LONGITUDINAL

BEAM DYNAMICS
RF LINEAR ACCELERATORS—T.P. WANGLER
 DYNAMICS OF NON-
SYNCHRONOUS PARTICLES
• For non-synchronous particles close enough to the
synchronous one, some sort of restoring force should be
there so that these particles execute stable motion about
the synchronous particle.

• Longitudinal focusing (bunching) by the RF field

provides the restoring force.

• Electron linacs vary in longitudinal dynamics in that

their energies approach c so quickly, that there are no
phase oscillations and the entire bunch sees the same
phase of RF (all particles are synchronous)
LONGITUDINAL FOCUSING
Restoring Force exists for a certain choice of
synchronous phase:

• When the synchronous particle sees a field that is

rising in time, the phase motion can be stable.

• Synchronous particle is the one that sees the same

phase of field in each gap
 LONGITUDINAL FOCUSING
Early particle ( that comes before synchronous
particle), sees smaller field and gains lesser energy
than synchronous one.

Late particle sees larger field and gains more

energy.

Both early and late particles start moving towards

synchronous one.

The beam gets bunched (or focussed) in the

longitudinal plane.

The early and late particles execute stable phase

oscillation about the synchronous one.
LONGITUDINAL FOCUSING
E
early FOCUSING IN
synchronous
late
THE RISING
PART OF THE
FIELD

DEFOCUSING
IN THE
FALLING PART
OF THE FIELD
 EQUATIONS OF MOTION FOR
STANDING WAVE LINAC

Thin gap approximation: Assume the gap to be a thin (zero length) gap at the geometric
centre of the gap. The particle drifts with a constant velocity upto the centre of a gap,
where it gets an integrated impulse of the RF fields and gains energy. The particle then
moves from the centre of this gap to the centre of the next gap with new constant
velocity.
 DIFFERENCE EQUATION OF
LONGITUDINAL MOTION
From gap n-1 to n, the particle is assumed to have constant velocity βn-1

Cell length
Phase Change, across the nth gap, of an arbitrary particle with respect to the synchronous one

Using

Difference Equation for the change of relative phase becomes

DIFFERENCE EQUATION IN “ENERGY-PHASE”
PHASE SPACE
Difference Equation for the change of relative phase becomes

Difference Equation for the energy change of an arbitrary particle wrt to the synchronous one

The Coupled equations for particle phase and energy change wrt to the synchronous particle can be
solved numerically to obtain the motion of a particle.

Here, we will convert the coupled difference equation to coupled differential equation and try to
write the solutions applying approximations if necessary. This will give us a physical insight of the
Phase space (Energy-Phase space) of the particle motion

Drawing the trajectories of motion of particles in phase space, we can differentiate between the
regimes of stable and unstable particle motion!
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF LONGITUDINAL
MOTION
Convert the discrete action of standing wave field by continuous action

Where n is now a continuous variable

𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑛→ 𝑑𝑛 →
𝑁𝛽𝑠 𝜆 𝑁𝛽𝑠 𝜆

The above equations are first order COUPLED differential eqns.

Differentiating first eqn and substituting in second, one can obtain a second order differential eqn for longitudinal motion
LONGITUDINAL EQUATION OF MOTION FOR
SLOW ACCELERATION RATE
γs ,βs , φs , E0T are constant over a cell.
HAMILTONIAN: THE CONSTANT OF MOTION

𝑑𝜙
𝜙′ =
𝑑𝑠

𝜙 ′ 𝑑𝜙 ′ = −𝐴𝐵 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙- 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙𝑠 ) 𝑑𝜙

Kinetic Hamiltonian (Constant of

Potential
Energy term Integration)
Energy term
 POTENTIAL WELL
Maxima/minima at
𝐵 (cos 𝜙 − 𝜙 cos 𝜙𝑠 ) = 0

𝜙 = ±𝜙𝑠

Potential minima occurs at 𝜙 = +𝜙𝑠

If, −𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙𝑠 > 0 𝑖𝑓 − 𝜋 < 𝜙𝑠 < 0

< 0 𝑖𝑓 𝜙𝑠 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙𝑠 < −𝜋

𝜋 𝜋
Accelerating phase − 2 < 𝜙𝑠 < 2

𝜋
Simultaneous acceleration and potential well − 2 < 𝜙𝑠 < 0
CALCULATING THE CONSTANT OF MOTION

At Potential Maxima 𝜙 ′ = 0

𝜙 ′ = −𝐴𝑤 ⇒ 𝑤 = 0

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑎𝑡 𝜙 = −𝜙𝑠

Equation of the separatrix

TRAJECTORY IN ENERGY-PHASE PLANE
Phase Portraits are commonly used
Trajectories in w-φ phase
in Classical Mechanics (Non- space are constant Energy
Linear Dynamics) when one needs curves (corresponding to
to develop an insight of stable and
unstable regimes of motion. The
different values of φs)
Stability Properties can thus be
visualized, without even having to Separatrix / Fish / Bucket--
solve the Equations of motion.
--Separates stable phase
space trajectories from
unstable ones.
Closed trajectories: Represent
Periodic Motion (Curves inside
the Separatrix) All trajectories inside the
Open Trajectory: Represent Bucket are stable and all
Unstable solution because, a outside the bucket are
particle launched to move along
this trajectory, subsequently unstable
moves further and further!
EXTENT OF THE POTENTIAL WELL
Upper Bound of the Well at φ=- φs
Lower Phase Bound, φ2 (1)

Phase-Width or Phase Acceptance of the Separatrix

(2)

Putting eqn (2) into (1)

When ψ << 1 and φs << 1, sin ψ = ψ − ψ3/6 + ... and cos ψ = 1 − ψ2/2 + ..., and we obtain

which turns out to be a good approximation even upto |φs| ≈ 1 rad.

PHASE AND ENERGY ACCEPTANCE
Phase Acceptance Ψ 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚

Energy Half width or the Energy Acceptance of the separatrix can be obtained by setting
𝜙 = 𝜙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 BUNCHERS

At φs = −90◦; tan 𝜙𝑠 =-∞ ; 1-cos𝜓 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜓= 360◦

The phase acceptance is maximum, extending over the full 360◦

𝑉𝜙 = 𝐵 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 − 𝜙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙𝑠 )=𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙

𝑉𝜙

-2700 -900
-1800 00 900

Bunching: Produces a beam time structure same as RF time period.

Particles from buncher cavity get bunched
A Buncher cavity bunches a dc beam. At 𝜙𝑠 =-90 deg, the bucket width is
after travelling through certain distance
maximum. All particles in the bucket execute stable phase motion. They
after exiting from the buncher.
experience a restoring force in the direction of the synchronous particle and
start oscillating about it.
 SMALL AMPLITUDE OSCILLATIONS
For a phase difference that is small relative to the synchronous phase

So, equation of motion for small longitudinal oscillations,

𝜙 ′′ = −𝐴𝐵 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙𝑠 )

(𝜙 − 𝜙𝑠 )2
𝜙 ′′ = 𝐴𝐵 𝜙 − 𝜙𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙𝑠 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙𝑠
2
 HARMONIC OSCILLATOR ANALOGY
𝒅𝟐 𝒛
• m 𝟐+ 𝒌𝒛 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕

• A harmonic motion is characterized by a restoring force which points towards the mean point.

• 𝒌𝒛 is the restoring force.

𝒌
• Oscillation frequency =
𝒎

• The mean point in our context is the synchronous particle (which sees the same RF phase in all the gaps).

• An arbitrary particle oscillates about this synchronous particle.

• We wrote the equation of motion with z as the independent variable and not t. In our context, k l0 represents the
wave number and not the frequency.

• kl0, the Phase Advance per meter, therefore gives the Spatial Frequency or Wave number of oscillation. It is also
a measure of the Restoring or Bunching Force. It depends on the accelerating gradient E 0T and the synchronous
phase.
 SMALL OSCILLATIONS: FREQUENCY

is the RF frequency

ωl0 << ω
Relativistic beams, 𝛾→∞,𝜔𝑙0 ≈ 0

In electron linacs, the phase oscillations are frozen.

Quadratic term in the equation of motion is the lowest order non-linear term.

Negative sign of the non-linear term => weakened focusing

Quadratic term => Asymmetric Potential well

PHASE SPACE TRAJECTORY FOR SMALL OSCILLATIONS

2
𝜙 − 𝜙𝑠
sin 𝜙 − 𝜙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙𝑠 ≈ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙𝑠 + 𝜙 − 𝜙𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙𝑠 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙𝑠 − 𝜙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙𝑠
2

Recall, 𝝓𝒔 <0 for stable phase motion

Trajectory is an ellipse centered at w=0, 𝝓 = 𝝓𝒔

PHASE SPACE TRAJECTORY: AN UPRIGHT ELLIPSE

Defining Δ𝜙0 = 𝜙0 − 𝜙𝑠 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)

w0

(0,𝜙𝑠 ) ∆ 𝜙0
 ADIABATIC PHASE DAMPING
For small accceleration rates, the parameters of ellipse vary very slowly.

Theorem of Adiabatic Invariance:

If a parameter of an oscillator varies as a result of some external action at a rate that is

slow compared to the period of the oscillation. Such changes are said to be adiabatic. For
such adiabatic change of parameters, the phase space area is conserved.

Area of the ellipse in phase space is an adiabatic invariant during the acceleration
process.
 ADIABATIC PHASE DAMPING

And since Phase space area is invariant,

Phase Amplitude decreases with acceleration. This is called as ADIABATIC PHASE

DAMPING.

Energy half width (Energy spread ) increases with acceleration, keeping the phase space
area constant!