RAY OPTICS

Introduction
Light is a form of energy that provides sensation of vision. Some common phenomena associated with
lights are image formation by mirrors, twinkling of stars, the beautiful colors of rainbow, bending of light by a
medium etc.

Properties of light
➢ Light is an electromagnetic wave, hence does not require a medium to travel.
➢ Light tends to travel in a straight line.
➢ Light has dual nature – wave as well as particle nature.
➢ Light casts shadow.
➢ Speed of light is maximum in vacuum. Its value is 3x 108 m/s.
➢ When light falls on a surface, following may happen;
(i) Reflection
(ii) Refraction
(iii) Absorption

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
The bending of light rays from their straight path when they pass obliquely from one medium to
another is called refraction of light. Some examples of refraction are;
➢ A stone or coin at the bottom of a bcket filled with water appears to be raised.
➢ The letters printed on a page of a book appears to be raised, when throgh a glass slab placed
over the printed page.
➢ A pencil partly immersed in water in a glass appears to be bent at the water surface.
➢ A lemon placed in a glass filled with water appears to be bigger than its size when seen from
the sides of the glass.

Laws of Refraction
➢ The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface of two transparent media at the point
of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
➢ The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant, for the
light of given color and for agiven pair of media. This law is known as Snell’s law of refraction.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then = constant. This constant is
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓
called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium.

Effect on Speed, Wavelength and frequency of Light due to Refraction

➢ When a ray of light gets refracted from a rarer medium to denser medium, the speed of light
decreases and vice versa.

➢ The frequency of light depends on the source, so it does not change on refraction.
➢ When light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, the wavelength decreases and vice
versa.

Refractive Index
It is a measure of how much the speed of light changes when it travels from one medium to another.
Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined a s the ratio of speed of light in vacuum or air (c ) to the
𝒄
speed of light in the medium (v). It is denoted as n and is given by n = .
𝒗
Where c = 3x 108 m/s . Since c > v, absolute refractive index is always greater than one. Refractive index has
no unit.
Relative refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t medium 1is the ratio of speed of light in medium 1(v1) to speed
𝒗𝟏
of light in medium 2 (v2). It is given by n21 =
𝒗𝟐

Relative refractive index of medium 1 w.r.t medium 2is the ratio of speed of light in medium 2(v2) to speed
𝒗𝟐
of light in medium 1 (v1). It is given by n12 = .
𝒗𝟏

The relative refractive index of a medim may be less than one. Refractive index of diamond is the highest
𝟏
(2.42). This means that speed of light is times less in diamond than in vacuum.
𝟐.𝟒𝟐

Optical density measures the ability of a medium to refract light.

Optically denser medium : Out of the given two media, the medium with higher value of refractive index.
Optically rarer medium : Out of the given two media, the medium with lower value of refractive index.
When light enters fromm rarere medium to denser medium it bends towards the normal and when light enters
from a denser medium to a rarer medium , it bends away from the normal.

Note 1: Refractive index does not depend on mass density but depends on optical density. For example, the
optical density of kerosene is greater than water eventhough the mass density of kerosene is less than
water.
Applications of Refraction of Light
➢ Real and Apparent depth

An object placed in a denser medium when viewed from a rarer medium, appears to be at a depth lesser
than its real depth.
The shift by which the object appears to be raised depends directly on the refractive index and the
thickness of the denser medium and inversely proportional to the wavelength of light.
 𝐵𝐴
From the ∆BAO, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑂𝐵
𝐵𝐴
From the ∆IAB, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 = 𝐼𝐵

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝐼𝐵
By Snell’s Law , refractive index of the air w.r.t medium, = 𝑛𝑎 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑂𝐵
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐴
Hence , refractive index of the medium w.r.t air, 𝑛𝑚 = 1/𝑛𝑎 = = (Approx.)
𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Or, 𝑛𝑎 = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

𝟏
Shift = Real depth – apparent depth = Real depth x (1 - 𝒏 )
𝒎

➢ Apparent bending of a Stick under water

The light rays coming from tip P of the stick, when it passes from water to air, bends away from the normal
and appear to be coming from point P’. An object placed in a rarer medium when viewed from a denser
medium appears to be at a greater distance than its real distance.

➢ Apparent flickering of objects placed behind a hot object or fire.

The hot air above the hot surface of the object rises up. The space is occupied by the cool air. The refractive
index of hot air is less than that of cool air. Due to changing refractive index of the medium, light appears to
come from different directions, resulting in the apparent flickering of the objects.
➢ Stars near the horizon appear slightly higher than their actual position.

The refractive index of the earth’s atmosphere, increase from top to bottom. So the light coming from a star
at the horizon has to travel from an optically rarer medium to an optically denser medium. This results in the
bending of light towards the normal. And hence, stars at the horizon appear slightly higher than its actual
position.
➢ Advanced sunrise and delayed sunset.

When the sun is below the horizon, the light has to travel from a rarer medium to denser medium and hence
the light rays bend towards the normal. Hence it appears higher than its actual position.
Total Internal Reflection
➢ The phenomenon due to which a ray of light, while travelling from an optically denser medium to an
optically rarer medium, gets reflected into the denser medium, at the surface of separation is called
Total internal reflection.
➢ The angle of incidence in the denser medium, for which the angle of refraction in the rarer medium
is 90o is called the Critical angle.

➢ Conditions for Total internal reflection

Rays of light must travel from optically denser medium to optically rarer medium
The angle of incidence in the optically denser medium must be greater than the critical angle.
sin 𝑖 sin 90 1
Note : When a ray of light travels from medium b to medium a, bµa = sin 𝑟 or aµb = = sin 𝐶
sin 𝐶

Note: Thus by knowing the refractive index of a material, the critical angle can be determined. The critical
angle for glass is 420, for water its 480 and for diamond it is 240.
Factors Affecting Critical Angle
➢ Dependence on the colour of light: Critical angle increases with increase in wavelength of light.
Hence it is minimum for violet and maximum for red.
➢ Dependence on temperature: Critical angle increases with increase in temperature.

Applications of Total Internal Reflection

➢ Total Internal Reflection in a Prism

➢ Mirage

Mirage is an optical illusion seen in deserts or tarred roads in hot sunny days. It is due to TIR by the different
layers of atmosphere, of different refractive indices.
On hot summer days, the air near the ground becomes hotter than the air at higher levels. Hot air is less
dense and has smaller refractive index than the cooler air. As a result , light from a tall object such as a tree
or a tower, passes through the atmosphere, and successively bends away from the normal. If the angle of
incidence at the layer, near the ground, exceeds the critical angle it undergoes TIR. To a distant observer, the
light appears to be coming from the ground as if due to reflection from a pool of water.
➢ Brilliance of Diamonds

It is due to TIR. Refractive index of diamond is 2.42 and the crtical angle is 24.40. The diamond is suitably cut
such that light incident on the diamond- air interface act at an angle greater than 24.4 and suffers TIR. Hence
light undergoes multiple TIR and is trapped within the diamond and emerges out only thrhrough a few sides.
It makes the diamond sparkling.

➢ Shining of bubble in water

The critical angle for water- air interface is 480. When light through water incident on the surface of air
bubble at an angle greater than 48 , it suffers TIR and the bubble appears shining.
➢ Optical Fibres

They are very thin , long fibres of glass or quartz, having a refractive index nearly 1.5 to 1.7, coated with a
thin layer of material of lower refractive index. The inner material is called the core and the outer layer is
called the cladding. Light entering the core undergoes multiple TIR at core- cladding interface and arrives at
the other end without any loss in intensity. In sillica glass fibres, it is possible to transmit more than 95% of
light over a fibre of length of 1 km.

• Even if the fibre is bent, light can easily travel along its length. A bundle of optical fibres act as an
optical pipe. A single fibre is able to transmit a large number of signals ( > 5000) simultaneously
without interference.
• Optical fibres are used for transmitting and receiving electrical signals which are converted to light
by suitable transducers. This is how they are used in the field of communication.
• Optical fibres can also be used for transmission of optical signals.
• These are used as light pipes in medical diagnosis like endoscopy, to facilitate visual examination of
internal organs.
• They are used to make decorative lamp with fine plastic fibres with their free ends forming a fountain
like structure.

Refraction by Spherical Surfaces

Refraction by Spherical Lenses
Lens is a transparent medim bounded by two refracting surfaces. There are two types of lenses. They
are Convex lens or converging lens and Concave lens or diverging lens.
Summary of image formed by a convex lens is given below

Summary of image formed by a concave lens is given below

Sign Convention For Spherical Lenses

For lenses we follow the same sign convention similar to the one used for spherical mirrors except that all
measurements are taken from the optical centre of the lens. Focal length of convex lens is positive and focal
length of concave lens is negative.
Note 1: A lens forms full length of an object even if its half portion is covered with black cloth becase every
part of a lens forms the complete image of the object.
Note 2: The intensity of the image when half of the portion of a lens is covered will be reduced because
intensity is proportional to square of the aperture.
Note 3: If a lens of focal length f is cut into two halves along the principal axes, then each of the half will
have a focal length f.
Note 4: If a convex lens of focal length f is cut into halves vertically then the focal length of each half will be
2f.
Note 5: A convex lens has real focus while in a concave lens the focus is virtual.
Note 6: Focal length of a lens implies the second focal length of the lens.
Note 7: If the medium on two sides of the lens is same, the first and the second focal length are equal.
Note 8: If a lens is placed in water, its focal length increases.
Note 9: A thick lens has less focal length than a thin lens of same material.

Lens Maker’s Formula

The following assumptions are taken for the derivation of lens maker formula.
• Let us consider the thin lens shown in the image with 2 refracting surfaces having the radii of
curvatures R1 and R2, respectively.
• Let the refractive indices of the surrounding medium and the lens material be n1 and n2, respectively.

For the first surface,

For the second surface,

Now adding equation (1) and (2),

When u = ∞ and v = f

But also,

Limitations of the lens maker’s formula

• The lens should not be thick so that the space between the 2 refracting surfaces can be small.
• The medium used on both sides of the lens should always be the same.
1 1 1
Note 1: The Lens equation or law of distances is given by = −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

Note 2: Focal length of a lens depends on the refractive index. Focal length is greater for red than that for
violet.
1 1
Note 3: For a bi-convex lens, by sign convention, R1 is positive and R2 is negative. Hence − will be
𝑅1 𝑅2
positive and hence the focal length will be always positive.
1 1
Note 4: For a bi-concave lens, by sign convention, R1 is negative and R2 is positive. Hence − will be
𝑅1 𝑅2
negative and hence the focal length will be always negative.
𝑅
Note 5: For an equi-convex lens R1 = R and R2 = -R. Hence f = .
2 (𝑛−1)
−𝑅
Note 6: For an equi-concave lens R1 = - R and R2 = R. Hence f = .
2 (𝑛−1)

Note 7: The variation of focal length of a lens with wavelength of incident light is shown below.
 1
Note 8: According to Cauchy’s formula, n ∝
𝜆2
1
Note 9: f ∝ or f ∝ 𝜆2
𝑛

Magnification
It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It is usually
represented by the letter m.
If h is the height of the image and h’ is the height of the image, then the magnification m is given by
𝒉′
m=
𝒉
𝐡′ 𝐯
The magnification m is also related to u and v as magnification, m = = (Absence of negative sign in
𝐡 𝐮
this formula indicates that the image distance v is positive)
Note1: Magnification is positive if the image formed by the lens is virtual.
Note 2: Magnification produced by a concave lens is always positive as it always forms virtual image.
Note 3: Magnification produced by a convex lens is positive when it forms a virtual image, but is negative
when it forms real image.
𝑓−𝑣 𝑓
Note 4: Magnification in terms of u, v and f is given by m = or m = 𝑢+𝑓
𝑓

Power of a Lens
It is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens (expressed in metres). It is denoted by P
𝟏
and is given by P = . The S.I unit of power of a lens is dioptre (D).
𝒇

Power of a convex lens is positive because its focal length is positive and the power of a concave lens is
negative as its focal length is negative.
Note: Power of a lens is greater for violet than that for red. Power is inversely related to wavelength.

Combination of Lenses
Note 1: When two lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are in contact, then the act as a single lens of focal length F
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
given by = + . Hence the power of the equivalent lens P = P1 + P2.
𝐅 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐

Note 2; The equivalent lens of a convex lens of small focal length and a concave lens of large focal length is
a convex lens.
Note 3: The equivalent lens of a convex lens of large focal length and a concave lens of small focal length is
a concave lens.
Note 4: Equivalent lenses are used to minimize spherical aberration and monochromatic aberration.
 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Note 5: If both the lenses are concave, then = −( + ).
𝐅 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Note 6: If one is convex lens and other is concave, then =(𝐟 − ).
𝐅 𝟏 𝐟𝟐

Note 7: Magnification of equivalent lens is given by m = m1 x m2 x m3 x…

Refraction through a Prism

Consider an equilateral glass prism ABC of refractive index n. Let A be the refracting angle and AB and AC be
the refracting faces. BC is the base of the prism.
Let OP be the incident ray making an angle i1 with the side AB. After refraction through the prism the ray
emerges out from the face AC along QR and i2 be the angle of emergence. Let PQ be the ray inside the prism
and r1 & r2 be the angles made by the ray with the normal to the faces AB and AC respectively. Let d be the
angle of deviation.
Applying Snell’s law at AB,
sin 𝑖1
=𝑛
sin 𝑟1
Applying Snell’s law at AC,
sin 𝑟2 1
=
sin 𝑖2 𝑛
sin 𝑖1 sin 𝑖2
Hence, =
sin 𝑟1 sin 𝑟2

From the quadrilateral APNQ, ∠A + ∠N = 180o …………………. (1)

From triangle PNQ, r1 + r2 + ∠N = 180o ……………………………… (2)
Comparing (1) and (2), , r1 + r2 = ∠A …………………………………(3)
From triangle PMQ, (i1 – r1) + ( i2- r2) = d

(i1 + i2) – ( r1 + r2 ) = d or angle of deviation d = (i1 + i2) - ∠A ……….. (4)

➢ Angle of deviation depends on the angle of incidence.

 ➢ It is seen that as the angle of incidence is increased, angle of deviation decreases, reaches a
minimum value called the angle of minimum deviation (D) and then increases.
➢ For any angle of deviation there will be two angles of incidence.
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖
➢ But at the angle of minimum deviation D, i1 = i2 = i and r1 = r2 = r. Hence = 𝑛 ………. (5).
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟
➢ At the angle of minimum deviation, the refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to the base and the
incident ray and the emergent ray are symmetrical about the refracting faces.
𝑨+𝑫
𝐬𝐢𝐧( )
𝟐
➢ From (3) and (4) we have r = A/2 and 2i = A + D. Hence (5) becomes n= 𝑨 . This equation is
𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝟐)
called the Prism formula.

Expression for angle of deviation

sin 𝑖1
Applying Snell’s law at AB, =𝑛
sin 𝑟1

𝑖1
For smaller angles , = n or i1 = n r1 ………………………….. (1)
𝑟1

Similarly, i2 = n r2 ………………………….. ……………….(2)

From the quadrilateral APNQ, ∠A + ∠N = 180o
From triangle PNQ, r 1 + r2 + ∠N = 180o
Comparing (1) and (2), , r 1 + r2 = ∠A

From triangle PMQ, (i1 – r1) + ( i2- r2) = d

(i1 + i2) – ( r1 + r2 ) = d
Using (1) and (2), n( r1 + r2) – ( r1 + r2) = d

(n – 1) ( r1 + r2 ) = d or d = ( n – 1) A
Note 1: Refractive index of a prism is different for different colors. 𝜆𝑣 < 𝜆𝑅 , 𝑛𝑣 > 𝑛𝑅 , 𝑑𝑣 > 𝑑𝑅 .
Note 2: If the refracting angle of the prism A is small, d = (n – 1) A. If angle A is greater than 10o,
then d = ( i1 + i2) – A.

Optical Instruments
Simple Microscope
It is a converging lens of suitable focal length. The object to be examined is placed within the focus of the
lens and the image is adjusted to be formed at the least distance of distinct vision (25 cm).

Magnifying power or Angular Magnification (M)

It is the ratio of the angles subtended at the eye of the observer by the image formed at infinity and by the
object placed at the near point.
 𝐼𝑀
𝐼𝑀 𝑣
𝑀= 𝐷 = =
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐵 𝑢
𝐷
1 1 1
By Lens formula, − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓

𝑣 𝑣
1− =
𝑢 𝑓
𝑣
1− 𝑀= 𝑓
𝑣
𝑀 =1− 𝑓
𝑫
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑣 = − D, 𝑴=𝟏+
𝒇
𝑫
𝑰𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝑴 =
𝒇

Expression for Magnification of a Simple Microscope when the image is formed at infinity
The eye undergoes minimum strain when we view images at infinity. When the object is placed at a
distance f from the lens, the image is formed at infinity. Let 𝛽 be the angle subtended by the image at the
ℎ0
eye. Then 𝛽 = 𝑓
. If the object is placed at D from the eye of the observer (without the lens), then the
ℎ0 𝛽 𝐷
angle subtended by the object at the eye is 𝛼 = . Then M = 𝛼 =
𝐷 𝑓

➢ Compound microscope

It consists of two converging lenses – Objective lens and the Eye piece. The two lenses are fitted at the ends
of a tube and the distance between them is adjustable.

The object is placed slightly beyond the focus of the objective, which forms an enlarged real image. This
image is formed within the focus of the eye piece. This image becomes the object for the eye piece, which
forms an enlarged virtual image. The final image can be adjusted to be at the near point.

Expression for Magnification

𝑣 𝐷
For a compound microscope. M = Mo x Me= 𝑢𝑜 (1 + )
𝑜 𝑓𝑒

The object is placed very close to focus of the objective. Hence uo = fo. The image formed by the objective is
very close to the eye piece. Hence vo = L, where L is the distance between the objective and the eye piece.
𝐿 𝐷 𝐿 𝐷
Therefore, M = (1 + ). If the image is at infinity, M = 𝑓 ( 𝑓 )
𝑓𝑜 𝑓
𝑒 𝑜 𝑒
 ➢ Refracting Telescope

Light from a very distant object forms real image at the focal plane of the objective. This image is adjusted to
be at the focal length of the eye piece so that the final image is formed at infinity. When the image is at
infinity, the telescope is said to be in normal adjustment. The eye piece can be adjusted so that the image
formed by the objective is within the focus of the eye piece and the final image is formed at the near point.
Magnification
𝑓
For normal adjustment, M = 𝑓𝑜
𝑒

𝑓 𝑓𝑒
If the final image is at the near point, M = 𝑓𝑜 (1 + )
𝑒 𝐷

The length of the telescope or the distance between the objective and eye piece is f o + fe
Note 1: Terrestrial and Astronomical telescopes are examples of refracting telescopes.

Note 2: Higher light gathering power and resolution requires large diameter for the objective of
astronomical telescope. It is rather difficult and expensive to make large sized lenses which form images that
are free from chromatic aberration and distortions.
Note 3: Resolving power of an optical instrument is the ability to observe two objects distinctly, which is
nearly in the same direction.

➢ Reflecting Telescopes (Cassegrain Telescope)

The telescopes with mirror objectives are called reflecting telescope. The objective mirror focusses light
inside the telescope tube. Hence viewer has to sit near the focal point of the mirror. This problem can be
solved by using a convex secondary mirror to focus the incident light, which now passes through a hole in
the objective primary mirror. This is called the Cassegrain telescope. It has an advantage of large focal length
in a short telescope.

Also, there is no chromatic aberration for mirrors. The use of parabolic reflecting surfaces, reduces spherical
aberration.

……………………………………………….