given by m= R- (R-d) cos α/2
• where, α/2= 180s/2π(R-d) degrees.
Case II Length of curve (Ls) < sight Distance (s).
• α/2= 180Lc/2π(R-d) degrees.
• Set back distance (m) = CG+GF = R-(R-d) cos α/2+ (s-Lc)/2*sin α/2

Vertical curves
Vertical curves are provided at the intersection of different grades to smoothen the vertical
profile & ease off the changes in gradients for the fast moving vehicle.
Types of vertical curves; -
• Summit curves/ crest/ convexity upwards
• Valley curves/ sag/ concavity upwards
Summit Curves
Summit curves: summit curves with convexity upwards are formed in any one of the following
cases: -
• Designs of summit curves are governed only by considerations of sight distances;
Transition curves are not necessary.

• Simple parabola is provided for vertical curves, since it is very easy for arithmetic
manipulation for computing ordinates.
• Since the deviation angles are very small & so between the same tangent points, a simple
parabola is nearly congruent with a circular arc, hence simple parabola is provided as a
vertical curve.
When the length of curve is greater than the sight distance (L>SSD)
L= NS2/ (√2H+√2h) 2
L= NS2/4.4
When the length of curve is less than the sight distance (L<SSD)
L= 2S-(√2H+√2h)2/N ; L=2s-4.4/N
Length of summit curve for overtaking sight distance (OSD):
L> S (OSD) L= NS2/(√2H+√2h)2 (H=h=1.2) L=NS2/9.6
L<S(OSD) L= 2S-(√2H+√2h)2/N L= 2S-9.6/N
Factors to be considered to design valley curve: -
• Impact-free movement of vehicles at design speed
• Consideration of headlight distances during night time
• The lowest point in the valley curve may be located from considerations of cross drainage
Valley Curves
The length of transition curve Ls for comfort condition, Ls=v3/CR, Value of R=Ls/N
Ls=N* v3/(C*Ls) Ls2= N* v3/C, Ls=√ N* v3/C, L=2Ls=2*√ N* v3/C,
N= deviation angle, v m/sec, C= allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
=0.60m/sec3
If V Kmph, L= 0.38=√ N* v3 (c= 0.60m/sec3 is taken)
The length of valley curve for head light sight distances
L> SSD If the valley curve is assumed to be of parabolic shape, with equation Y=ax2,
a=N/2L
h1+ stanα=as2= NS2/2L L= NS2/ (2(h1+ stanα)) (Taken, h1=0.75, α=10)
L= NS2/ (1.5+ 0.035S)
Where, L= total length of valley curve, m S=SSD, m N= Deviation angle
L<SSD
h1+ stanα=(s-L/2) N, L=2S-(2h1+2stanα)/N
L=2S- (1.5+0.035S)/N
Gradient: gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the
horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in X (1 vertical & X horizontal). Sometimes the gradient
is also expressed as a percentage i.e. n in 100
Ascending gradient is denoted as = +n%
Descending gradient is denoted as = -n%
Gradients are divided into the following categories: -
• Ruling gradient
• Limiting gradient
• Exceptional gradient
• Minimum gradient
Recommendation for alignment for design

• Alignment should be as directional as possible
• Alignment should be consistent with topography and should generally conform to the
natural contours. A line cutting across the contours involves high fills and deep cuts, mars
of landscapes and is difficult for maintenance.
• The number of curves should be in general kept minimum
• The alignment should avoid abrupt turns. Winding alignment consisting of short curves
should be avoided.
• Road alignment should be consistent throughout without any sudden change of design
standards.
• A sharp curve at the end of a long tangent is extremely hazardous and should be avoided.
If sharp curvature is unavoidable over a portion of the route selected, it is preferable that

this portion of the road be preceded by successive sharper curves. Proper signage well in
advance of a sharp horizontal curve is essential.
• Short curves giving appearance of kinks should be avoided, especially for small deflection
angles. The curves should be sufficiently long to provide pleasing appearance and smooth
driving on important highway. They should be at least 150m long for a deflection angle of
5 degrees, and the minimum length should be increased by 30m for each 1 degree in the
deflection angle.
• Curves same direction short separated by short tangents are called broken-back curves.
They should be avoided as they are not pleasing in appearance and are hazardous.
• Compound curves may be use in difficult topography in preference to broken-back
arrangement, but they should be used only if it is impossible to fit in a single circular
curve. To ensure safe and smooth transition from curve to curve, a radius of the flatter
curve should not be disproportional to the radius of the sharper curve. A ratio of 2:1 or
preferably 1.5:1 should be adopted.
• Length of transition curve should not be less than ¼ of the length of the circular curve.
• For a particular design speed, as large radius as possible should be adopted. The
minimum radius should be reserved only for critical locations.
• The use of sharp curves should be avoided on high fills. In the absence of cut slopes,
shrubs, trees etc. above the roadway, the drivers may have difficulty in estimating the
extent of curvature and fail to adjust to the conditions.
• While abrupt reversal in curvature is to be avoided, the use of reverse curves becomes
unavoidable in hilly terrain. When they are provided, adequately long transitional curves
should be inserted for super-elevation run-off.
Coordination of horizontal and vertical alignment
• Straight alignment or flat horizontal curves imposed on a road with steep or long grades
or excessive curvature imposed on a road with flat grade are both poor designs. The
compromise between two offers the best in safety, capacity, ease and uniformity of
operation.
• Vertical curvature superimposed upon horizontal curvature, or vice-versa generally
effects in a pleasing effect.
• From the safety point of view, sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or
near the top of a pronounced summit vertical curve. In such situations, the horizontal
curve is made longer than the vertical curve.
• Sharp horizontal curves should be avoided at or near the low point of a pronounced sag
curves.
• On divided highways, variations in the width of the median and the use of separate
profiles and horizontal alignments should be considered to derive design and operational
advantages of one-way roadways.

• As far as possible horizontal and vertical curves should be overlapped. It is desirable that
horizontal curve be slightly longer than vertical curve. The IP’s of horizontal and vertical
curves should be offset to a distance not more than ¼ of the length of shorter of these
curves.
• Ends of horizontal curves should not coincide with the beginning of vertical curves.
• on two lane highways, the need for safe passing sections at frequent intervals and for an
appreciable percentage of the length of the highway often supersedes the general
desirable to have a long straight sections to secure sufficient passing sight distance in
design.
• Horizontal curvature and vertical profile should be made as flat as possible at the
highway intersections where sight distance is important and vehicles may have to slow or
stop.
4.1.3 Evaluation of subgrade soil Function of subgrade soil, CBR ant its test, group index, plate load test,
determination of modulus of subgrade reaction (k), dynamic penetration test and its application
Function of the subgrade soil:
The importance of soil as a highway subgrade lines in the fact that it acts as an integral part of road pavement. The
soil as a highway subgrade serves the following functions: -
To provide an adequate support to the road pavement.
To provide stability to the road pavement.
To provide good drainage of rain water percolating through the road pavement
CBR and its test
CBR test is a penetration test used to evaluate the subgrade strength of roads and pavements.
The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould of 150 mm diameter with a base plate and a collar, a
loading frame and dial gauges for measuring the penetration values and the expansion on soaking. The
specimen in the mould is soaked in water for four days and the swelling and water absorption values are noted.
The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the specimen in the mould and the assembly is placed under the
plunger of the loading frame.
Load is applied on the sample by a standard plunger with diameter 50 mm at the rate of 1.25 mm/min. A load
penetration curve is drawn. The load values on standard crushed stones are 1370 kg and 2055 kg at 2.5 mm
and 5.0 mm penetrations respectively.
The CBR value is expressed as a percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5.0 mm to
the standard loads mentioned above. The CBR can therefore be mathematically expressed as:
Group Index (GI)

A true flexible pavement yields “elastically” to traffic loading. It is constructed with a bituminous-treated surface or
a relatively thin surface of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) over one or more unbound base courses resting on a subgrade.
Group Index method of flexible pavement design is an empirical method which is based on the physical properties of
the soil sub-grade.

GI = 0.2a + 0.005 ac + 0.01bd
Where,
a= percentage of soil passing 0.074 mm sieve in excess of 35 per cent, not exceeding 75.
b= percentage of soil passing 0.074 mm sieve in excess of 15 per cent, not exceeding 55.
c= Liquid limit in per cent in excess of 40.
d= Plasticity index in excess of 10.
Group index value range of different soils is given below
 For good soil – 0 to 1
 For fair soil – 2 to 4
 For poor soil – 5 to 9
 For very poor soil – 10 to 20
Plate Load Test

Plate load test is a field test, which is performed to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil and
the probable settlement under a given load. This test is very popular for selection and design of
shallow foundation.
For performing this test, the plate is placed at the desired depth, then the load is applied gradually
and the settlement for each increment of load is recorded. At one point a settlement occurs at a rapid
rate, the total load up to that point is calculated and divided by the area of the plate to determine
the ultimate bearing capacity of soil at that depth. The ultimate bearing capacity is then divided by a
safety factor (typically 2.5~3) to determine the safe bearing capacity.
The following apparatus is necessary for performing plate load test.
1. Test plate
2. Hydraulic jack & pump
3. Reaction beam or reaction truss
4. Dial gauges
5. Pressure gauge
6. Loading columns
7. Necessary equipment for loading platform.
8. Tripod, Plumb bob, spirit level etc.
The necessary steps to perform plate load test is written below-
1. Excavate test pit up to the desired depth. The pit size should be at least 5 times the
size of the test plate (Bp).
2. At the center of the pit, a small hole or depression is created. Size of the hole is
same as the size of the steel plate. The bottom level of the hole should correspond
to the level of actual foundation. The depth of the hole is created such that the ratio
of the depth to width of the hole is equal to the ratio of the actual depth to actual
width of the foundation.
3. A mild steel plate is used as load bearing plate whose thickness should be at least
25 mm thickness and size may vary from 300 mm to 750 mm. The plate can be
square or circular. Generally, a square plate is used for square footing and a
circular plate is used for circular footing.
4. A column is placed at the center of the plate. The load is transferred to the plate
through the centrally placed column.
5. The load can be transferred to the column either by gravity loading method or by
truss method.
Figure: Test Setup for Plate Load Test

6. For gravity loading method a platform is constructed over the column and load is
applied to the platform by means of sandbags or any other dead loads. The
hydraulic jack is placed in between column and loading platform for the application
of gradual loading. This type of loading is called reaction loading.
7. At least two dial gauges should be placed at diagonal corners of the plate to record
the settlement. The gauges are placed on a platform so that it does not settle with
the plate.
8. Apply seating load of .7 T/m2 and release before the actual loading starts.
9. The initial readings are noted.
10. The load is then applied through hydraulic jack and increased gradually. The
increment is generally one-fifth of the expected safe bearing capacity or one-tenth

of the ultimate bearing capacity or any other smaller value. The applied load is
noted from pressure gauge.
11. The settlement is observed for each increment and from dial gauge. After increasing
the load-settlement should be observed after 1, 4, 10, 20, 40 and 60 minutes and
then at hourly intervals until the rate of settlement is less than .02 mm per hour. The
readings are noted in tabular form.
12. After completing of the collection of data for a particular loading, the next load
increment is applied and readings are noted under new load. This increment and
data collection is repeated until the maximum load is applied. The maximum load is
generally 1.5 times the expected ultimate load or 3 times of the expected allowable
bearing pressure.
Determination of modulus of sub-grade reaction (K)
• The modulus of sub –grade reaction, K is proportional to the displacement. The displacement
level ∆ is taken as 1.25 mm in calculating K. If p is the pressure sustained in N/mm 2 by the
rigid plate of diameter of 750mm at a deflection ∆=1.25 mm. The modulus of sub-grade
reaction K is given by
• K= P/∆=p/ 1.25 N/mm3 (p= N/mm2)
Dynamic penetration test and its application

The Dynamic Cone Penetration Test provides a measure of a material’s in-situ resistance to
penetration. The test is performed by driving a metal cone into the ground by repeated striking
it with a 17.6 lb (8 Kg) weight dropped from a distance of 2.26 feet (575 mm). The penetration of
the cone is measured after each blow and is recorded to provide a continuous measure of
shearing resistance up to 5 feet below the ground surface. Test results can be correlated to
California Bearing Ratios, in-situ density, resilient modulus, and bearing capacity
4.1.4 Hill Roads Hill road design: speed, sight distance, geological conditions and alignment selection
criteria, gradient selection, Hair Pin Bends, horizontal curves, passing lane in hill roads, retaining and
slope protection structures in hill roads, use of bio-engineering, drainage structures, stability of formation
width and cut and fill slopes
A hill road is usually defined on the basis of terrain types. This can be classified into four groups based on the
ground cross slope i.e. the slope approximately perpendicular to the centre line of the highway alignment.
Hence a hill road is one which passes through the terrain with a cross slope of 25% or more. However, there are
sections along hill roads with cross slope less than 25% also, especially when the road follows the river route but still
these sections are also referred as hill roads.
Design & construction problems in hill roads:

 A hilly or mountainous area is characterized by a highly broken relief
 Widely differing elevations & steep slopes.
 The formation of rocks differs in a wide range
 The geological condition varies from place to place within a short section.

 Hill cross slopes which were stable before the construction may turn into unstable after the construction
 Variation in hydro-geological conditions
 structures for hill road may exceed (50-60) % of the total construction cost
 slope needs careful arrangement of erosion protection works.
 Special safety precautions
Special consideration in hill road design:

• Route location & alignment survey
• Geometric design of hill roads (gradient selection & design of hair pin bend)
• Typical cross-section of hill roads
• Special structures in hill roads (retaining, drainage, slope protection structures)
General consideration
i) Temperature ii) Rainfall iii) Atmospheric pressure & winds iv) Geological conditions
Route Location in Hills
• River route (Route location along valley)
• Ridge route (Route through mountain passes)
Alignment survey
 Reconnaissance
 Trace cut
 Detailed survey
Gradient
HAIR PIN BENDS

• Tangent length of reverse curve
• T=r tan β/2
• Where, T= length of tangent
• r= radius of the reverse curve
• β= deflection angle

• The distance from the apex of the reverse curve to the commencement of the main curve
is
• AE=BF= T+ m
• From right angled triangle AOE or BOF it will be found that, tan β=OE/AE= R/ (T+m) =
R/(r tan β/2+m)……..i
From trigonometry,
• tan β = 2 tan β/2/1-tan2 β/2………………………..ii
• from equation i and ii
• R/(r tan β/2+m) =2 tan β/2/1-tan2 β/2
• R-Rtan2β/2= 2 r tan2β/2 + 2m tan β/2
• 2r tan 2 β/2 + Rtan2β/2 +2m tan β/2-R=0
• tan2β/2(2r+R) + 2m tan β/2-R=0
• tan β/2= -2m+ (4m2-4(2r+R)) 1/2/ (2r+R)
• tan β/2 = -m+m2-R (2r+R) 1/2/ (2r+R)
Length of main curve, c= π R∆/180= πRγ/180
Hence the total length of the bend is S= 2(Cr+m) +C

Typical Cross- section of hill roads
• Cut & fill
• Bench type
• Box cutting
• Embankment with retaining walls
• Semi bridge
• Semi tunnels
• Platforms

Cut & fill
Bench type
Box cutting
Embankment with retaining walls

Semi bridge
Semi tunnels
Platforms

Special structures in hill roads
• Retaining structures
• Drainage structures
• Slope protection structures
Retaining wall based on
• Gravity walls
• Semi-gravity walls
• Cantilever walls
• Counter- fort walls
• Buttressed walls
• Crib walls
• Reinforced soil wall

The design procedure usually comprises of the following steps
• Assemble the general information: topographical & physical surveys, controlling dimensions.
• Analyze sub soil condition: soil profile
• Establish surcharge loads- highways, railways, building & other structures
• Select type & tentative portion of wall
• Compute earth pressure & surcharge pressure
• Analyze the structural stability
• Analyze the foundation stability
• Design structural elements
• Select drainage & backfill
• Predict settlement & movement of wall
Drainage of water from hill slope

Bio- engineering
Bioengineering can be defined as the technique as the use of livening plants either alone or in conjunction with small
scale civil engineering structures for the purpose of reducing the shallow- seated instability and controlling erosion
on slopes.
1) Vegetative systems:
• Catch Function
• Armour Function
• Reinforce Function
• Support function
• Anchor Function
• Drain Function
The systems used in bioengineering are as follows:
 Horizontal/ Vertical grass planting 2) Diagonal lines of grass planting. 3)Chevron lines of grass planting
 Herring bone lines of grass planting
 Random pattern of grass planting,
 Shurb/ tree planting
 Palisades
 Brush layering
 Fascines
 Bamboo planting

Small Scale Civil Engineering Structures
1) Check-dam 2) Jute net 3) Wire fence 4) Dentition 5) Stone pitch 6) Toe wall 7) French drain 8) Unlined
earth ditch
Function Application Site Limitations

requirements
Jute net Cheap, Smooth plane Shrinks, Not on fine plastic soils
sandy soil, slope ,
>300 slope Homogeneous Not on cobble size soil, Cannot be
materials used in riling soil
Wire >300 slope Good Cannot be used in riling soil,

fence foundation expensive difficult to install, Not on
soft rock
Check- Small Need to be well Expensive, Small amounts

dam gullies keyed retained
Armour Permeable Temporary measure

slope
Slope Wind damage
Cover Any Slope
Installation difficult for large area
Damaged by debris and swift water
Stone Erodible
pitching soil slope

Interaction between Plants and Civil Engineering Structures
Stability of formation cut and fill slopes

4.1.5 Highway Drainage Importance of highway drainage: surface drainage and estimation of water
quantity, design of drainage structures, erosion control and dissipating structures, subsurface drainage,
cross drainage structures and types
It is the process of removing & controlling excess surface & sub soil water within the right of way
Importance of highway drainage
 Moisture in the subsoil beyond certain limit decrease the bearing capacity
 Water standing on the carriageway is a danger to high speed traffic
 Maintenance & repair works of structures increased
 Reduction in the strength of construction materials.
 Thousands of rupees are to be spent for the maintenance & repair works
Causes of moisture variation in sub grade soil

Free water:
• Seepage of water from higher ground adjacent to the road.
• Penetration of water through the pavement
• Transfer of moisture from the shoulders & pavement edges
Ground water:
• Seepage flow from adjacent higher land.
• Capillary rise
• Fluctuation of water table
• Transfer of water vapor due to differences in temperature in upper & lower soil layers
Surface drainage and estimation of water quantity

Surface drainage system are:
• Hydrological analysis
• Hydraulic analysis
• Q= CiAd
• Where, Q= run off in m3/sec C= run off coefficient, i=intensity of rainfall mm/sec
• Ad= drainage area in hectare (10000m2)
• C= (C1A1+C2A2+…………. CnAn)/ (A1+A2+…………………..An)
Hydraulic analysis
• If V is the allowable velocity, then the area of cross section of drain “A’ can be found from the relation.
• Q= A*V
• Then value of longitudinal slope ‘s’ is determined from manning’s formula, V=1/n*R2/3* s1/2

• Where, n= manning’s roughness coefficient. R= hydraulic radius=A/p
• P= wetted perimeter s= longitudinal slope of channels.
Cross drainage
• Culverts & small bridges – more than 75%
• Causeway
A culvert is a closed conduit placed under the embankment to carry water across the roadway
Types of culverts: -Pipe culvert, Box culvert, Slab culver, Arch culvert

Causeway:
Causeway may be dry stone & R.C.C
Aqueduct
Inverted Siphon

Erosion control & energy dissipating measures
• Lining of drains & ditch checks (check damp)
• Providing road rapid (chute)
• Providing fall or drop structures
• Miscellaneous erosion control measures
• -Vegetation, -slope pitching, lining & protection, -bank protection, spur &check
dams/walls
Providing road rapid (chute)
Providing fall or drop structure

Slope pitching, lining & protection walls
Bank protection, spur & check dams
Sub surface drainage system

Methods of sub surface drainage:
1.Drainage of infiltration water
2.Control of seepage water
3.Lowering water table
4.Control of capillary rise

Drainage of infiltration water
Control of seepage water
Lowering water table

Control of capillary rise
4.1.6 Highway Materials Binding materials, types of aggregate and tests on their gradation, strength,
durability, mathematical and graphical method of aggregate gradation, binding materials, bitumen, road
tar, penetration test, consistency tests, flash point test, composition tests, bituminous mixes and asphalt
concrete, open and dense graded mixes, design of asphalt mixes,
The materials used in road construction are classified into three groups:
• Binding materials
• Mineral materials
• Other materials
Binding materials
• Stone dust or cohesive soil
• Cement, lime or other inorganic binding material
• Bitumen, tar & other organic binding materials
Types of aggregates and tests on their gradation
Based on size: (1) Coarse aggregate, (2) Fine aggregate
Based on type of rock: (1) Igneous rocks, (2) sedimentary rocks & (3) metamorphic rocks
Based on strength: (1) hard aggregates, (2) soft aggregates
Based on shape: (1) rounded aggregates (2) Flaky aggregates (3) Irregular aggregates (4) angular aggregates
(5) Elongated aggregates
Based on surface textures: (1) Glassy aggregates, (2) Smooth aggregates (3) Granular aggregates (4) Rough
aggregates (5) Crystalline aggregates (6) Honeycomb aggregates (7) Porous aggregates
Testing of highway aggregates:
i. Descriptive tests
ii. Non-destructive tests

iii. Destructive tests
iv. Bitumen adhesion tests
Non- destructive test
Gradation tests
Shape test
Flakiness Index
Angularity Number=67- ((100*W)/ (Ww *Ga))
Testing of highway aggregates:
i. Descriptive tests
ii. Non-destructive tests
iii. Destructive tests
iv. Bitumen adhesion tests
Non- destructive test
Gradation tests
Shape test
Flakiness Index
Angularity Number=67- ((100*W)/ (Ww *Ga))

Desirable properties of road aggregates:
• Strength: Resistance of crushing
• Hardness: Resistance of abrasion (wear & tear)
• Toughness: Resistance of impact
• Durability: Resistance to weather action-for long periods
• Proper shape & size: Shapes determining interlocking, compaction, strength
• Good adhesion: anti-stripping is determined is determined by adhesion
• Cementation
Mathematical and graphical method of aggregate
Graphical Method: the mathematical method for the gradation of different aggregates are suitable only to combine
two or three aggregates. In cases of more than three aggregates, mathematical method is very complicated and
sometimes quite impossible to find the appropriate proportion. In such cases graphical methods are used. In this
method, percentage passing of different aggregates are plotted on a single graph. Percentage passing of each
respective sieve size line is shown by vertical line, in this way the appropriate gradation factor for different
aggregates are obtained.
Bituminous materials

Bitumen:
bitumen is a viscous liquid or solid material black or dark brown in color, having adhesive
properties, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons, derived from crude oil during fractional
distillation or asphalt occurring in natural form
Road tar:
Tar is the viscous liquid obtained when natural organic materials such as wood & coal
carbonized or destructively distilled in the absence of air
• RT1= lowest viscosity & is used for surface painting in very cold conditions
• RT2= standard surface painting under normal climatic condition
• RT3= used for surface painting, renewal coats & premixing chips for top course & light
carpets
• RT4= used for premixing tar macadam in base course
• RT5= for grouting, highest viscosity among the road tars.
Cutback bitumen: In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower the viscosity of the
bitumen
There are different types of cutback bitumen
• Rapid curing (RC): surface dressing, patch work
• Medium curing (MC): premix with less quantity of fine aggregates
• Slow curing (SC): premix with appreciable quantity of fine aggregates
Bitumen Emulsion

Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition
in an aqueous medium and stabilized by suitable material.
• Rapid setting (RS): surface dressing work
• Medium setting (MS): preferred for premix and patch repairs work
• Slow setting (SC): rainy season Bitumen
“emulsions are ideal binders for hill road”
Tests on bituminous binders & their significance

Consistency tests: 1) Penetration test 2) Viscosity test 3) Softening point test 4) Ductility test
5) Float test
Composition tests:
1) Distillation test
2) water content test
3) loss on heating test
4) ash content test
5) solubility test
Bituminous mix design:
The mix design (wet-mix) determines the optimum bitumen content
Mix design: Mix design is done for determining
• An economical blend (mixture)/ With proper gradation of aggregates
• Adequate proportion of bitumen /To fulfill desired proportion of mix
Constituents of a mix
• Coarse aggregates: Offer compressive and shear strength and shows good interlocking
properties. E.g. Granite
• Fine aggregates: Fills the voids in the coarse aggregate and stiffens the binder. E.g. Sand,
Rock dust
• Filler: Fills the voids, stiffens the binder and offers permeability. E.g. Rock dust, cement,
lime
• Binder: Fills the voids, cause particle adhesion and gluing and offers impermeability. E.g.
Bitumen, Asphalt, Tar
Open graded
 An aggregate in which a skip between the sieve gradations has been deliberately achieved
so that the voids are not filled with intermediate-size particles.
 An aggregate that contains almost no mineral filler
 A compacted aggregate with relatively large void spaces.
 Dense graded hot mix asphalt is also known as asphaltic concrete and designated by the
abbreviation AC
Carpets are laid in single courses or double courses
Thickness of single course not exceed 7.5 thickness including wearing
In open graded mixes failure is mostly due to the wearing of binder
In dense graded mixes tends to waving and deformation.
Requirements of Bituminous mixes
• Stability
• Durability
• Flexibility
• Skid resistance
• Workability
Marshall method of bituminous mixes Design
 Selection of aggregates
 Selection of aggregate grading
 Proportioning of aggregate

 Preparation of specimen
Determination of specific gravity of compacted specimen

 Gt= 100/ ((w1/G1) + (w2/G2) + (w3/G3) + (w4/G4))
W1, w2, w3, w4 are % by weight of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, filler material, bitumen
G1, G2, G3, G4 are specific gravity respectively of W1, w2, w3, w4
• Measurable specific gravity at laboratory is Gm = Weight/ Volume
• Percentage air voids in the specimen Vv= (Gt-Gm)/Gt
• Percentage volume bitumen content, Vb= (% weight of bitumen/ Specific gravity of
bitumen) * Gm
• Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA)= Vv+Vb
• Percentage –voids filled with bitumen VFB= 100* Vb/VMA
• Stability test on compacted specimens
• Selection of optimum bitumen content.
Introduction & test apparatus
• Marshall method of designing bituminous mix is named behind a bituminous engineer-
Mr. Bruce Marshall
• Test is applicable to hot mix design of bitumen & aggregates with maximum size 2.5 cm
• In this test, the resistance to plastic deformation of cylindrical specimen of bituminous
mixture is measured when loaded at the periphery at a rate 5 cm per min.
• Stability of the mix is defined as a maximum load carried by compacted specimen at
standard test temperature of 600c
• The flow is measured as the deformation in units of 0.25 mm between during stability test
• The apparatus consists of a cylindrical mould 10.16cm & 6.35 cm height with a base plate
& collar
• 4.54 Kg load at 45.7 cm of fall to compact the specimen
• Loading machine of 5 tons’ capacity at rate of 5cm per minute.
• A dial gauge is used to measure the deformation.

4.1.7 Traffic Engineering Traffic engineering and scope, interrelationships between human/
machinery/environmental elements, impact of human and vehicular characteristics on traffic planning,
traffic operations and regulations driver and vehicle control, traffic control devices, traffic flow counts
and speed studies, traffic flow characteristics traffic count and presentation, O and D studies, parking
studies and accident study and analysis, basic requirements of intersections, types of intersections and
configuration, channelized and un-channelized intersections, design of intersections, traffic signs, signals,
road marking, road delineation, road lighting, factors influencing night visibility, design of the lighting
system, traffic projection and forecasting
Traffic engineering and scope

History
• Traffic study started in 1904 A.D.,
• Traffic signals came into existence in 1918 A.D.
• Registration of institute of traffic engineering in 1934 A. D.
Definition: Traffic engineering deals with traffic studies, traffic Analysis and Engineering application for
improvement of traffic performance on road
Objective:
 To achieve safe,
 To achieve efficient,
 To achieve Economic
 To free and rapid flow of traffic least number of accidents
Scope:
• Traffic characteristics: road user and vehicular
• Traffic study and analysis: Speed-Spot and Speed & Delay volume, origin & destination, traffic flow
characteristics, capacity, accident & parking study.
• Traffic operation: control-signs, signals, markings regulations
• Designs: Intersections, parking, terminal, lighting
• Traffic planning
• Traffic administration & management (3E’s- engineering, enforcement and education)
• Research
Road Users:
# Motorists # Pedestrians # cyclists # cart driver’s/ Rickshaw peddlers # highway / street child or adults talking or
playing on around the road
Road user’s characteristics may be due to following factors:
1) Physical
2) Mental
3) Psychological 4) Environmental

Interrelationships between human/ machinery/ environmental elements
Description of human Vehicle Environment framework
• Proper driver education,
• imparts knowledge human vehicle environment interaction. #. Develops driving skills # positive effects on
the driver attitude
• # Sensory Field: sense of seeing, touch, hearing and smelling.
• Laws and enforcement: - guidance and motivation of safer and efficient driver behavior i.e. roadway and
roadside environment (physical and surrounding conditions)
• Vehicle characteristics: mechanical control system and information provided to the driver. Characteristics
of vehicle are:
• Static: dimensions of vehicle, weight of vehicle and driver eye height.
• Vehicle kinematics
• Dynamic Characteristics
Traffic operations covering driver control and vehicle control

 Driver controls: - these include driving licenses for light and heavy motor vehicles, driver tests and
minimum requirements, financial responsibility and civil disability
 Vehicle controls: - the various regulations and controls on vehicles are vehicle registration, requirements of
vehicles, equipment and accessories, maximum dimensions, weight, fitness and inspection of vehicles.
 Flow regulations: - regulations of traffic flow have been laid down such as directions, turning and
overtaking etc.
 General controls: - some other general regulations and provisions are made to report accidents and
recording and disposing traffic violation cases

Traffic Control Devices
 Signs
 Signals
 Road markings
 Traffic island
 Traffic signal design
Following are the types of traffic sign
(A). Regulatory or mandatory signs: - these signs are used to inform the road users of certain laws, regulations &
prohibitions. The violation of these signs is a legal offence. These signs are classified under the following sub-heads:
-
(1) Stop & give-way signs (2) Prohibitory signs (3) No parking / stopping sign (4) Direction
control signet (5) Speed limit {Shape- circular}
(B) Warning or cautionary signs: - these signs are used to warn the road users of certain hazardous conditions that
exist on or beside the roadway. These signs are equilateral triangle in shape with its apex pointing upwards. They
have white triangle background, red boarder & black symbols. Following are the main types of warning signs: -
(1) Right/ Left hand curve (2) hairpin bend left (3) reverse curve right (4) cross road (5) Narrow
Bridge / Road ahead.
(c) informatory Signs: - these signs are used to guide the road users along routes, inform them of destination &
distance & provide with information so that travel makes easier, safe & pleasant. These signs are classified under
following sub-heads: -
(1) Direction & place information signs. (2) Facility information signs (3) Parking signs (4) Flood gauge (5)
other useful information signs. {Shape- Rectangular}

Traffic signal: Traffic signals are generally used at the intersection of roadway
(1) Traffic control signal
- Fixed time -Manually operated -traffic actuated
(2) Pedestrian signals
(3) Special Traffic signal
Road Markings
# Pavement marking # Kerb Marking #Object marking # Reflector unit markings
Traffic Islands: Raised areas within the roadway to guide traffic. Traffic island could be: -
# Divisional: - separate opposing flow with four or more lane
# Channeling: - To guide traffic into proper channel at intersection at grade, to reduce conflicts points, achieve
desired angles or crossings, diverging & merging, refuge islands space for traffic control device.
# Pedestrian Loading: Providing at regular bus stops. # Rotary: - Provided at intersection at grade.
# Pedestrian Refuge: - to provide temporary stoppage for pedestrian during road crossing.
# Bus Stop Separating: - To separate space for bus stop
• Traffic Signal Design:
#Trial cycle method # approximate method #Webster’s Method
Definition: Traffic study can be defined as the traffic survey and analysis of the surveys data’s or information’s with
the aim of helping in designing the geometrical parameters and traffic control mechanisms for safe and economic
traffic flow.
Types of Traffic Study:
1. Traffic Volume studies 2. Speed studies: i) Spot speed studies ii) Speed &delay studies 3. Origin &
Destination Studies 4. Traffic Flow studies 5. Traffic Capacity Studies 6. Parking Studies 7. Accident
Studies
Objective of Traffic Volume Study:
• Traffic volume study helps to determining the traffic capacity of the roads hence helps in deciding the
priority for the improvement and expansion of roads.
• Traffic volume study is used in planning, traffic operation/control of existing facilities and for planning the
new facilities.
• Classified volume is used for structural design of pavements.
• It is used to analyze traffic pattern and trends.
• It is used for design intersections signal timings, channelization and other control device.
• For the determination of one-way street or other regulatory measures.
• Pedestrian traffic volume is uses for planning and design of side works, cross walks, sub-ways and
pedestrian signals.
Types of Traffic Volume:

• Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)/ Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
• Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT)
• Average weekday Traffic (AWT)
Methods of Traffic Count:
A. Manual Method
B. Automatic/ Mechanical Count:
• Sensors: a. Pneumatic tube b. Electric contact strip c. Inductive loop detector d.

Magnetic detector
C. Moving Observer Method
D. Photographic Method
E. Combined manual and Mechanical counter
Presentation and analysis of traffic data
• AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic = 1/365 of annual flow or ADT Average Daily Traffic in PCU as
relative importance of a route.
• Trend Charts: trend estimate of traffic in future years used for planning future expansion, design and
regulations.
• Variation Charts: hourly, daily & seasonal variations for deciding facilities and special regulations in peak
hours.
• Volume flow: arms thickness = traffic flow for traffic flow at a glance design of intersection regulations and
control measures.
• Traffic flow maps: line thickness shows the flow in that route, Traffic distribution at a glance. Homogenous
distribution shows all routes un-biasly used.
• Thirtieth highest hourly volume: volume that will be exceeded only 29 times a year. Best in facility and
economy for design purpose.
Speed Studies
Speed is a factor influencing traffic flow on existing roads. Speed studies are essential for: -
1. Traffic operation like: sign location and timings.
2. Geometric design of elements like curvatures, super elevation etc.
Several Types
 Spot speed
 Average speed
 Space mean speed
 Time mean speed
 Running Speed
 Journey Speed
Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data:

A. Tabular presentation of spot speed firstly establish class size – result frequency distribution
B. Graphical Analysis: Histogram and Cumulative Frequency Curve- Combination of Histogram & Frequency
Curve, and Cumulative Spot Speed Distribution Curve. Frequency Curve (bell shaped) - most occurring speed the
‘Modal Speed” Cumulative Curve (Smooth S-shaped curve) gives the percentile speed, Median-or 50 percentile
speed
C. Mathematical Analysis: Average spot speed, Class interval for grouping of data to avoid excessive computation,
standard deviation s, Variance s2
Methods of spot speed measurement:

Direct measurements:
a. Enoscope
b. Pneumatic tubes or pressure contact strips
c. Inductive loop detector
d. Radar speed-meter
e. Sonic detector
f. Time lapse camera
100
85th percentile speed = 41
kmph
30
80
speed %
Vehicle traveling at or below indicated
Frequency of indicated speed %
Frequency Curve
Histogram
60
50th percentile – Median speed = 20
31 kmph Modal Speed
40
10
15th percentile speed = 23 kmph

20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Spot speed (Kmph)

10 20 30 40 50 60 Figure 16 Frequency Curve or Speed Distribution Curve
Spot speed
(kmph)
Fig. 17 Graphical analysis of spot speed distribution

Uses of Spot speed study:
# Geometric design, Design of new facilities # Traffic signal at intersection # checking of speed enforcement needs.
# Accident studies # Capacity study # Study of before and after improvement
• Modal Speed: That occurs most often-peak of frequency curve.
• Median Speed: 50th percentile speed.
• 98th percentile speed: Below this speed 98% vehicles move taken as design speed for geometric design.
• 15th percentile speed: used to determine minimum speed limit as major- highways.
• Delays Studies: A particular location in conjunction with running and journey speed, reasons & extent of
delays are determined.
• Fixed Delays: Delays at intersection, traffic signals, stop signs, railway crossings etc that exists due to fixed
roadway conditions and does not depend on traffic density.
• Operation Delays: Reflection of interacting effects of traffic like delays caused by parking, pedestrians,
crossings and turning of vehicles at uncontrolled intersections, vehicle volume in excess of capacity.
Traffic flow characteristics studies
Traffic Density: Number of vehicle occupying a given length of lane. Q=v*k where, q= traffic volume (Rate of
flow) v= average travel speed km/hr, k= average density veh/km.
Spacing & headway (space headway):
Time Headway: Corresponding time between passages of the frontal bumper of the successive vehicles as they pass
designated point.
O& D studies:
O & D studies of vehicular traffic determines their numbers, design & destination in each zone under study. The
data may also be the number of passengers in each vehicle, purpose of each trip, intermediate stops made & reasons
etc. O& D study gives information like actual direction of travel, selection of route & length of the trip.
Purpose of O & D study:

1. plan the road network and other facilities for vehicular traffic
2. Plan the schedule of different modes of transportation for the trip demand of commuters
3. To locate major route along the desire lines
4.To determine the amount of by-passable traffic that enters a town and then establishes the need to construct a by-
pass, preferential route determination
5.To develop trip generation and trip distribution models in transport planning process
6.To estimate future traffic by extrapolation of O-D Data plus socio economic study
7.To determine the extent to which the present highway system is adequate and to plan for new facilities and future
lines, location of terminals, location of major bridges
8.To access the adequacy of parking facilities and plan to future 9. To establish design standards
10.to locate new bridge as per traffic demand
11.to locate intermediate stops of public transportation
12.to locate terminals & to plan terminal facilities
Methods of O-D Survey:
# Roadside Interview Method,
# Registration Number Method,
#Tag or Sticker Method,
#Return Post Card / or Mail Return Method,
# Home Interview Method
# work spot interview method
• Presentation of O & D data:
• # desire line graphs # By pie charts.
# origin & destination tables are prepared showing number of trips between

Parking studies and accident studies and analysis
A car on an av. runs 400 hrs./yr. and for the rest of 8360hrs. is parked. Every car wants to park as near to
destination as possible. Hence the biggest demand is where The activities are concentrated or the highest congestion.
Types of Parking Surveys:
• Parking Space/Supply Inventory
• Park. Demand & Generation Studies: Different Methods-
i. By Cordon Counting ii. By counting Parked Vehicles ii. By Interview
 Parking Characteristics Study
 Parking Usage Study
 Truck Loading Study
• Special Parking Study
• On-street space inventory
• Off-street parking inventory
Traffic Studies Accident:
• Accident is defined as a phenomenon which may occur with or without the desire of human beings. In
traffic engineering accident is defined as a phenomenon which may occur with the combination of vehicular
traffic/ pedestrian etc
Objectives of Accident Studies:
i. Assess cause of accident and suggest preventive measures.
ii. Evaluate existing facilities & support new design/improvement
iii. Before & after studies to check effects of improvements
iv. Assess loss of accidents.

v. Define & identify high-accident locations
ACCIDENT DATA
 13 lakhas people Loss Life / year (World)
 3 thousand people/day (World)
Nepal
 Around 2000 People/year
 7 to 5 Person/day
Causes of accident:
1.Road users; - drivers, pedestrians, passengers
2.vehicles: - vehicle defects, brake of vehicles, speed
3.Road & it’s condition: -Road design, Road condition
4. Environmental Factors: Weather, rain, hot
5. Others factors: animal, A narrow strip, Ribbon development at road,
Primary Cause % of Accidents
• Human factor alone 65
• Human + Road 25
• Human + Vehicle 5
• Road Factor alone 2
• Vehicle Factor only 2
• Human + Road + Vehicle 1

100%
Reduce accident:
1.Planning: safety aspects & improvement schemes to reduce accidents. 2. Designs: - safe designs
3. Maintenance: To avoid accidents due to bad maintenance
4. traffic operations: - regulation & traffic management, control, regulate & manage traffic more efficiently,
introduce appropriate remedial measures.
Measures Preventing Accidents:
• # Engineering-safe design (SSD, R, Ew, OSD), safe construction & maintenance
• # Education: - education child, training professional drivers, 10+2 students, fresh drivers
• # Propaganda: - Poster campaign, news & press, documentary, films, slogans, radio broadcasting,
telecasting etc
Accident Inventory & Analysis:

i. General data- time, date, light condition & persons involved, classification of accident etc.
ii. Location – details, name & type of road, location (urban, rural), intersection, description & sketch, area
type (school, religious, entertainment)
iii. Vehicle details- vehicle identifications-license plate no., make and description, loading & vehicle defects
(brake, lights, steering, etc.)
iv. Nature/classification of accident-vehicle condition, details of collision, damages injuries, causalities etc.
v. Road/traffic/weather conditions-geom. details (curve, straight stretch etc
vi. Primary cause –describe primary & other causes
vii. Assessment of accident cost
vii. Type of insurance- comprehensive, or third party etc.
Definition: General area where 2 or more roads meet or cross, including the roadway & roadside facilities for traffic
movement within it- (AASHTO, 1984)
Conflicts at an intersection
• Conflicts at an intersection are different for
different types of intersection. Consider a typical
four-legged intersection as shown in figure.
Basic requirements of intersections

• Reduce number of conflict points
• Two separated (staggered) T
• -Reduce area of conflict
• Control relative speed
• Control high speeds
• -Provide protection for vehicles leaving or crossing the main traffic stream.
• -Coordinate design and traffic control.
• -Use the highest feasible crossing method
• Avoid multiple and compound merging and diverging maneuvers
• Separate conflict points

Type of intersections and configuration, design of intersections
Types of Intersections:
• -Intersections at grade
• -Grade Separated Intersection without ramps & Interchanges
Intersections at grade: All roads joined or cross the same level. They may be merging, diverging and crossing.
Various forms at grade are
Intersection Design
Tee
Y Skew Cross
Cross
Staggered Staggered Skewed

Multiple
Intersections with turning roadways
Rotary Intersection
Tee Y Cross Cross
Flared intersections
Tee Cross
Types of at-grade intersections Back
Types of grade-separation
1. Grade separation without interchanges
2. Grade separation with interchanges
Intersection Design
Intersection Design
Partial Clover Leaf Interchanges Full Clover Leaf interchanges

Full Clover Leaf interchanges
Back
More
Channelized and Un-channelized intersections
Channelization by introduction of islands in the intersection areas, reducing the conflict areas present in the un-
channelized intersections. Channelization of an intersection is provided to control any dangerous movement by the
driver which may cause unwanted accidents, to guide and regulate the traffic flow
Un-channelized intersections are the lowest class intersections, easiest in design, but complex in traffic operation and
with maximum conflict area. Obviously there are more accidents in such intersections, unless controls are applied.
Importance of road lighting, factors influencing night visibility,

• Lesser the strain on night driving.
• Avoid glare problem.
• Enable road users to see accurately carriage way and surroundings in darkness.
• Ensure comfort and confident driving.
• Improve traffic flow conditions (favorable headway and lateral placement).
• Indirect benefits like reduction of crime, feel of security and protection, extension of business hours after
sunset, improve aesthetic appearance of surrounding.
Factors influencing night visibility:
• Amount & distribution of light flux from the lamps
• Size of objects
• Brightness of objects
• Brightness of background
• Reflecting characteristics of pavement surfaces
• Glare on the eyes of the driver
• Time available to see an object.
Design of the lighting system
Types: -
i) Filament ii) Fluorescent iii) Sodium vapor iv) Mercury vapor
• Choice of light: choice of type, size and color of lamp depends on distribution of light flux on the pavement.
Consideration such as initial cost, life color rendering, wattage brightness, efficiency etc governs the choice
of light
• Spacing of Lighting
• Spacing’s = (lamp lumen* coefficient of utilization * Maintenance factor)/ (average flux* width of the road
pavement)
• Maintenance factor is usually 80%=0.80
• Usually mounting height= (6-10) m for traffic routes,
Mounting Height= (3-8) m for other street
Lateral Placement:
• Narrow pavement width light traffic only
• For wider roads with two or more traffic lanes
• For three or more lanes with central strip & heavy traffic condition
• For wider roads depending on the situation of opposite lighting system
Traffic projection and forecasting
• See pavement Design Chapter

4.1.8 Road Pavement Types of road pavements, flexible and rigid pavement, loads and other factors
controlling pavement, design methods for flexible pavements, design methods for rigid pavements, stress
due to load, temperature and sub-grade friction, functions of pavement structure, axle load, damaging
factor of axle loads, different types of pavement surface
• A stable layer constructed over the natural soil can be defined as a road pavement.
Function of different layers:
Sub Grade:
• It is the compacted natural earth and the top of it is called formation level.
• It is layer of natural soil prepare to receive the other layers of the pavement.
• Loads on the pavements are ultimately supported by the soil sub-grade and dispersed to the earth mass
below.
• Sub-grade should have the following properties: -
I) Strength
II) Drainage
III) Ease of compaction
IV) Permanency of compaction etc.
Sub- Base Course:
• Provides additional help in distributing the loads
• Layer of selected granular soil, stabilized soils or gravels, boulders, broken stones, bricks etc. are
• used to construct these layers.
• Main purpose of this layer is to permit the building of relatively thick pavement at a low cost.
• Usually provided on fine grained soil.
• To increase the structural support for the base and surface courses.

• To improve drainages.
• To eliminate frost heave.
Base Course
• Base course is the medium through which the stressed imposed are distributed uniformly to the underline
layers.
Surface Course or Wearing Course
• is the top course and is provided to get a smooth, abrasion resistance, dust free, reasonably water proof and
strong layer
• Superior quality of materials is used to construct this layer.
Flexible and rigid pavement

• Flexible pavements: The pavements which have negligible flexural strength in their structural action under
the loads are known as flexible pavements. The lower layer of flexible pavements reflects the deformations
up to the surface of the layer. So if there are undulations in sub-grade soil, flexible pavements also get
undulation in sub-grade soil, flexible pavements also get undulated.
• Rigid Pavements: The pavements which have worthy flexural strength are known as rigid pavements. The
rigid pavements are made of plain, reinforced or pre-stressed concrete. Rigid pavement structure consists of
a cement concrete slab, below which a granular sub-base or base course over the sub-grade soil. The rigid
pavements are normally analyzed and designed based on elastic theory assuming the pavement as on elastic
plate resisting over elastic or a viscous foundation. The plain cement concrete is expected to take up about
40Kg/cm2 flexural stresses.

Loads and other factors controlling pavement:
• Traffic and loading
• Environment
• Materials
• Failure criteria
Traffic and loading: the traffic and loading to be considered include axle loads, the number of load repetition, tyre
contact areas and vehicle speeds.
• Axle load and configuration- The different kinds of axle load configurations of vehicle in different countries.
Standard axle load also vary country to country.

Equivalence Factor: -
• In case the class mark of the axle load survey does not match with the above axle loads, 4 th power law may
be used for converting axle loads into equivalent standard axle loads using the following formulae
Single axle load
Equivalency factor = (axle load in kg/8160)4
Tandem axle load
Equivalency factor = (axle load in kg/14968)4
Contact Pressure: - As the depth of pavement increases the tyre pressure decreases and finally diminishes at a
specified depth. Therefore, the materials used in different layers are of varying quality. i.e. the quality of
materials in upper layer should be better as compared to lower layer. The intensity of tyre pressure under the
wheel is maximum as compared in between wheels. The ratio of contact pressure to tyre pressure is known as
rigidity factor. The numerical value of rigidity factor is one, less than one or greater than 1. Contact pressure=
Load on wheel/contact area or area of imprint.
• Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL): - it is a graphical method of determination of maximum wheel load
corresponding to pavement thickness with in specified limit. The pressure obtained at the centre of dual

wheels is in between the pressure obtained by the single load and two times load carried by any one wheel.
The analysis can be done by assuming load dispersion at angle of 45 0.
Let d be the clear gap between dual wheels, s be the spacing between the wheels and “a” be the radius of
circular contact area of each wheel. So, S=d+2a. Upto the depth of d/2 each wheel load (P) acts independently
and after this point the stress induced due to each load begins to overlap. At depth 2S or above, the stresses
induced are due to the effect of both wheels as the area of overlap is considerable. So the total stress due to the
dual wheels at any depth greater than 2S is considered 2P. Actually the stress induced due to 2P is slightly
greater than the stress due to the dual wheels.
• Repetition of loads: - The number of repetitions of loads cause plastic and elastic deformation.
• Design Life: - IRC 37-2000 proposes design life of pavements 15 years for national highway, 20 years for
expressways and 20-40 years for concrete pavements.
• Contact Area: - the contact pressure is greater than the tyre pressure for low pressure tyre, because the wall
of tyres is in compression and the sum of vertical forces due to wall and tyre pressure must be equal to the
force due to contact pressure; the contact pressure is smaller than the tyre pressure for high pressure tyres
because the wall of tyres is in tension. However, in pavement design the contact pressure is generally
assumed to be equal to the tyre pressure. Because heavier axle loads have higher tyre pressure and more
destructive effects on pavements, the uses of tyre pressure as the contact pressure is therefore on the safe
side
• Vehicle speeds: - Speed is directly related to duration of loading.

Environmental Factors (Climatic):
i. Rainfall ii Frost iii Temperature
Materials
i. sub-grade soil ii. Drainage ii. Pavement materials
4. Failure Criteria: The failure criteria for mechanistic-empirical methods are
Flexible pavement
 Fatigue cracking
 Rutting
 thermal cracking
Rigid Pavement
• Fatigue cracking
• Pumping or erosion
Axle load, damaging factor of axle loads
Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF)
• The vehicle damage factor (VDF) is a multiplier for converting the number of commercial vehicles of
different axle loads and axle configurations to the number of standard axle-load repetitions.
• It is defined as equivalent number of standard axles per commercial vehicle.

Vehicle distribution (LDF)
• A realistic assessment of distribution of commercial traffic by direction and by lane is necessary as it

directly affects the total equivalent standard axle load application used in the design. Until reliable data is
available, the following distribution may be assumed
• Single lane roads: Traffic tends to be more channelized on single roads than two lane roads and to allow for
this concentration of wheel load repetitions, the design should be based on total number of commercial
vehicles in both directions.
• Two-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 75 % of the commercial vehicles in both
directions.
• Four-lane single carriageway roads: The design should be based on 40 % of the total number of commercial
vehicles in both directions.
Design methods of flexible pavements
Theoretical methods
• Boussinesq’s theory
• Burmisters method
Semi- empirical / Empirical methods
• Tri-axle test method
• Group Index method
• CBR method
• Road note 29 method
• Road note 31 method
• AASHTO method
• Mc. Leod Method
• Asphalt Institute Method (AIM)
• IRC 37-2201
• DoR Guidelines
CBR (IRC Recommended)
• IRC has recommended CBR design chart with different curves A, B, C, D, E, F &G based on volume of
vehicles. For CBR design, CBR values of pavement layers are to be determined in the laboratory. Number
of commercial veh/day (3 tones laden weight) will have to be extrapolated to obtain design year volume.

A= p (1+ r) n+y
Where, A= Number of heavy vehicle per day for design. P= Number of last count per day r= Annual rate of
increase
n= design year, life period y= construction period
AASHTO
• The design procedure recommended by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials is based on the results of the extensive AASHTO test conducted in Ottawa, in the late of 1950s
early 1960s
SN=a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3
• a1, a2, a3 are layer coefficient for the surface, base and sub-base respectively.
• D1, D2, D3 are the thickness of the surface, base and sub-base respectively.
• m2 is the drainage coefficient of base course and m3 is the drainage coefficient of sub-base course.
• MR is the road bed soil resilient modulus
General design procedure
• The procedure for thickness design is usually started from the top, described below:
• Using E2 as MR determine from figure the structural number SN1, required to protect the base and compute
the thickness of layer 1 by

• Using E3 as MR determine from figure the structural number SN2 required protecting the sub-base and
computing the thickness of layer 2 by;
• Based on the roadbed soil resilient modulus M R, determine from figure the total structural number SN3
required and compute the thickness of layer 3 by;
Details of the Asphalt institute method of design of flexible pavements.
Design principles of asphalt institute method are based on following factors: -
• Basis for design and its criteria/Material characteristics
• Environmental considerations/Design charts
Design Procedure
1.Determine data: -
-traffic value, ESAL (EAL) - sub-grade resilient modulus - surface and base types
2. Determine design thickness for the specific conditions described by the determine data
3. Prepare stage construction design, if appropriate
4. Make an economic analysis of the various solutions arrived at for the design problems
5. Select final design
• Design steps
• Cumulative ESALs is calculated
• Design CBR is converted to sub-grade resilient modulus
MR (Mpa) =10.3 x CBR
MR (Psi) = 1500 x CBR
• From chart “full depth asphalt concrete” defines the total thickness of A/C corresponding to the ESAL and
M R.
• Obtained full thickness of A/C is converted into the different layers (sub base and base) of other materials
with given modulus of elasticity, using the ratio;
• t1, t2 = Thickness of layer 1 and 2 respectively
• E1, E2 =Modulus of elasticity of layer 1 and 2 respectively

Road notes 31
• Road note 31 methods is based on structural catalogues. The cells of the catalogue are defined by
ranges of traffic and sub-grade strength. It is important that the surfacing material should be
flexible and the granular road base should be of the highest quality, preferably GB 1. In traffic
classes T6, T7and T8 are only granular road base of type GB1 or GB2 should be used, GB3 is
acceptable in the lower traffic classes.
• Cumulative number of 82KN equivalent single axle over the design life (Ns) = estimated traffic at
base period * Growth factor (GF) * number of working days * no. of axles * vehicle damage
factor (VDF) * lateral displacement factor (LDF)

IRC37-2001
• The Indian Roads Congress vide IRC: 37-2001 has revised the guidelines for the Design of Flexible
Pavements, based on the concept of Cumulative Standard Axle Loads rather than the total number of all
commercial vehicles are done earlier.
The mixed commercial vehicles with different axle loads are to be converted in terms of the cumulative number of
standard axle load, Ns to cater for the design, using the equation:
where
A= Number of commercial vehicles per day when construction is completed considering the number of lanes
r= Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles
n= Design life of pavement, taken as 10 to 15 years
F= Vehicle damage factor
D= Lateral displacement factor

Design methods for rigid pavements
Westergaard’s Modulus of sub-grade Reaction (K):
• The modulus of sub –grade reaction, K is proportional to the displacement. The displacement level ∆ is
taken as 1.25 mm in calculating K. If p is the pressure sustained in N/mm2 by the rigid plate of diameter of
750mm at a deflection ∆=1.25 mm. The modulus of sub-grade reaction K is given by
• K= P/∆=p/ 1.25 N/mm3 (p= N/mm2)
• Temperature Gradient (∆t):
• The temperature gradient, ∆t is defined as the difference between temperature of the slab at top fiber &
temperature of the slab at bottom fiber divided by thickness of slab. i.e. ∆t= (Tt-Tb)/H where
• Tt= temperature (0c) at the top of the concrete slab layer.
• Tb= Temperature (Oc) at the bottom of the concrete slab layer.
• H= thickness of the concrete slab

Westergaard’s Analysis: (stresses induced to wheel Load)
• The rigid pavements are constructed of cement concrete which may or may not have reinforcement. These
pavements develop slab action & distribute the load over wider area on the underlying layer. The stresses in
the sub-grade below a rigid pavement are greatly reduced due to the load spreading capacity. The failure of
rigid pavements usually occurs by overstressing of the concrete & not by overstressing of the sub-grade.
The thickness determination is generally based on the calculation or the stress in the concrete.
• Radius of Relative Stiffness (l) = Where, E= Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete h= thickness of slab
µ= poisons ratio of cement concrete (0.12 to 0.15) K= Modulus of subgrade reaction
• As the pavement slab has a finite length & width, the intensity of maximum stress induced due to a wheel
load depends upon the location of the load depends upon the location of the road. The following are three
locations which are critical.
• Interior (2) Corner (3) Edge

• The position of wheels of the vehicles are not constant, these may be located at corner, edge or in between
both. Some of the researchers have given single empirical formula while some of them have given according
to position
• According to A.T. Gold back the stress due to corner load is given by Sc= 3P/h2 Where, Sc= stress due to
corner load (kg/cm^2) P= corner load assumed as a concentrated. h= thickness of slab (cm)
According to Westergaard’s the concrete slab is assumed to be homogeneous, thin elastic plate with sub-
grade reaction being vertical & proportional to the deflection. The critical stress at different locations is
given by: -
• Interior Loading, Si= 0.316P/h2 [4 log (l/b) +1.069]
• Edge loading, Se =0.572P/ h2[4log(l/b) +0.359]
• Corner loading Sc= 3P/ h2[1- (a*2^0.5/l)]
• Where,
• P= wheel load (Kg) h= slab thickness (cm) a= radius of wheel load distribution (cm)
• b.= radius of resisting section (cm), l= radius of relative stiffness (cm)
• b.= radius of equivalent distribution of pressure at the bottom slab.
• b.=a when a is greater or equal to 1.724h b= [1.6a 2+h2] 0.5-0.675h, when a<1.724h
Stress due to load, temperature and sub-grade friction
• Stress due to temperature:
• Due to variation in temperature, expansion as well as contraction occurs in cement concrete. During the day
the top of the pavement slab gets heated under sunlight when the bottom of the slab still remains relatively
cooler. As the temperature of day increase, the differences in temperature also increase.
• As a result of this, slab to warp or bend. Warping action of slab is resisted by self-weight of slab & warping
stresses are developed. In the night, the lower face of slab gets heated & upper surface cooled then reverse
warping stress is developed causing in reversal of stress.
• During summer season as the mean temperature of the slab increase, the concrete pavement expands
towards the expansion joints. Due to frictional resistance at the interface compressive stress is developed at
the bottom of the slabs as it tends to contacts causing tensile stress at the bottom due to frictional resistance
again appearing the movement of the slab.
• Temperature thus tends to produce two types of stresses in a concrete pavement. These are:
• (i). Warping stresses & (ii) Frictional stresses
• Combination of stresses:
The stresses developed due to different reasons should occur at a time or separately. For the design the combination
which are most critical combination. The following combinations are considered to provide critical combinations.: -
During Summer: -
Critical combination of stress = (load stress warping stress-frictional stress), at edge region.
During winter
• Critical stress combination= {load stress+ warping stress+ frictional stress} at edge region
Stress Due to warping

-
Curling stresses in finite slab

1. Interior stress
The total stress in the x direction can be expressed
as:

Details of the IRC method of Design of rigid pavements for highways
• The following are the steps recommended by the IRC (:58-1988 (91)) guidelines for the design of concrete
pavements.
• Design Parameters
# Design wheel load # Mean daily & annual temperature cycles # Modulus of sub-grade reaction
# Flexural strength of cement concrete.
• Calculation of Stresses
# Wheel load stress at edge region is calculated for the designed slab thickness as per Westergaard’s
analysis.
# Temperature stress at edge region is calculated as per Westergaard’s analysis.
# Wheel load stress at corner region is calculated as per Westergaard’s analysis.
Design Steps for Slab Thickness
# Width of slab is defined based on the joint spacing & lane width.
# Length of slab is based on the spacing of the contraction joint.
# A trial thickness of the concrete slab is assumed for calculating stresses.
#Critical temperature stress at the edge is evaluated from equation & the available residual strength of concrete is
found out.
# Critical load stress at the edge is calculated from equation & the factor of safety is calculated. The factor of safety
in this case could be defined as ratio of residual stress/ load stress. The factor of safety should either be equal to one
or slightly more than that. If the factor of safety is less than 1 or far in excess of 1 the design steps; -
# A trial thickness of the concrete slab is assumed for calculating stresses.

#Critical temperature stress at the edge is evaluated from equation & the available residual strength of concrete is
found out are repeated by changing the slab thickness.
• Adequacy of the corner stress is checked & the slab thickness from structural point of view is finalized.
• Final design slab thickness is adjusted for the traffic intensity or classification at the end of design life &
using the adjustment value from table to obtain the final adjusted slab thickness.
Spacing of joints:
• # Maximum expansion joint spacing may be restricted (50-60) m when the pavement is constructed in
winter, however spacing recommended for 25 mm wide expansion joints is 140 m for all slab thickness.
• # Maximum contraction joint spacing may be kept at 4.5 m in unreinforced slabs of all thickness. In case of
reinforced slabs, the contraction joint spacing may be 13m for 15 cm thick slab with steel reinforcement of
2.7 kg/m2 & 14 m for 20 cm thick slabs with steel reinforcement of 3.80 kg/ m2.
• Design of Dowel Bars/Design of Tie Bars/Design of Reinforcement

Types of Concrete Pavements
• Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements
• Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements
• Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavements
• Pre- stressed Concrete Pavements
Joints in cement concrete Pavement
• Expansion joint: To minimize the effect of temperature increase
• Contraction joint: To minimize the effect of temperature decrease.
• Warping Joint: To minimize the effect of daily temperature.
• Construction Joints: To stop the work by the end of day or mechanical problems
• Longitudinal joints: When the width of pavement is more than 5m.

Different types of pavement surface
• See in Topic Road Construction

4.1.9 Road Construction Technology Activities and techniques used in road construction, tools,
equipment and plants used in road construction, preparation of road subgrade, excavation, filling,
compaction, moisture density relationship, field compaction control, soil stabilization, Construction of
asphalt concrete layers including prime coat, tack coat, and seal coat, construction procedure of
penetration macadam, construction procedure of bituminous bound macadam, construction procedure of
plain cement concrete pavements
Definition: - Road Construction Technology is the branch of highway/Road engineering which deals with all kinds of
activities and technology or operations for changing existing ground to the designed shape, slope and to provide all
necessary facilities for smooth, safe and efficient traffic operation. It also includes the reconstruction of existing
roads. Any technology for civil construction depends upon the available resources which are available equipment,
plant and human resources. The construction technology differs as per the adoption of the resources.
A) Labor Intensive Works:
1)Takes lots of time to complete the road project. 2)Quality of work may not be achieved to the required degree. 3)
Small projects labor intensive work can be adopted. 4) In developing countries like Nepal most of contractor
proffered 5) Cheap labor and expensive equipment.
B) Equipment or Capital Intensive Works.
1)Take short time period to complete the road project. 2)Construction work can be completed with high degree of
quality construction. 3)Useful in the big project
Activities and Techniques used in road construction
TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND PLANTS USED IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION
• Construction tool, equipment and plants used in road construction activities can be classified as follows.
A. TOOLS -Hand shovel; Chisel; Peak; Spade; Hand rammer; Brushes; Trowel; Wheel barrow etc.
B. EQUIPMENT

Excavation:
It is the process of cutting or loosening and removing earth including rock from its original position, transporting
and dumping it as a fill or spoil bank. The excavation or cutting may be needed in soil, soft rock or even in hard
rock before preparing the sub grade. The selection of excavation equipment and cost analysis is made based on the
stiffness (requiring effort) of the materials to be excavated.
The design elements in highway excavation work in road construction are:
-Depth, -stability of foundation, - stability of slopes, - accommodation of road side drain.
Stages of excavation work in road construction are:
1. Excavation or cutting 2. Grading
3. Compaction moisture and dry density control at field for sub-grade.
Fill soil stabilization
Whenever it is required to raise the sub-grade of a highway above the existing ground level it becomes necessary to
construction embankments (filling). The grade line may be raised due to any of the following reasons.
• To keep the sub-grade above the high ground water-table.
• To prevent damage of pavement due to surface water and capillary water.
• To maintain the designed standards of the highway with respect to the vertical alignment.
The design elements in highway embankments are:
• Height, fill-material, settlement, stability of foundation, stability of slopes.
Stages of filing (embankment) work in road construction are:
1. Laying layer by layer 2. Grading 3. Compaction- moisture and dry density control at field.
Stabilization
-Stone pitching (dry) -Stone pitching (grouted) - Bio-engineering -Benching
-Soil- lime /bitumen stabilization -Soil- cement
PAVEMENT TYPES
1) Earthen and Gravel Roads 2) Water Bound Macadam (WBM)
Soil Stabilized Roads: -
i) Mechanical Soil stabilization ii) Soil Cement Stabilization
Iii) Soil Lime Stabilization IV) Soil Bitumen Stabilization
Bituminous or Black Top Roads: -
i) Prime/Tack Coat, Seal Coat ii) Otta- Seal iii) Grouted or Penetration Macadam iv) Surface Dressing
Premixes: -
1) Bituminous Bound Macadam 2) Bituminous Carpet 3) Mastic Asphalt 4) Sheet Asphalt or

Rolled Asphalt 5) Bituminous (Asphalt) Concrete
Cement Concrete Roads
1)Cement Grouted Layers 2) Rolled Concrete Layers 3) Cement concrete Slabs

Soil Stabilized Roads
In developing countries complete network of road system is limited due to finances available to build road. This
compels to construct low cost roads which could be achieved by stage construction. The construction cost can be
considerably lowered by selecting local materials including local soils. In general, if the stability of the soil is not
adequate for supporting wheel loads the properties are improved by soil stabilization techniques. Thus principle of
soil stabilized road construction is the effective utilization of local soil and other suitable stabilizing agents with low
cost.
Mechanics of Soil Stabilization
It means the improvement of the stability or bearing power of the soil by the use of controlled compaction,
proportioning and the addition of the suitable admixture or stabilizer. It deals with physical, physio-chemical and
chemical methods to make the stabilized soil serve as a pavement component material.
Basic principle in Soil Stabilization is
• Evaluating the properties of available soil
• Deciding the effective and economical method of stabilization (depending upon the lacking property in the
soil)
• Designing the stabilized soil mix for intended stability and durability values.
• Adequate compaction of the stabilized soil layer.
• After stabilization it may result in any one or more of the following changes:
• Increase in stability, change in physical properties like density, swelling, change in physical character.
• Change in chemical properties.
• Retaining the desired minimum strength by water proofing
Based on the above properties the various techniques of soil stabilization may be grouped as follows:
1) Proportioning Technique-Locally available soils and aggregate mixed in suitable proportion.
2) Cement agents -Adding Portland cement, lime, bituminous materials.
3) Modifying agent -Portland cement, lime for highly clayey soil.
4) Water proofing agents -Bituminous materials
5) Water repelling agents -Organic compound (vinsol resin, resinous materials.
6) Water retaining agents -Calcium chloride for non-cohesive soil
7) Heat treatment - Heat treated soil
8) Chemicals - Several chemicals < 0.5 % by weight of soil.
In all above methods, adequate compaction of the stabilized layer is most essential.
Investigation for Soil Stabilized Road
• Various field and laboratory investigations are needed for soil stabilized road.
• Investigation of route and alignment
• Soil survey and field identification of soils
• Survey for the availability of materials and transportation
• Laboratory tests on soils

• Soil classifications.
Samples of available soils from route and from the vicinity of alignment are taken. Field identification to assess the
quality of soil on taken samples, laboratory tests for physical, chemical and engineering properties of soil
classification tests such as LL, PL and mechanical analysis and chemical tests such as organic matter content, total
soluble salts, sulphates and PH value are carried out. Tests for engineering properties are stability, soundness,
strength, abrasion on aggregate and determination of swelling properties.
Soil Stabilization Methods
1. Mechanical Soil Stabilization 2. Soil - Cement Stabilization
3. Soil - Lime Stabilization 4. Soil - Bitumen Stabilization
Mechanical Soil Stabilization
Basic principle: - i) Proportioning ii) Compaction
Granular material with fewer fines when combined with soil increases stability. Stability of fine grain size can be
increased by mixing suitable proportion of granular material. Desirable properties of stabilized materials are like
for other pavement materials and are:
a) Strength b) Incompressibility – less change in volume c) Stability with even in variation of moisture content
d) Good drainage – moisture not retained in the layer e) Less frost susceptibility f) Ease in compaction.
Prime Coat/Tack Coat
Prime coat is applied on the relatively pervious layer for example on crushed stone base (CSB) whereas tack coat is
applied on relatively impervious layer for example on existing bituminous layer with low viscosity cutback. Main
function of the prime coat/tack coat is to seal the pores; water proof the underlying layer and to develop interface
condition for bonding.
• Material: - The material for Prime coat/tack coats either MC 30 or MC 70 cutback or bitumen emulsion.
• Equipment: - Mechanical broom or hand brushes; Air compressor, Bitumen storage tank with heating
devices; Bitumen distributor; sample trays or manually for small projects.
Construction steps

1) Preparation and intensive broom /cleaning of underlying layer (on crushed stone base or existing
bituminous surface) to bring mosaic surface for better penetration of spread cutback.
2) Spreading of cutback on the approved underlying layer as per the specified rate of application.
3) Curing until the surface is dried.
Quality control
1) Testing of the cutback material for its suitability.
2) Checking of cutback temperature before application.
3) Checking the rate of the application of the cut back by tray and deep test
Bituminous Concrete (Asphalt concrete)
It is the dense graded premixed bituminous mixture consisting of carefully proportioned mixture of dry coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate, mineral filler and bitumen. When properly designed with appropriate proportion of
ingredients, it will provide a surfacing of exceptional durable and capable in carrying the heaviest traffic. It is the
highest quality of construction among the group of black top pavements.
Material: -
• Bitumen: - Normally 80/100 grade Straight run bitumen
• Coarse aggregate: - The coarse aggregate should be entirely crushed and should be clean, strong, hard and
durable with following properties
• Los Angeles Abrasion value (LAA) - 30% (for

wearing) 35 % (for binder) (Max)
• Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) - 30% (Max)
• Flakiness Index (FI) - 25% (Max)
• Stripping Value - 25% (Max)
• Soundness - 12% (Max)
Fine aggregate: - Fine aggregate should be free from clay, silt, organic and other deleterious matter and shall be non
– plastic. It shall consist of entirely crushed rock produced from stone having a Los Angeles Abrasion of not more
than 30.
Mineral Filler: - Mineral filler shall consist of finely ground particles of lime stone, hydrated lime, ordinary
Portland cement or other non – plastic mineral material. It shall be thoroughly dry and free from lumps. At least 75
% (by weight) shall pass a 0.075 mm sieve and 100 % shall pass a 0.425 mm sieve.
• Equipment Requirement
• Storage Tank with Bitumen Heating Device
• Mechanical Broom or Hand Brushes
• Hand tools like shovel, wheel barrow, rakes etc.
• Air Compressor
• Bitumen Distributor / Tippers
• Hot mix plant / Mechanical paver
• Pneumatic Roller/smooth wheel roller
• Edge cutter and core cutter machines

Construction Steps
• Intensive cleaning of underlying layer by labors with the help mechanical broom or by hand brushes before
asphalt concrete laying activities.
• Cleaning of underlying layer by air compressor before the commencement of asphalt concrete laying
activities.
• Preparation of necessary equipment at laying site such as bitumen distributor, mechanical paver, smooth
wheel roller, pneumatic roller and laying team in the ready position to receive the asphalt concrete mix and
start spreading.
• Transportation of the AC mix by tipper. Mix is covered for the preservation of temperature and
contamination.
• Application of tack coat before laying asphalt concrete mix.
• Delivery of AC mix on the hopper of the mechanical paver to start asphalt concrete laying.
• Checking of temperature of mix before delivering, during laying and before compaction. The temperature
difference should not be greater than 10 0C in each activity.
• During the laying of the asphalt concrete mix, a good coordination between the equipment and labors is
very important and shall be maintained.
• Checking the loose thickness manually.
• Follow up level corrections by skilled labors.
• Finishing the asphalt concrete layer before compaction by skilled and unskilled labor team for the level
corrections at joints while laying on next lane.
• Initial compaction of the asphalt concrete layer by smooth wheel roller.
• Follow up compaction by pneumatic roller. The rolling shall be continued until the voids measured in the
completed layer are within the appropriate range.
• Average density after compaction shall not be less than 98 %. No individual density shall be below 95 % of
the average of the laboratory specimens
• Cutting the edge of previously laid mix with edge cutter for laying mix on next lane. The edge cut should be
perfectly vertical.
• Core sample of the previously laid mix is taken out with the help of core cutter for further necessary
laboratory tests
Quality Control
• Checking of the conditions of the equipment
• Checking of temperature of binder and AC mix
• Conduction of tests on binder at least penetration, viscosity and ductility or availability of lab. Facility at
site
• Conduction of tests on aggregates at least Gradation, LAA, ACV, FI, and Stripping Value.
• Conduction of tests on AC mix such as binder extraction, gradation of the aggregate after extraction,
density, Marshall stability, Marshall flow, core analysis and voids
Sheet Asphalt: - It is a carpet of sand – bitumen mix without coarse aggregate. Materials used are sand, filler and
bitumen. This mix is durable, stable, dense and impervious.

Mastic asphalt: - It is the mixture of bitumen, fine aggregates, and filler in suitable proportion, it is voidless and
impermeable mass. Ingredients similar to asphalt concrete but the properties are different. The mastic asphalt when
cooled results in hard, stable and durable layer which is suitable to withstand heavy traffic. It is mostly used on
bridge deck slab. It is prepared by heating aggregate, filler and bitumen to 2000C to 2250C for 5 hours. At 2000C
mastic asphalt has a consistence of flow but on cooling to Atmospheric temperature it hardens to semi solid or solid
state. It can be laid and spread without compaction and usually constructed with 2.5 to 5 cm. thick.
Grouted or penetration Macadam
Depending upon the quantity of bitumen spread penetration macadam is classified as full grout when the bitumen
penetrates to the full depth and semi grout when bitumen penetrates up to about half the depth. Full grout is
adopted in regions of heavy rain fall whereas semi grout on average rain fall and traffic. Usual thickness of the layer
is 7.5 cm for full grout and 5 cm for semi grout.
Material: -
• Aggregate: - Clean, strong, hard and durable with following properties
• Los Angeles Abrasion value (LAA) - 40% (Max)
Gradation of aggregates is chosen depending upon thickness of layer. Maximum size of coarse aggregate and key
aggregate for 7.5 cm thick is 63 mm down and 25 mm down respectively and for 5 cm thick 50 mm down and 20 mm
down respectively.
Equipment Requirement
• Storage Tank with Bitumen Heating Device
• Mechanical Broom or Hand Brushes
• Air Compressor
• Bitumen Distributor

• Aggregate spreader.
• Pneumatic Roller/smooth wheel roller
Construction Steps
• Preparation and intensive cleaning of the existing surface by broom and air compressor.
• Spreading of coarse aggregate as per the specified rate of application.
• Dry rolling of the spread coarse aggregate at least with 10-ton roller.
• Spreading of bitumen as per specified rate of application.
• Spreading of key aggregate as per specified rate of application.
• Rolling of key aggregate at least with 10-ton roller.
• Application of seal coat and Opening to traffic
Quality Control
• Checking of the conditions of the equipment’s, Checking of temperature of binder
• Tests conduction on binder at least penetration, viscosity and ductility or availability of laboratory facility
at site, Conduction of tests on stone chipping at least Gradation, LAA, AIV, FI, Stripping Value or
availability of laboratory facilities, checking of rate of application of binder and stone chipping by placing
rectangular tray during spreading of binder and stone chipping.
Bituminous Bound Macadam
The bituminous bound macadam is the premix which is laid in the finished thickness of 5 or 7.5 cm and the size of
aggregate depends on thickness of layer and the maximum size is limited to 37 mm in 7.5 mm thick premix. The
layer of this type of the pavement is open graded premix and used as base course. If laid as surface course at least
seal coat is necessary.
Material: -
• Aggregate: - Clean, strong, hard and durable with following properties
• Gradation and quantities of aggregates should be as per the specification depending upon thickness of layer
and traffic volume
- Storage Tank with Bitumen Heating Device -Mechanical Broom or Hand Brushes -Air Compressor -
Bitumen Distributor
• Hot mix plant or manual mixing (for small area coverage)
• Mechanical paver or manual -Pneumatic Roller/smooth wheel roller
Construction Steps
• Preparation and intensive cleaning of the existing surface by broom and air compressor.
• Application of prime coat/tack coat.
• Production of hot mix either in hot mix plant or manual mixing on trays.
• Spreading of mix with the help of mechanical paver or manually.
• Rolling of laid mix with 10-ton roller.
• Application of seal coat / Opening to traffic.
Quality Control
• Checking of the conditions of the equipment
• Checking of temperature of binder
• Tests conduction on binder at least penetration, viscosity and ductility or availability of laboratory facility
at site
• Conduction of tests on aggregates at least Gradation, LAA, AIV, FI, Stripping Value or availability of
laboratory facilities
Precaution
• Equipment condition should be in perfect running condition before starting
• Excellent coordination between the labors, equipment and supervisor should be maintained perfectly
Cement concrete pavement
• Construction of cement concrete pavement consists of construction of pavement itself and design/placement
of joints. In general cement pavement construction can be executed either of the following methods: -
i) Cement grouted layer: - On open graded compacted aggregate (18 to 25 mm) cement sand slurry mix of
(1:1.5:2.5) is spread over the compacted aggregate to fill up the voids between the aggregates.
ii) Rolled concrete layer: - Hard concrete is prepared with appropriate ratio of aggregate, sand, cement and
least water for less plasticity and is spread over the sub-grade to the required thickness of the layer and
then directly compacted by the roller.
iii) Cement concrete slabs: - Concrete slabs are constructed usually by alternate bay method or continuous
bay method depending upon the traffic to be carried out on the constructed part or not
Material: -
-Ordinary Portland cement -Coarse aggregate with the following properties: -
-Crushing value< 30% -Impact value< 30% -LAA< 35%
-Fine aggregate - Free from deleterious material either natural or crushed sand.
Equipment Requirement Concrete mixture, batching device, wheel barrow, needle vibrators, float, straight
edge, belt, brushes, edging tools, concrete pavers etc.
Construction Steps
-Preparation of sub-grade or sub-base -Placing of forms
-Batching of ingredient materials and mixing -Transportation and placing of concrete
-Compaction and finishing -Curing of cement concrete
Quality Control
-Making of concrete cubes for strength test. -Proper curing covering with jute bags.
Need for joints
• Concrete pavements are subjected to volumetric changes produced by temperature variations, shrinkage
during setting and changes in moisture content.
• If a long slab is built, it is bound to crack at close intervals because of such factors.
• A pavement reasonably free from cracks can only be built if it is divided into small slabs by interposing
joints.
• These joints will then ensure that the stresses developed due to expansion, contraction and warping of the
slab are within reasonably limits
Types of joints
• Expansion joints 2. Warping joints 3. Longitudinal joints 4. Contraction joints 5.

Construction joints
Expansion joints
-Expansion joints are intended to provide space in the pavement for expansion of the slabs.
-Expansion takes place when the temperature of the slab rises above the value when it was laid. It is
normally a transverse joint.
Expansion joints
Rigid Pavement Design 61
The joints filler material should have the following properties:
-Compressibility
- Elasticity
- Durability
Types of joint filler material are:
-Soft wood
-Water-proof fiber board
- Cork or Cork bound with Bitumen.

Material: -
Bitumen: - Normally 80/100 grade Straight run bitumen
Aggregate: - Clean, strong, hard and durable with following properties:
• Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) - 30% (Max)
• Water Absorption - 1 % (Max)
-Storage Tank with Bitumen Heating Device -Air Compressor
-Mechanical Broom or Hand Brushes -Bitumen Distributor -Aggregate or Stone Chip
Spreader -Pneumatic Roller
Construction Steps
1) Preparation and cleaning of the existing surface by mechanical broom or hand brushes and air
compressor
2) Spreading of binder as per specified rate of application
3) Spreading of stone chipping as per specified rate of application
4) Rolling with the help of pneumatic roller of first or final coat at least four passes (SBSD)
5) Opening to traffic with controlled lower speed (< 10 Kmph) for one or two weeks
6) Broom and clean the loose chips

7) Application of binder and stone chipping as per specified rate of application for second coat
8) Rolling with the help of pneumatic roller of second or final coat at least four passes (DBSD)
10) Broom and clean the loose chips
11) Application of binder and stone chipping as per specified rate of application for third coat
12) Rolling with the help of pneumatic roller of third or final coat at least four passes (TBSD)
Quality Control
1) Checking of the conditions of the equipment 2) Checking of temperature of binder
3) Checking of dust content in stone chipping
4) Tests conduction on binder at least penetration, viscosity and ductility or availability of laboratory
facility at site
5) Conduction of tests on stone chipping at least Gradation, LAA, ACV or AIV, FI, WA, Stripping Value or
availability of laboratory facilities
6) Checking of rate of application of binder and stone chipping by placing rectangular tray during
spreading.

4.1.10 Highway Maintenance, Repair and Rehabilitation Classification of maintenance activities for on
road and off road structures, inspection, prioritization and planning of maintenance operations,
evaluation of pavement distress and pavement condition, types and methods of pavement repair, regular,
recurrent, periodic maintenance, types of overlay and strengthening of existing pavements
Highway Maintenance
General
Road maintenance is to preserve and keep the serviceable conditions of Highway/Road as normal as
possible and as best as practicable. If the maintenance works are not done at all or done faulty or the
pavement structure is inadequate for present day traffic and loading, the useful life may be drastically
reduced. And it causes the waste of huge investment of funds and sincere efforts of the engineers. So the
maintenance is an important activity which helps in providing better service facilities, longer life and better
appearance. The maintenance cost totally depends on the highway/road location, design and quality of
construction.
On poor designed roads the cost of maintenance may be higher than the initial cost. So at the time of
alignment studies proper consideration should be given to minimize the maintenance cost and the oncoming
probable maintenance problems such as: -
(i) Drainage problems (ii) Soil and Geological conditions (iii) Directness of route (IV) Landslide
problems etc.
Classification of Road Maintenance
Depending upon the various types of failure and remedial road maintenance operations, it can be broadly divided
into
i) Road Maintenance II) Road Side Maintenance
Road Maintenance: - It concerns all maintenance works on the road way (carriage way and shoulder) and on all
structures within and immediately adjacent to the road way such as side ditches, culverts, causeways, bridges etc.
Road Side Maintenance: - It concerns all maintenance works on structures and surfaces above and below the road
having direct active and/or passive influence on the road. This comprises culverts, protection works, and retaining
walls, area drains, cut slopes, fill slopes, (unstable) natural slopes, river protection works and vegetation structures
In general, the following types are classified as road maintenance
• Routine Maintenance: - Maintenance operations of localized nature required continually on any road
whatever its engineering characteristics or traffic volume may be. The works are generally done by labor
and can be contracted out (petty contractors). It covers the activities such as grass and bush cutting,
grading and reshaping of unpaved shoulders, clearing and cleaning of ditches and culverts, road sign
maintenance, repair of road side structures etc.
• Recurrent Maintenance: - Maintenance operations of localized nature and of limited extent carried out at
more or less regular intervals of six months to two years with a frequency that depends on traffic volume.
The works in general need to be done by the use of minor equipment. Activities for paved roads within this
category are such as sealing cracks, local surface treatment, repair of depressions, holes and ruts, pothole
patching, edge repair, local reconstruction etc.
• Preventive Maintenance: - Maintenance operation of road surface, geological and geotechnical nature to
protect the road way. The activities within this category are sealing of raveling/stripping and meandering
cracking, sealing of longitudinal and transverse cracks, laying of net on the slopes, trimming of loose
materials including stones on slope, installation of subsurface drains, the construction of the masonry
retaining wall/cascade/check dam/gabion wall, river training structures, river bank protection, slope
protection with bio-engineering etc.

• Periodic Maintenance: - Maintenance operations of large extent required only at intervals of several years.
Examples of activities within this category for a paved road are such as resealing (surface treatment, slurry
sealing), resurfacing (thin overlay).
• Emergency Maintenance: - Emergency maintenance can be divided into two types depending upon the
nature of work as follows
a) Urgent emergency maintenance works needed for reopening the road or construction of a temporary
diversion to allow the traffic to pass around the obstruction such as slides, road wash-outs. Urgent
maintenance activities are removal of debris and other obstacles, placement of warning signs and diversion
works etc.
b) Reinstatement of the road after the critical period is over (in general after the rainy season) by
reconstruction or repair of the pavement, the structures and the drainage as constructed before. In
addition, construction of new river training structures and the road side structures as the case may be.
Difference between Maintenance, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
The works performed to upkeep a pavement in its as constructed condition is considering as maintenance,
whereas measures improving the structural strength of the pavement is considered as rehabilitation. The
upgrading of road elements as well as partial change in horizontal and vertical alignment for better route
including strengthening of pavement structure is considered as reconstruction
Pavement condition survey, Prioritization and planning of maintenance operation
After the construction of roads, our main aim is to get reliable service at minimum cost for the whole life.
This is achieved by inspection of roads, planning and prioritizing the defects for their maintenance. During
inspection a lot of defects are found which must be maintained. The maintenance of these defects may or
may not be possible at a time due to limited fund. So these defects are arranged according to priorities.
The maintenance of roads should be done according to priorities list without the interference of political
parties. But sometimes by the interference of political leaders listed priorities are not followed and these
create practical problems and finally expected service of roads is affected: -
• The factors to be considered in the planning of maintenance system are:
• Minimum acceptable serviceability standards for the maintenance of different categories or roads.
• Field survey for the evaluation of maintenance requirements.
• Various factors influencing the maintenance needs such as sub-grade soil, drainage, climate, traffic etc.
• Estimation of rate of deterioration of the pavement under the prevailing set of condition.
• Type and extent of maintenance requirements. / Availability of funds.
• Maintenance cost, availability of materials, manpower and equipment.
• Need based allocation for optimum utilization of inputs and fixing maintenance priorities
• Types of Failure and its Causes
• 1) Flexible Pavement Failure 2) Rigid Pavement Failure
• Flexible Pavement Failure
• Usually flexible pavement fails due to localized depression or settlements. Localized depression normally is
followed with heaving in the vicinity. The failure of any one or more component of the pavement structure
develops the waves and corrugations on the pavement surfaces or longitudinal ruts and shoving. Pavement
unevenness may itself be considered as a failure, when there are excessive undulations, ageing and oxidation
and fatigue effects (i.e. exposed to atmosphere), deteriorate the pavement component

Failure of sub-grade: - Flexible pavement failure due to excessive deformation in sub-grade soil can be noticed in the
form of excessive undulation or waves and corrugation in the pavement surface i.e. reflects in the surface, in the
form of undulation or waves. Lateral shoving of the pavement near the edge along the wheel path of the vehicles is
also due to insufficient bearing capacity or a shear failure in sub-grade soil. Major causes of failure of sub-grade
may be due to
i) Inadequate stability, this may arise due inherent weakness of the soil itself or due to excessive moisture or due to
improper compaction.
ii) Excessive stress application, this may arise due to the inadequate pavement thickness or loads in excess of design
value. Deformation increases with increase in number of load repetitions.
Failure of sub-base/base course: - Causes of failure of sub-base or base course may be due to: - I) Inadequate
stability or strength, this may happen due to poor mix proportions, inadequate thickness, soft varieties of
aggregates, improper compaction or improper quality control during construction.
ii) Loss of binding action, this may happen due to internal aggregate disturbance, loosening of materials.
iii) Loss of sub-base/base materials, this may have occurred due to the pot holes’ development or surface course not
provided.
iv) Inadequate wearing course, this may be due to inadequate thickness, damage by rain, frost action or heavier
traffic.
v) Use of inferior materials and crushing of sub-base/base course materials; this may occur due to expose to the
atmosphere and weather cycle.
vi) Lack of lateral confinement for the granular sub-base/base course.
Failure of wearing course: - Main causes of failure wearing course are may be due to
i) Improper mix design, this may be due to wrong binder content and use of aggregate not conformed gradation and
etc. ii) Volatilization and oxidation, this make the layer brittle which develop cracks causing infiltration of rain
water weakening the underlying layer.
Typical Flexible Pavement failures
Description of failure Causes
i)Alligator (map) cracking - due to fatigue, localized weakness in base course would cause such cracking
ii) Consolidation of pavement layers - formation ruts due to consolidation, repeated load cause cumulative
deformation as consolidation, deformation or may be due to sub-grade or other failure.
iii) Shear failure -due to inherent weakness of the paving mixes, shear resistance being low, inadequate stability or
excessive heavy loading, upheaval of pavement followed with depression.
iv)Longitudinal cracking -causes of longitudinal cracks are due to frost action, differential volume changes in sub-
grade, settlements of fill or sliding of side slope.
v) Frost heaving -Frost of underlying layer.

vi) Lack of binding with lower course - Slipping occurs when the surface is not bound with underlying
layers. This cause opening and loss of pavement materials forming pot holes.
vii) Reflection cracking - Mostly this case occurs in case of overlay of bituminous layer over existing
cement concrete pavement.
viii) Formation of waves and corrugation - Defective rolling, poor sub-grade condition, poor soil or
inadequate stability, poor gradation of mix, compaction temperature, unstable underlying layers.
ix) Edge failure - Edge failure occurs due to crossing of the vehicles on single lane road. While
crossing vehicles pass pavement edge with high strength materials to shoulder with less strength materials
x)Rise or depression of Shoulders-Raise of shoulder due to uncontrolled over growing grass and deposit of debris
along shoulder. Depression of shoulder normally occurs due to erosion during rainy season and when vehicles pass
on single lane road using part of the shoulder.
Rigid Pavement Failure
Failures of cement concrete pavements (Rigid Pavement) are recognized mainly by the formation of structural
cracking. The failures are mainly due to two factors.
1)Deficiency of pavement materials
2) Structural inadequacy of the pavement system.
Following are the main cause, which would give rise to the different defects or failures of cement concrete
pavements.
• Soft aggregate - disintegration of cement concrete
• Poor workmanship in joints - Formation of cracks
• Poor joint filler and sealer material -Spalling of joints, poor riding surface
• Pure surface finish. - Slippery surface.
• Improper and insufficient curing - Formation of shrinkage cracks.

The ingress of surface water through different cracks makes further progressive failure.
Inadequate sub-grade support or pavement thickness could be a major cause of developing structural
cracking in pavements.
• Inadequate pavement thickness.
• Inadequate sub-grade support and poor sub-grade soil.
• Incorrect spacing of joints
Above would give rise to the failures of the following types:
• Cracking of slab corners
• Cracking of pavements longitudinally.
• Settlements of slab.
• Widening of joints
• Mud pumping.
Typical Rigid Pavement Failure
Following are some typical and basic types of failures in rigid pavement.
• Scaling of cement concrete – Deficiency in the mix or presence of chemical impurities. Excessive vibration
makes mortar on top of the layer which gets abraded exposing aggregates of the mix.
• Shrinkage cracks.
• Spalling of joints – Develops extensive cracks due to placing of the filler material at angle.
• Warping crack – Cracks appears normally due to improper joint design and if proper reinforcement is not
provided at the longitudinal and transverse joints.
• Mud pumping – It occurred when soil slurry ejects out through the joints and cracks of cement concrete
pavement caused during the downward movement of slab under the wheel load.
Remedial Measures for the Maintenance of the Road
A) Maintenance of Earthen Roads
Usual damages caused in the earthen road invites requirement of frequent maintenance which are the formation of
dust in dry weather and formation of longitudinal and cross ruts along the road. Remedial measures are:
i) Frequent sprinkling of water, use of dust palliatives, spreading of moist soil.
ii) Reshaping of the road way during and after monsoon.
iii) A surface treatment or provide a stabilized layer on the top.
Maintenance of Gravel and Water Bound Macadam Roads
Usual damages of the surface are due to fast moving vehicles. Due to the formation of dust during dry
season and mud formation during rainy seasons binding material of the pavement layers get loose and
deteriorate soon developing ruts and potholes on the road surfaces. Remedial measures are:
i) Spreading of thin layer of moist soil binder periodically usually after monsoon.
ii) Use of dust palliatives. iii) Providing a bituminous surface dressing over WBM.
iv) Patch repair works on rut and potholes. v) Resurfacing after the period of useful life.

Maintenance of Bituminous Surface
Depending upon the types of failures following remedial measures are taken for the maintenance of the
pavement surface and shoulder distress.
i) Patch repair (ii) Pot holes’ repair (iii) Surface treatment (iv) Slurry sealing
(v) Repair of depression and settlement of pavement and shoulder
(vi) Repair of pavement edge and shoulder distress (vii) Resurfacing.
Maintenance of cement concrete roads
Few maintenance works are required on well-designed concrete roads. Formation of cracks is main defects, they are
hair cracks, shrinkage cracks, warping cracks and structural cracks mostly appeared on the edge and corner region
of the pavement slabs. Remedial measures
1) To seal off the pavement cracks from ingress of water. For this dirt, sand and the other loose particles in the
cracks are thoroughly cleaned using a sharp tool, stiff brush and air compressor. Kerosene is applied on the cleaned
cracks for better bond. The cracks are then filled with suitable grade bituminous sealing compound heated to liquid
consistency, 3 mm above the level and layer of sand is spread over it to protect the sealer temporarily.
2) First investigate the type of failure and then remedial measure is taken like providing a flexible/rigid pavement or
reconstruction of new flexible/rigid pavement.
Maintenance of joints: - Joints are the weakest part in cement concrete pavements. In summer it expands where as
in winter it contracts. After contraction usually joints get opened and cracks are formed in older seal material. For
this remedial works opened up joints are cleaned with brush or air compressor and refilled or replaced the filler and
sealer materials before start of the rain, depending on the degree of damage
Pavement Condition Evaluation
It is to assess the existing conditions and make decision to what extent the pavement fulfils the intended
requirements so that the maintenance and strengthening job can be planned and planned in appropriate time.
It covers a thorough study of various factors such as
• Sub – grade support
• Pavement history, pavement materials, quality of construction, pavement type, pavement design and
specifications
• Traffic loading (present) /Environmental conditions
The methods of pavement evaluation
• Structural evaluation of pavements: This is to evaluate load carrying capacity of the pavement which can be
done by Benkelman beam test (for deflection measurement)
• Evaluation of pavement surface condition: This is to evaluate the surface distress index (SDI), pavement
roughness index (RI) and skid resistance.
Strengthening of Existing Pavements
For the successful maintenance of pavements, it is essential that they have adequate stability to withstand the design
traffic under prevailing climatic and sub-grade conditions. If the pavement has to support increased wheel loads and
more load repetitions, it can be achieved by diverting the traffic to other route or strengthen the existing pavement
by over laying additional pavement layer

Types of overlay
Existing Overlay
I Cement concrete Cement concrete
III Bituminous layer Cement concrete
II Cement concrete Bituminous layer
IV Bituminous layer Bituminous layer
The choice of overlay depends upon thickness of overlay, availability of local material, wheel loads, cost involvement
etc.
Design of Overlay
• In the process of overlay design first evaluation of existing pavement is done and then overlay thickness is
determined by using Benkelman beam deflection method.
Procedure Benkelman Beam
1. The stretch of road length to be evaluated is first surveyed to assess the general condition of the pavement
with respect to the ruts, cracks and undulations.
2. The pavement stretches are classified and grouped into different classes (of length not less than 500m) such as
good, fair and poor for the Benkelman Beam studies.
3. The loading points on the pavement for deflection measurements are located along the wheel paths, on a line
0.9m from the pavement edge in the case of pavements of total width more than 3.5m; the distance from the
edge is reduced to 0.6m on narrow pavements.
4. A minimum of 10 deflection observations may be taken on each of the selected stretch of pavement.
5. The truck is driven slowly parallel to the edge and stopped such that the left side rear duel wheel is centrally
placed over the first point for deflection measurement.
6. The probe end of the Benkelman Beam is inserted between the gap of the dual wheel and is placed exactly
over the deflection observation point.


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Transportation Engineering Loksewa

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Transportation Engineering

LOK SEWA COURSE

Prepared by: Associate Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C.

4.1 Highway engineering

P a g e 1 | 111 Prepared By: Associate Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C.

The control system consists of vehicle control and flow control.

Major steps of planning process

 Data analysis and model development

 System analysis and evaluation

 To plan road network

 To fix the priorities for the road development

 To plan for future requirements

 To plan for future improvements

 To work out financing system

 To decide the priority of road segment

Terai Range- 2-hour walk reached road edge

 Present worth method

 Future worth method

 Net present value method

 B/C ratio method

• Quarries and borrow pit

P a g e 3 | 111 Prepared By: Associate Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C.

• Plants and wildlife compare operation

Historical development of road construction

 2017 B.S. –Road sector (construction, planning, maintenance)

 2027 B.S. DoR was established

P a g e 4 | 111 Prepared By: Associate Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C.

Classification of road in Nepal

District Roads and

P a g e 5 | 111 Prepared By: Associate Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C.

RURAL ROAD CLASSIFICATION

Road Categories Hills Terai

Ruling Minimum Ruling Minimum

P a g e 6 | 111 Prepared By: Associate Professor Mohan Dhoja K.C.

4). the village transport network

Road survey and quantity calculation

 Traffic or road user studies

 Engineering or Technical studies

 Population & its distribution pattern

 Trend of population growth.

 Agricultural & industrial products of the area

 Possibility of industrial & agricultural development

 Existing facilities with regard to communication, education, health etc.

 Per capita income

• Source of income & estimated revenue.

• Future trends in financial aspects

Traffic or road user studies

• Traffic volume, Annual average daily traffic, etc

• Origin & destination studies

• Traffic flow patterns

• Accidents, their cost analysis & causes

• Future trend in traffic volume & pattern

Engineering or Technical studies

• Location & classification of existing roads

• Traffic studies- origin & destination studies

• Study & planning on drainage system, construction & maintenance of roads.

Long –term planning

• Economic activity model

• Land use model

• Trip generation model

• Trip distribution model

• Model split model.

• Traffic assignment model.

At equilibrium, Ph= wb/2…...1 OR, p/w=b/2h…………2 from 1 &2, v2/gR=b/2h