Electromagnetic Origin of Wave Optics :

I Light reveals its wave nature in going through obstacles.

I The Huygens-Fresnel construction provides a way of
understanding these phenomena using the concept of
secondary wavelets.
I How does the EM theory of light waves explain this?
I This can be understood via Kirchho's Integral Theorem.
I For simplicity Kirchho considered monochromatic scalar
waves
Ẽ = Ẽ−i ωt
satisfying the scalar wave equation
1 ∂2E
∇2 E =
c 2 ∂t 2
I Ẽ, the spatial part of the disturbance, obeys the Helmholtz
equation
∇2 Ẽ + k 2 Ẽ = 0
Kirchho Integral Theorem :

I To solve the Helmholtz equation we use the corresponding

Green's function.
I For two scalar functions U1 and U2 , Green's theorem is
ˆ ‰
U1 ∇2 U2 − U2 ∇2 U1 dV (U1 ∇U2 − U2 ∇U1 ) · d ~S


=
v s
I If U1 and U2 are solutions of the Helmholtz equation
∇2 U1 + k 2 U1 = 0
∇2 U2 + k 2 U2 = 0
Kirchho Integral Theorem :
˛
(U1 ∇U2 − U2 ∇U1 ) · d ~S = 0
s
I Let U1 = Ẽ and let U2 = e ikr
r where r is measured from a
point P. Both these choices satisfy the Helmholtz eq.
I There is a singularity of U2 at the point P where r = 0.
I So we surround it by a small sphere S 0 in order to exclude P
from the region V .
I Hence we have
‰   ikr  ‰ 
e ikr
 ikr 
e e e ikr
 
Ẽ∇ − ∇Ẽ · d S +
~ Ẽ∇ − ∇Ẽ · d ~S
s r r S0 r r
=0
Kirchho Integral Theorem :

I On the small sphere S 0 the unit normal n̂ points towards the

origin at P (n̂ = −r̂ ) and
 ikr 
e 1 ik ikr 1 ik ikr
   
∇ =− 2 − e r̂ = 2 − e n̂
r r r r r

I In terms of solid angle dS = r 2 d Ω measured at P, the

integral over S 0 becomes

‰ !
e ikr d Ω
∂ Ẽ
Ẽ − ikr Ẽ + r
S 0 ∂r
 
where ∇Ẽ.n̂ = − ∂∂Ẽr
Kirchho Integral Theorem :

I As the sphere surrounding P shrinks r → 0 on S 0 and

e ikr → 1. Because of continuity of the electric eld its value at
any point on S 0 approaches ẼP .
  
I So S 0 Ẽ − ikr Ẽ + r ∂∂Ẽr e ikr d Ω tends to ẼP S 0 d Ω = 4π ẼP .


I Thus
‰ ikr ‰  ikr 
1 e e

ẼP = ∇Ẽ · d S − Ẽ∇
~ · dS
~ (1)
4π S r S r
which is known as Kirchho Integral Theorem.
Fresnel-Kirchho Diraction Formula :
I We shall now apply the theorem to the specic instance of a
spherical wave originating at a point source s .

I The disturbance has the form

ε0 i (k ρ−ωt )
Ẽ (ρ, t ) = e
ρ

I Hence
ε0 ik ρ
Ẽ(ρ) = e
ρ
Fresnel-Kirchho Diraction Formula :
I Substituting this into Eq. 1
‰ ikr
1 e ∂ ε0 ik ρ
 
ẼP = e cos (n̂, ρ̂) dS
4π S r ∂ρ ρ
‰
ε0 ik ρ ∂ e ikr
  
− e cos (n̂, r̂ ) dS
S ρ ∂r r
 ikr   ikr 
where ∇ e r = r̂ ∂∂r e r and ∇E (ρ) = ρ̂ ∂E ∂ρ
I Now ∂ e ik ρ ik 1 ik
   
= e ik ρ − 2 ≈ e ik ρ
∂ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ
 ikr 
∂ e ik 1 ik
 
= e ikr − 2 ≈ e ikr
∂r r r r r
for ρ, r  λ. So we arrive at the Fresnel-Kirchho diraction
formula
˛
e ik (ρ+r ) cos (n̂, r̂ ) − cos (n̂, ρ̂)
 
ε0
ẼP = −i dS
λ ρr 2
I Here 21 (cos (n̂, r̂ ) − cos (n̂, ρ̂)) is known as the obliquity
Nature of Polarized Light :
I Light is transverse EM wave.
I For a given direction of propagation of light ~k , the electric
eld vector E~ is conned to a plane perpendicular to ~k .
I For ease of discussion we can resolve E
~ into two mutually
perpendicular components.
I Thus we can consider two harmonic waves with mutually
perpendicular disturbances moving through the same region of
space in the same direction.
I The relative amplitudes and phases of these two waves will
determine the nature of polarization.
I For a wave travelling in the z-direction,
E~ (z , t ) = E~ x (z , t ) + E~ y (z , t ) where
E~ x (z , t ) = îEox cos (kz − ωt )
E~ y (z , t ) = ĵEoy cos (kz − ωt + )
Linear polarization :
I E
~ (z , t ) = E
~ x (z , t ) + E
~ y (z , t )

E~ x (z , t ) = îEox cos (kz − ωt )

E~ y (z , t ) = ĵEoy cos (kz − ωt + )
I If  is zero or an integral multiple of ±2π the waves are said to
be in phase and we have
E~ îEox + ĵEoy cos (kz − ω t )
 
=
I The resultant is linearly polarized : Light for which the
direction of the electric eld is constant although its
magnitude and sign vary in time.
I The electric eld or optical disturbance resides in what is
known as the plane of vibration-contains both E~ and ~k .
I If  is an odd integer multiple of ±π the two waves are 180◦
out of phase and
E~ îEox − ĵEoy cos (kz − ω t )
 
=
I This is also linearly polarized.
Linear Polarization :
Circular Polarization :
I When both constituent waves have equal amplitudes and their
relative phase dierence  = − π2 + 2mπ where
m = 0, ±1, ±2....
E~ x (z , t ) = îE0 cos (kz − ωt )
E~ y (z , t ) = ĵE0 sin (kz − ωt )

I The consequent wave

E~ = E0 î cos (kz − ωt ) + ĵ sin (kz − ωt )

h i

I The scalar amplitude is E0 (a constant). The direction of E~ is

time varying and is not restricted to a single plane.
Elliptical Polarization :
I Both linear and circular light may be considered to be special
cases of elliptically polarized light.
I The resultant electric vector E ~ will rotate and change its
magnitude .
I The endpoint of E ~ will trace out an ellipse.

Ex = E0x cos (kz − ωt )

Ey = E0y cos (kz − ωt + )
Ey
= cos (kz − ω t ) cos  − sin (kz − ω t ) sin 
E0y
Therefore
Ey Ex
− cos  = − sin (kz − ω t ) sin 
E0y E0x
Now
2 # 21
Ex
" 
sin (kz − ω t ) = 1 −
E0x
Elliptical Polarization :

Ey Ex 2
Ex
  "  2 #
− cos  = 1 − sin2 
E0y E0x E0x
Ey Ex Ex Ey
 2  2   
+ −2 cos  = sin2 
E0y E0x E0x Eoy
I This is the equation of an ellipse making an angle α with the
(Ex , Ey ) ccordinate system such that
2E0x Eoy cos 
tan 2α =
E02x − E02y
I If the principal axes of the ellipse were aligned with the
coordinate axes i.e. α = 0 or equivalently
 = ± π2 , ± 32π , ± 52π .... we have
Ey2 Ex2
+ =1
E02y E02x
Elliptical Polarization :
I If E0y = E0x = E0 this can be reduced to

Ey2 + Ex2 = E02

which is a circle.
I If  is an even multiple of π

E0y
Ey E
E0x x
=

and
I If  is an odd multiple of π

E0y
Ey E
E0x x
=−

These are both straight lines and hence we have linear light.
Elliptical Polarization :
Double Refraction :
I In 1669 Bartholinus came upon a optical phenomenon in
calcite which he called double refraction.
I Calcite samples can be split forming smooth surfaces known as
cleavage planes.
I Cleavage planes are dependent on the atomic conguration and
if one cuts a sample so that each surface is a cleavage plane,
its form will be related to the basic arrangement of its atoms.
I Such a specimen is referred to as cleavage form.
I In the case of calcite it is a rhombohedron with each face a
parallelogram.
Double Refraction :
I If we send a narrow beam of natural light into a calcite crystal
normal to a cleavage plane it will split and emerge as two
parallel beams.
I To see the eect we need only to place a black dot on a piece
of paper and cover it with a calcite rhomb.
I The image will now consist of two gray dots (black when they
overlap).
I Rotating the crystal will cause one of the dots to remain
stationary while the other appears to move in a circle following
the motion of the crystal.
I The rays forming the xed dot appears to have passed through
a glass plate-they are known as ordinary rays or o-rays.
I The rays coming from the other dot are known as
extraordinary rays or e-rays.
I The ordinary and extraordinary images are linearly polarised
and the two states are orthogonal.
Double Refraction :
Origin of Double Refraction

I As in calcite, many crystalline solids whose atoms are arranged

in some sort of repititive array are optically anisotropic.
I Light propagates through a transparent substance by exciting
the atomic electrons within the medium.
I If the crystal's lattice atoms are not suciently symmetrically
arrayed the binding forces on the electrons will be anisotropic.
I The speed of the wave and therefore the index of refraction is
determined by the dierence between the frequency of the E~
eld and the natural frequency of the atoms.
I An anisotropy in the binding force will be manifest in an
anisotropy in the refractive index.
I A material which displays two dierent indices of refraction is
said to be birefringent.
Origin of Double Refraction
Calcite

I Let us consider a typical birefringent crystal ofCaCO3 :

calcite.
I Calcite crystal has a 3-fold-symmetry axis of symmetry and
this is designated as the optic axis.
I The large birefringence arises from the fact that carbonate
groups are all in planes normal to the optic axis. The behavior
of their electrons is markedly dierent when E~ is either in or
normal to those planes.
Origin of Double Refraction
Anisotropic media :
I In order to understand birefringence we need to explore
electrodynamics of anisotropic media.
I For a class of common media the constitutive relations
D~ = D~ (E ) and B~ = B~ (H ) are linear.
I The familiar relations D~ = E~ and B ~ = µH
~ are valid for
isotropic media.
I In an anisotropic medium the reduced symmetry leads to a
more general relationship Dα = αβ Eβ
Dx = xx Ex + xy Ey + xz Ez
Dy = yx Ex + yy Ey + yz Ez
Dz = zx Ex + zy Ey + zz Ez

I A similar anisotropy may also occur for the magnetic elds but
this anisotropy is much less important for transparent
materials. Since we are interested in optics we will ignore this
and keep on using B ~ = µH~.
Anisotropic media :
In a medium we = 12 E~ · D
~ and wm = 1 B
2 ·H
~ ~
The Maxwell's equations in source free medium leads to the
familiar Poynting theorem
~ · E~ ×H ~ ×E~ ·H~ −E ~ ×H
     
∇ ~ = ∇ ~ · ∇ ~

∂B ~ · ∂D
!
~ ~
= − ·H
~ −E
∂t ∂t

For energy conservation we must have ∇ ~ · ~S + ∂ w = 0

∂t
Now ∂∂wtm = 12 ∂∂Bt · H
~ + 1B~ · ∂H = ∂B · H~.
~ ~ ~
2 ∂t ∂t
But ∂∂wte = E~ · ∂∂Dt imposes the constraint
~

1 ∂E
 
∂
Eα αβ Eβ = Eα αβ β
∂t 2 ∂t
Symmetry of the dielectric tensor:

1 ∂E
 
∂
Eα αβ Eβ = Eα αβ β
∂t 2 ∂t

αβ Ėα Eβ + αβ Eα Ėβ = 2αβ Eα Ėβ

αβ Ėα Eβ = αβ Eα Ėβ

βα Ėβ Eα = αβ Eα Ėβ

Since the above equation has to be true for all E~ we must have
αβ = βα
Propagation of EM waves in anisotropic medium :
I Maxwell's equations in a source free material medium

~ ·D
∇ ~ =0
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0

~ + ∂B = 0
~
~ ×E
∇
∂t
~ − D =0
∂ ~
~ ×H
∇
∂t
I Let

D~ = D~ 0 e i (~k ·~r −ωt )

B~ = B~ 0 e i (~k ·~r −ωt )
E~ = E~ 0 e i (~k ·~r −ωt )
H~ = H~ 0 e i (~k ·~r −ωt )
Propagation of EM waves in anisotropic medium :
I The propagation vector
~k = ω n ŝ = ω ŝ
c vp
where vp = nc is the phase velocity. ŝ is the unit vector in the
direction of phase propagation.
I From Maxwell's equations we have
ŝ · D~ = 0
ŝ · B~ = 0
~k × E
~ = ωB
~
or n
B~ = ŝ × E~
c
and
~k × H
~ = −ω D
~
or n
D~ = − ŝ × H~
c
Propagation of EM waves in anisotropic medium :
I From the above equations

Therefore
n n2
D~ = − ŝ × B~ = − 2 ŝ × ŝ × E~
 
µc µc
n ~
2
E ŝ ŝ E
h  i
= − · ~
µc 2
n2 ~
= E⊥
µc 2
E~ ⊥ is the projection of E~ perpendicular to ŝ and hence in the
direction of D~.
Propagation of EM waves in anisotropic medium :
I The electric and magnetic energy densities
1 n  n
we = E~ · D~ = − E~ · ŝ × H~ = ŝ · ~S

2 2c 2c
1~ ~ 1 n  ~ ~ n ~
wm = B · H = ŝ × E · H = ŝ · S
2 2c 2c
where the Poynting vector ~S = E~ × H
~ . Here we see that
we = wm .
n n
we + wm = w = ŝ · ~S = ŝ · t̂ S


c c
where t̂ is the unit Poynting vector. Now the phase velocity
vp = nc and the speed of energy ow or the ray velocity
vr = wS .
I Therefore we have

vp = vr ŝ · t̂ = vr cos α


Propagation of EM waves in anisotropic medium :
I We have
n2 h ~
D~ = E ŝ ŝ E
 i
− · ~
µc 2
I Using components of the  tensor along principal axes
n2 h
k Ek = Dk = E s ŝ E
 i
k − k · ~
µc 2
n2 sk ŝ · E~
 

Ek = 2
n − µc 2k 
X n2 sk2 ŝ · E ~
sk Ek =
X

k k
n2 − µc 2 k
So either ŝ · E~ = 0 or
n2 sk2
1=
X

k
n2 − µc 2 k
There are many ways of manipulating and rewriting this
Fresnel's equation :
n2 sk2
sk2 = 0
X X
−
k
n2 − µc 2 k k
X µc 2 k s 2
k =0
k
n 2 − µc 2 
k

sk2
c − 1 =0
X
2
k n2 µk
X s2
k =0
k
v 2 − v2
p k
where vk = √1 .
µ Or we may write

sx2 sy2 sz2

+ + =0
vp − vx
2 2 vp − vy
2 2 vp − vz2
2
Fresnel's equation :

sx2 sy2 sz2

+ + =0
vp2 − vx2 vp2 − vy2 vp2 − vz2
This is a quadratic equation for vp2 which has two real roots.
Hence for each phase propagation direction ŝ there are two
dierent speeds of propagation of light.
For a given ŝ and vp we can determine the ratio Ex : Ey : Ez
from
n2 sk ŝ · E~ vk2 sk ŝ · E~
   

Ek = 2 =
n − µc 2 k vk2 − vp2
Since the ratios are real, this means that these elds that travel
with a denite speed are plane polarized.
In a given direction, two dierent plane polarized rays travel
with denite (and in general dierent) speeds.
A Geometric Construction :

I We have

n2  ~
D~ = E ŝ ŝ E
 
− · ~
c 2µ | {z }
E~ ⊥
n 4 2 

D2 = E − ŝ · E
2

~
c 4 µ2
and
n 2 2  ~ 2
 
E~ · D~ = E − ŝ · E
c 2µ
So we have
D2 n2
=
E~ · D~ c 2µ
A Geometric Construction :
I Now
E~ · D~ = w
hence
Dx2 Dy2 Dz2
+ + =w (2)
x y z
This represents a ellipsoid in Dx − Dy − Dz space. Now

D~ · ŝ = 0
sx Dx + sy Dy + sz Dz = 0 (3)
represents a plane. Intersection of Eq. 2 and Eq. 3 gives an
ellipse.
I The major and minor axis of the ellipse is given by the extrema
of Dx2 + Dy2 + Dz2 .
A Geometric Construction :

I To calculate the extrema we shall use Lagrange multiplier

technique
Dx2 Dy2 Dz2
!
F = Dx +Dy +Dz +2λ1 (sx Dx + sy Dy + sz Dz )+λ2
2 2 2
+ +
x y z

~ F = 0 =⇒
I ∇D

Dx
Dx + λ1 sx + λ2 =0 (4)
x
D
Dy + λ1 sy + λ2 y = 0 (5)
y
D
Dz + λ1 sz + λ2 z = 0 (6)
z
A Geometric Construction :
I Eq. 4×Dx +Eq. 5×Dy + Eq. 6×Dz

D2
D 2 + λ2 w = 0 =⇒ λ2 = −
w
I Eq. 4×sx +Eq. 5×sy + Eq. 6×sz

λ1 + λ2 ŝ · E
~ = 0 =⇒ λ1 = − ŝ · E
   
~ λ2

I Subsituting λ1 and λ2 into Eqs. 4, 5, 6 we get

D~ = −λ1 ŝ − λ2 E~
D 2 h~
E − ŝ ŝ · E~
 i
=
w
D 2 h~
E − ŝ ŝ · E
 i
= ~
E~ · D~
n2 h ~
= 2 E − ŝ ŝ · E
 i
~
cµ
A Geometric Construction :

I Hence the major and the minor axes of the ellipse give us the
two D
~ s for em waves which propagate in the direction of ŝ as
travelling waves with denite phase velocity.
I These two directions of D
~ s are perpendicular to each other.
~  = n w = 1 w , the length of the axes are
I Since D
  q q
c µ vp µ
inversely proportional to the corresponding phase velocities.
The optic axes :
I Let x > y > z
I Consider a ŝ in the x − z plane.
I The ellipse will have one of its axes along y and its length
√
y w .
√ √
I The length of the other axis will change from x w to z w
as ŝ rotates from the z direction to the x direction.
I There is an intermediate direction where the length of the two
axes coincide - so that the ellipse become a circle.
I By symmetry, there are two such directions for ŝ .
I When light propagates along either of these two directions, D ~
can be in any direction perpendicular to ŝ , and all polarizations
propagate with the same speed.
I These two special directions are called the two optic axes.
I Crystals with three unequal i s are thus called biaxial
I If (say) z is an axis of symmetry, then x = y 6= z .
I In this case, the two optic axes coincide with the axis of
symmetry.
I Such crystals are called uniaxial.
Light propagation in Uniaxial crystals :
I The Fresnel equation
sx2 sy2 sz2
+ + =0
vp2 − vx2 vp2 − vy2 vp2 − vz2
can be rewritten as the quadratic equation
s vp2 − vy2 vp2 − vz2 +sy2 vp2 − vz2 vp2 − vx2 +sz2 vp2 − vx2 vp2 − vy2
2
=0







x
I For uniaxial crystals vz 6= vx = vy . Let vz = ve and
vx = vy = vo .Then
vp2 − vo2 vp2 − ve2 sx2 + sy2 + vP2 − vo2 sz2 = 0






I Let ŝ make an angle of ϑ with the z axis then

vp2 − vo2 vp2 − vo2 cos2 ϑ − ve2 sin2 ϑ = 0

For any ŝ the two speeds are

2
vp0 = vo2 (7)
or 2
vp00 = vo2 cos2 ϑ + ve2 sin2 ϑ (8)
Ordinary and Extraordinary Rays :

I Thus one of the two waves that correspond to any particular

wave-normal direction is an ordinary wave, with a velocity
independent of the direction of propagation.
I The other an extraordinary wave with velocity depending on
the angle between the direction of wave normal and the optic
axis.
I The two velocities are only equal when ϑ = 0 i.e., the wave
normal is in the direction of the optic axis.
I When vo > ve the ordinary wave travels faster than
extraordinary wave : positive uniaxial crystal (e.g. quartz).
I If vo < ve the ordinary wave travels more slowly than
extraordinary wave :negative uniaxial crystal (e.g. felspar).
Ordinary and Extraordinary Rays :
I The directions of vibration may be found with the help of
ellipsoid of wave normals which now has two of its principal
axes equal.
I The plane containing the wave normal ŝ and the optic axis OZ
is called the principal plane-the ellipsoid is symmterical about
this plane.
ŝ z

D~ 00
O
D~ 0
Ordinary and Extraordinary Rays :

I It follows that the elliptical section through O by the plane

perpendicular to ŝ is symmetrical about the principal plane and
therefore the principal axes of the ellipse are perpendicular and
parallel to the principal plane.
I The semiaxis perpendicular to the principal plane is equal to
the radius of the equatorial circle of the ellipsoid i.e., it is
inversely proportional to the velocity vo of the ordinary wave.
I It is seen that the vector D ~ 0 of the ordinary wave vibrates at
right angles to the principal plane the vector of the
extraordinary wave D ~ 00 is in this plane.
Double Refraction :
I Consider a plane wave incident from vacuum on a plane
surface Σ of an anisotropic medium.
I It will give rise to a transmitted and a reected eld.
I Let ŝ be the unit wave normal of the incident wave and ŝ 0 that
of the transmitted wave.
I The eld vectors of theincident wave and of the  transmitted
waves are functions of t − ~rc·ŝ and t − ~rv·ŝ0 respectively.
0

I The continuity of the eld across the boundary demands that

for any point ~r on the plane Σ and for all times t
~r · ŝ ~r · ŝ 0
   
t− = t− 0
c v
ŝ ŝ
 0 
~r · − =0
v 0 c
Double Refraction :
I Hence we have
ŝ 0 ŝ
 
− k n̂
v0 c
which tells us that the incident wave, the transmitted wave
and the normal lie on the same plane: the rst law of
refraction is valid also for anisotropic crystals.
I This also gives
ŝ 0 × n̂ ŝ × n̂
=
v0 c
and we arrive at Snell's law
sin ϑ0 sin ϑ
=
v 0 c
I Since the speed v depends on ŝ the immediate consequences
0 0

of this equation may be dicult to determine.

I However since there are two possible speeds for each ŝ 0 it is
easy to see that there will be two transmitted (refracted) rays.
Double Refraction :
I The permissible wave normals ŝ 0 may be determined as follows
I with any point O on Σ as origin we plot vectors in all
directions ŝ 0 , each of length v10 .
I the locus of the end points is a two-sheeted surface which
diers from the normal surface in that each radius vector is of
length v10 instead of v 0 .
I this surface is called the inverse surface of wave normals.

Q 00 vŝ 00
00

Q0 ŝ 0
v0

P ŝ
c
Crystal
Σ
O Vaccuum
Nicol Prism :
I A very useful polarizing device which is made from a calcite
crystal, and derives its name from its inventor.
I The nicol prism is made in such a way that it removes one of
the two refracted rays by total reection, as is illustrated.

I First a crystal about 3 times as long as it is wide is taken and

the ends cut down from 71◦ in the principal section to a more
acute angle of 68◦ .
I The crystal is then cut apart along the plane A'D'
perpendicular to both the principal section and the end faces.
Nicol Prism :
I The two cut surfaces are ground and polished optically at and
then cemented together with Canada balsam. Canada balsam
is used because it is a clear transparent substance with an
index of refraction about midway between the index of the O
and E rays.
I Optically the balsam is denser than the calcite for the E ray
and less dense for the O ray.
I The E ray therefore will be refracted into the balsam and on
through the calcite crystal, whereas the O ray for large angles
of incidence will be totally reected.
I The critical angle of the O ray at the rst calcite to balsam
surface is about 69° and corresponds to a limiting angle SMS0
in Fig. 24M of about 14°.
I At greater angles than this, some of the O ray will be
transmitted. This means that a nicol should not be used in
light which is highly convergent or divergent.
Phase Retardation Plates :
Quarter Wave Plates :

I A phase retardation plate is a device which exploits the

dierence in the speed of propagation of the O ray and the E
ray in an anisotropic medium to indroduce an extra phase
dierence between components of E~ in an EM wave.
I The most common such devices are those that introduce a
phase dierence of either π2 or π .
I The former is known as a quarter-wave plate, or λ4 plate.
I Such plates are usually made of thin sheets of split mica,
although they can be of quartz cut parallel to the optic axis.
I The thickness is adjusted so as to introduce a 90◦ phase
change between the O and E vibrations.
I When a quarter-wave plate is oriented so that the direction of
polarization of the O and the E rays make an angle of 45° with
the plane of the incident polarized light, the emerging light is
circularly polarized.
I A circularly polarised light incident on a λ4 plate emerges as
plane polarised.
Phase Retardation Plates :
Half Wave Plates :

I A phase retardation plate which introduces a phase dierence

of 180° between the components is called a half-wave plate.
I This alters the direction of polarisation by an angle 2ϑ, where
ϑ is the angle between the incident vibrations and the principal
section.
I This can also be used to change the handedness of circularly
polarised light.
Phase Retardation Plates :
Analysis of Polarised Light:

I In certain instruments where it is desired to compare two

adjacent elds of light polarized at a certain angle with each
other, half the eld is covered with a half-wave plate.
I If one has a beam of light that is completely polarized, linearly,
elliptically, or circularly, it will appear to the eye no dierent
from ordinary unpolarized light.
I To determine its character and vibration an analyzer, in the
form of a nicol or Polaroid, is used in conjunction with either a
quarter-wave plate or some form of compensator.
I For many purposes a quarter-wave plate is adequate, and the
compensator need be used only where precise measurements of
elliptical polarization are required.
Babinet Compensator :

I Frequently in the study of the optical phenomena a crystal

plate of variable thickness is useful in producing or analyzing
elliptically polarized light.
I Such a plate, with faces cut parallel to the optic axis, was rst
made by Babinet and is called a Babinet compensator.
I It consists of two wedge-shaped prisms of quartz cut at a very
small angle as shown in Fig.
Babinet Compensator :
I The optic axes are parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to
the two refracting edges.
I If plane-polarized light is incident normally on the compensator
with the plane of vibration at some arbitrary angle ϑ to the
optic axis, it will be broken up into two components. The E
component, parallel to the optic axis in the rst crystal, travels
slower (since the compensator is made of quartz) than the O
component until it reaches the second crystal.
I At this point the E vibration becomes the O vibration since it
is now perpendicular to the axis. At the same point the O
vibration from the rst crystal becomes the E vibration in the
second.
I In other words, the two vibrations exchange velocities in
passing from one prism to the other. The eect is such that
one prism tends to cancel the eect of the other.
I Along the center at C, where both paths are equal, the
cancellation is complete and the eect is that of a plate of
zero thickness.
Babinet Compensator :

I On each side of C one vibration will be behind or ahead of the

other because of the dierent path lengths.
I Thus the eect is that of a plate the thickness of which is zero
along the centerline and varies linearly in both directions from
this line.
I The chief disadvantage of a Babinet compensator is that a
specied plate thickness or a certain desired retardation is
conned to a narrow region along the plate parallel to the
refracting edges of the prisms.
Analysis of Circular Polarisation :

I To illustrate the use of the quarter-wave plate, suppose, for

example, it is placed in a beam of circularly polarized light.
I Regardless of the orientation of the optic axis, the circular
vibration is equivalent to two linear and mutually perpendicular
ones along the slow and fast axes, 90◦ out of phase with each
other.
I Upon emerging from the plate these two are in phase and
recombine to give plane-polarized light vibrating at 45◦ with
the axes of the plate.
I The plane of the emergent light depends on the direction of
rotation of the incident circularly polarized light.
I In either of the possible cases it can be completely
extinguished by the analyzer.
Analysis of Elliptical Polarisation :

I If the light to be studied is elliptically polarized, it will be

converted into plane-polarized light only when the fast axis of
the quarter-wave plate coincides with either the major or the
minor axis of the ellipse.
I The ratio of these axes can then be found as the tangent of
the angle that the plane of transmission of the analyzer makes
with the fast axis when extinction has been achieved.
Rotatory Polarisation :
Optical Rotation :

I When a beam of plane-polarized light is directed along the

optic axis of quartz, the plane of polarization turns steadily
about the direction of the beam and emerges vibrating in some
other plane than that at which it entered.
I The amount of this rotation is found experimentally to depend
upon the distance traveled in the medium and upon the
wavelength of the light. The former fact shows that the action
occurs within the medium and not at the surface.
I This phenomenon of the rotation of the plane of vibration is
frequently called optical activity, and many substances like
cinnabar, sodium chlorate, turpentine, sugar crystals, sugar in
solution and strychnine sulfate are known to exhibit the eect.
I Some quartz crystals and sugar solutions rotate the plane of
vibration to the right and some to the left. Substances which
rotate to the right are called dextrorotatory or right-handed,
and those which rotate to the left are called levorotatory or
left- handed.
Rotary Dispersion :
I Right-handed rotation means that upon looking against the
oncoming light the plane of vibration is rotated in a clockwise
direction. Left-handed substances rotate the light
counterclockwise.
I A striking feature of optical activity is that dierent colors are
rotated by very dierent amounts. The rst accurate
measurements of this eect were made by Biot, who found
that the rotation is very nearly proportional to the inverse
square of the wavelength.
Rotary Dispersion :
I This rotation for a 1-mm plate, plotted in Fig. 28B(b), is
called the specic rotation.
I Careful measurements on quartz and other substances as well
show that Biot's inverse-square law is only approximately true.
I Optical activity is closely enough connected with ordinary
dispersion theory for the regular dispersion formulas for
refractive index to be applied to rotation.
I Cauchy's equation ρ = A + λB2 can be used to represent the
specic rotation for quartz in the visible region.
I Experimentally, the phenomenon of rotatory dispersion can be
illustrated by inserting a quartz plate between crossed analyzer
and polarizer as shown in Fig. 28C.
Rotary Dispersion :
I With a monochromatic source at S, some light will get through
the analyzer to the screen since in passing through the quartz
along the optic axis the plane of vibration has been rotated.

I After the vibration is rotated from the plane AP to the plane

A1 P , a certain component EP = AP sin ϑ gets through the
analyzer N2 . If now the analyzer is made parallel to A1 P all
the light will be transmitted, whereas if it is normal to A1 P ,
none will be transmitted.
Fresnel's theory of Optical Rotation :
I Fresnel proposed an explanation for rotation in crystals like
quartz which is based upon the assumption that circularly
polarized light is propagated along the optic axis without
change.
I Fresnel used the fact that plane-polarized light can be thought
of as two circularly polarized vibrations rotating in opposite
directions with the same frequency.
I In an optically active medium the two circularly polarised lights
travel with dierent speeds.
I Thus when they emerge from the medium the two circular
polarisations aquire dierent phases.
I The emerging light is still plane polarised but the the plane of
polarisation has been rotated.
I In a crystal like calcite, which is not optically active, these two
circular motions R and L travel with the same speed when
light is incident along the optic axis.
Fresnel's theory of Optical Rotation :

I The emerging light is still plane polarised but the the plane of
polarisation has been rotated.
I In a crystal like calcite, which is not optically active, these two
circular motions R and L travel with the same speed when
light is incident along the optic axis.
Fresnel's theory of Optical Rotation :

I The emerging light is still plane polarised but the the plane of
polarisation has been rotated.
I In a crystal like calcite, which is not optically active, these two
circular motions R and L travel with the same speed when
light is incident along the optic axis.
Fresnel's theory of Optical Rotation :
Explanation from Maxwell's equations :

~ E
I The constitutive relations D ~,H ~ E
~ and B ~,H
h i h i
~ play a
central role in deciding the details of wave propagation in a
medium.
I A detailed theory of these involve quantum mechanical
calculations for the electric and magnetic moments induced in
a molecule by a perturbing EM wave.
I To linear order it is found

∂H
~
D~ = E~ − g
∂t
and
∂E
~
B~ = µH~ + g
∂t
I The above equations are not parity symmetric for g 6= 0.
I In a parity symmetric medium g = 0 .
I We will now consider parity assymetric media where g 6= 0
Fresnel's theory of Optical Rotation :
Explanation from Maxwell's equations :

I From Maxwell's equations we have for plane waves

~k · D~ =0
~k · B
~ =0
~k
B~ = ×E
~
ω
~k
D~ = − ×H
~
ω
I The constitutive relations become

D~ = E~ + ig ωH~
B~ = µH~ − ig ωE~
I Together these imply
~k · E
~ = ~k · H
~ =0
Fresnel's theory of Optical Rotation :
Explanation from Maxwell's equations :

I From the above equations we have

~k
!
E
~ =− × +ig ω H~
ω
~k
!
µH
~ =+ × +ig ω E~
ω
I Eliminating H
~ from these equations
!2
~k
µE~ =− × +ig ω E ~
ω
1 ~ ~ ~ 
 
= − 2 k × k × E + 2ig k × E − g ω E
 
~ ~ 2 2~
ω
I Using µ = nc0 , ωk = nc and ~k × ~k × E
√ 
~ = −k 2 E

~ we get

n02 ~ n2 ~
E E ig ~k × E
~ + g 2ω2E
 
= + 2 ~
2 c 2 c
Fresnel's theory of Optical Rotation :
Explanation from Maxwell's equations :

n02 n2
 
− g 2ω2 E = 2ig ~k × E
 
− ~ ~
c2 c2
I Taking a dot product with E
~ we get E 2 = 0.
I This seems to imply that plane wave propagation is not
possible in such a medium.
I What saves the day is that E
~ can be complex.
I Without loss of generality we take ~k = k ê3 .
I Then ~k · E
~ = 0 =⇒ E ~ = Ex ê1 + Ey ê2
I E 2 = Ex2 + Ey2 = 0 =⇒ Ey = ±iEx
I Hence the modes that can propagate in the medium are Left
and Right circularly polarized!
Fresnel's theory of Optical Rotation :
Explanation from Maxwell's equations :

n02 n2
 
− g 2ω2 E = 2ig ~k × E
 
− ~ ~
c2 c2
I Using E
~ = Ex ê1 ± iEx ê2 we can write

A (ê1 ± i ê2 ) Ex = B ê3 × (ê1 ± i ê2 ) Ex

where A = nc 02 − nc 2 − g 2 ω 2 and B = 2igk .
2 2


I Thus
A (ê1 ± i ê2 ) = B (∓i ê1 + ê2 )
I Hence A = ∓iB and thus
n02 n2 n
− 2 − g 2 ω 2 = ±2gk = ±2g ω
c c
2 c
I Solving these two quadratic equations gives two values for n:r

n± = n0 ± g ω c