Essentials of Materials Science and

Engineering 3rd Edition Askeland

Solutions Manual
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Chapter 7
Mechanical Properties: Part Two
7–1 Alumina (Al2O3) is a brittle ceramic with low toughness. Suppose that fibers of
silicon carbide (SiC), another brittle ceramic with low toughness, could be
embedded within the alumina. Would doing this affect the toughness of the ceramic
matrix composite? Explain.

Solution: The SiC fibers may improve the toughness of the alumina matrix. The
fibers may do so by several mechanisms. By introducing an interface
(between the fibers and the matrix), a crack may be blocked; to continue
growing, the crack may have to pass around the fiber, thus increasing
the total energy of the crack and thus the energy that can be absorbed
by the material. Or extra energy may be required to force the crack
through the interface in an effort to continue propagating. In addition,
the fibers may begin to pull out of the matrix, particularly if bonding is
poor; the fiber pull-out requires energy, thus improving toughness.
Finally, the fibers may bridge across the crack, helping to hold the
material together and requiring more energy to propagate the crack.

7–2 A ceramic matrix composite contains internal flaws as large as 0.001 cm in

length. The plane strain fracture toughness of the composite is 45 MPa m , and
the tensile strength is 550 MPa. Will the stress cause the composite to fail before
the tensile strength is reached? Assume that f = 1.

Solution: Since the crack is internal, 2a = 0.001 cm = 0.00001 m. Therefore

a = 0.000005 m
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 K Ic = f σ π a or σ = K Ic /( f π a )

σ = (45 MPa m)/[(1) π (0.000005 m)] = 11,354 MPa

The applied stress required for the crack to cause failure is much
larger than the tensile strength of 550 MPa. Any failure of the ceramic
should be expected due to the massive overload, not because of the
presence of the flaws.

7–3 An aluminum alloy that has a plane strain fracture toughness of 25, 000 psi in.
fails when a stress of 42,000 psi is applied. Observation of the fracture surface
indicates that fracture began at the surface of the part. Estimate the size of the
flaw that initiated fracture. Assume that f = 1.1.

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 Solution: K = f σ π a or a = (1/π )[K /( f σ )]2
Ic Ic

{
a = (1 / π ) 25,000 psi in. / ⎡⎣(1.1)( 42, 000 psi ) ⎤⎦ }
2

a = 0.093 in.
7–4 A polymer that contains internal flaws 1 mm in length fails at a stress of 25 MPa.
Determine the plane strain fracture toughness of the polymer. Assume that f = 1.

Solution: Since the flaws are internal, 2a = 1 mm = 0.001 m; thus a =

0.0005 m
K Ic = f σ π a = (1)(25 MPa) π (0.0005 m) = 0.99 MPa m

7–5 A ceramic part for a jet engine has a yield strength of 75,000 psi and a plane strain
fracture toughness of 5, 000 psi in. To be sure that the part does not fail, we plan
to ensure that the maximum applied stress is only one third of the yield strength.
We use a nondestructive test that will detect any internal flaws greater than 0.05
in. long. Assuming that f = 1.4, does our nondestructive test have the required
sensitivity? Explain.

Solution: The applied stress is S = (⅓)(75,000 psi) = 25,000 psi

{ }
2
a = (1 / π ) 5, 000 psi in. / ⎡⎣(1.4 )( 25, 000 psi ) ⎤⎦
a = 0.0065 in.
The length of internal flaws is 2a = 0.013 in.
Our nondestructive test can detect flaws as small as 0.05 in. long,
which is not smaller than the critical flaw size required for failure.
Thus our NDT test is not satisfactory.

7–6 A manufacturing process that unintentionally introduces cracks to the surface of a

part was used to produce load-bearing components. The design requires that the
component be able to withstand a stress of 450 MPa. The component failed
catastrophically in service.
You are a failure analysis engineer who must determine whether the component
failed due to an overland in service or flaws from the manufacturing process. The
manufacturer claims that the components were polished to remove the cracks and
inspected to ensure that no surface cracks were larger than 0.5 mm. The
manufacturer believes the component failed due to operator error.
It has been independently verified that the 5-cm diameter part was subjected to a
tensile load of 1 MN (106 N).
The material from which the component is made has a fracture toughness of
75 MPa m and an ultimate strength of 600 MPa. Assume external cracks for
which f = 1.12.
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 (a) Who is at fault for the component failure, the manufacturer or the operator?
Show your work for both cases.
(b) In addition to the analysis that you presented in (a), what features might you
look for on the fracture surfaces to support your conclusion?

Solution: (a) The engineering stress imposed on the part is calculated as

F 106 N
S= = = 509 MPa
A0 π (0.05 m)2
4
where S is the engineering stress, F is the applied load, and A0 is
the initial cross–sectional area of the part. Thus, while the part may
have yielded under the applied load, it should not have failed
because the imposed stress was less than the 600 MPa ultimate
tensile strength.
Given that the part failed at a stress of 509 MPa, which is above
the yield stress but below the ultimate tensile strength of the
material when no flaws are present, it seems that the part failed due
to the propagation of a surface flaw. The critical flaw size that
would lead to failure can be determined from the following
equation:
K IC = f σ π a

where KIC is the plane strain fracture toughness, f is the geometry

factor, σ is the applied stress, and a is the crack length.
Rearranging,
2
1 ⎡ 75 MPa m ⎤
2
1 ⎛ KIC ⎞
a= = = 0.0055 m = 5.5 mm
⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎥
π fσ π 1.12(509 MPa)
⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦
The critical flaw size that would lead to part failure at a stress of
509 MPa is 5.5 mm. Thus, the surface cracks must have been larger
than the specified 0.5 mm, and the manufacturer is at fault.
Whether the parts were actually polished should be investigated.
(b) If examination of the part reveals that it experienced considerable
deformation and necking prior to failure, then failure likely
occurred due to tensile overload. The fracture surface may be
dimpled in this case.
If the part failed due to the propagation of surface cracks, then a
Chevron pattern may be visible.

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7-7 Assume that the critical stress intensity factor or fracture toughness for partially
stabilized zirconia is 10 MPa m . If there is a plate of this ceramic with a sharp
edge notch 100 µm deep and subjected to a stress of 300 MPa, will this plate be
able to withstand this stress?
Solution:
(
K Ic = f σ π a = 1.12 300 MPa π 100 × 10 −6 m )( ) ( )
K Ic = 6 MPa m

Yes, since the stress intensity factor is less than the fracture
toughness, the plate will be able to withstand the applied stress.

7–13 A cylindrical tool steel specimen that is 6 in. long and 0.25 in. in diameter rotates
as a cantilever beam and is to be designed so that failure never occurs. Assuming
that the maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal, determine the
maximum load that can be applied to the end of the beam. (See Figure 7–17.)

Solution: The stress must be less than the endurance limit, 60,000 psi.
32 FL
σ=
πd3
or
F = ( endurance limit ) π d 3 / ( 32L ) ( )
F = (60,000 psi)(π)(0.25 in.)3 / [(32)(6 in.)] = 15.3 lb

7–14 A 2-cm-diameter, 20-cm-long bar of an acetal polymer (Figure 7–27) is loaded on

one end and is expected to survive one million cycles of loading, with equal
maximum tensile and compressive stresses, during its lifetime. What is the
maximum permissible load that can be applied?

Solution: From the figure, we find that the fatigue strength must be 22 MPa in
order for the polymer to survive one million cycles. Thus, the
maximum load is
F = ( fatigue strength ) π d 3 / ( 32L )( )
F = (22 MPa) (π) (20 mm)3 / [(32)(200 mm)] = 86.4 N

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7–15 A cyclical load of 1500 lb is to be exerted at the end of a 10-in.-long aluminum
beam (Figure 7–17). The bar must survive for at least 106 cycles. What is the
minimum diameter of the bar?

Solution: From the figure, we find that the fatigue strength must be 35,000 psi
in order for the aluminum to survive 106 cycles. Thus, the minimum
diameter of the bar is

d = 3 32FL/[(fatigue strength)(π )]
d = 3 (32)(1500 lb)(10 in.)/[(35,000 psi)(π )] = 1.63 in.

7–16 A cylindrical acetal polymer bar 20-cm-long and 1.5 cm in diameter is subjected
to a vibrational load at a frequency of 500 vibrations per minute, with a load of 50
N. How many hours will the part survive before breaking? (See Figure 7–27.)

Solution: The stress acting on the polymer is

32 FL 32 ( 50 N )( 200 mm )
σ= = = 30 MPa
πd3 π (15 mm )
3

From the figure, the fatigue life at 30 MPa is about 2 × 105 cycles.
Based on 500 cycles per minute, the life of the part is
life = 2 × 105 cycles / (500 cycles/min) / (60 min/h) = 6.7 h

7–17 Suppose that we would like a part produced from the acetal polymer shown in
Figure 7–27 to survive for one million cycles under conditions that provide for equal
compressive and tensile stresses. What is the fatigue strength, or maximum stress
amplitude, required? What are the maximum stress, the minimum stress, and the
mean stress on the part during its use? What effect would the frequency of the stress
application have on your answers? Explain.

Solution: From the figure, the fatigue strength at one million cycles is 22 MPa.
The maximum stress is +22 MPa, the minimum stress is –22 MPa, and
the mean stress is 0 MPa.
A high frequency will cause heating of the polymer. As the
temperature of the polymer increases, the fatigue strength will
decrease. If the applied stress is not reduced, then the polymer will fail
at a shorter time.

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7–19 A fatigue test is conducted on an aluminum alloy at a frequency of 100 Hz. If the
number of cycles is 107, how much time will this fatigue test take? How much
time would it take if this test were conducted for 108 cycles?

Solution: A frequency of 100 Hz means 100 cycles/second.

The time for 107 cycles = (107 cycles)[1 s/(100 cycles)] = 105
seconds; this is 27.8 hours. For 108 cycles, the time would be 10 times
longer ~ 278 hours or about 11.5 days.

7–20 How much time will a piezoelectric fatigue testing machine take to conduct a
fatigue test on a titanium alloy for 1010 cycles? Assume that the frequency of this
test is 10 kHz.

Solution: A frequency of 10 kHz means 10,000 cycles/second.

The time for 1010 cycles = (1010 cycles)[1 s/(10,000 cycles)] = 106
seconds; this is about 278 hours.

7–21 The manufacturer of a product that is subjected to repetitive cycles has specified
that the product should be removed from service when any crack reaches 15% of
the critical crack length required to cause fracture.
Consider a crack that is initially 0.02 mm long in a material with a fracture
toughness of 55 MPa m . The product is continuously cycled between
compressive and tensile stresses of 300 MPa at a constant frequency. Assume
external cracks for which f = 1.12. The materials constants for these units are
n = 3.4 and C = 2 × 10–11.
(a) What is the critical crack length required to cause fracture?
(b) How many cycles will cause product failure?
(c) If the product is removed from service as specified by the manufacturer, how
much of the useful life of the product remains?

Solution: (a) The critical flaw size that would lead to failure can be
determined from the following equation:
K IC = f σ π a

where KIC is the plane strain fracture toughness, f is the geometry

factor, σ is the applied stress, and a is the crack length.
Rearranging,
2
1 ⎡ 55 MPa m ⎤
2
1 ⎛ KIC ⎞
a= = = 0.00853 m = 8.53 mm
⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎥
π fσ π 1.12(300 MPa)
⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦
The critical flaw size that would lead to part failure at a stress of
300 MPa is 8.53 mm.

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 (b) The number of cycles that would cause product failure is given
by
2⎣⎡(ac )(2−n ) / 2 −(ai ) ( 2−n ) / 2
N=
(2 − n)Cf n Δσ nπ n / 2
where ai is the initial flaw size and ac is the flaw size required for
fracture. The term ∆σ is the difference between the maximum
and minimum cyclical stress; however, a crack does not
propagate during compression. Therefore, ∆σ = 300 MPa.
Substituting,
2⎣⎡(0.00853)(2– 3.4 ) /2 −(0.00002)( 2 – 3.4 ) /2 ⎤
N= = 50,366.
(2⎦ – 3.4)(2×10 –11 )(1.12)3.4 (300)3.4π 3.4/2
(c) If the product is removed from service when the critical crack
length reaches 0.15(8.53 mm) = 1.28 mm, then the number of
cycles remaining is calculated as in (b) using an initial crack length
of 1.28 mm:
2 ⎡(0.00853)( 2 –3.4 ) /2 −(0.00128)( 2 – 3.4)/2 ⎦⎤
N= ⎣ = 2, 043,
(2 – 3.4)(2 ×10 –11 )(1.12)3.4 (300)3.4π 3.4/2
and 2,043 / 50,366 or 4% of the useful product life remains.

7–22 A material containing cracks of initial length 0.010 mm is subjected to alternating

tensile stresses of 25 and 125 MPa for 350,000 cycles. The material is then subjected
to alternating tensile and compressive stresses of 250 MPa. How many of the larger
stress amplitude cycles can be sustained before failure? The material
has a fracture toughness of 25 MPa m and materials constants of n = 3.1 and
C = 1.8 × 10–10 for these units. Assume f = 1.0 for all cracks.

Solution: The critical flaw size that will lead to failure under a stress of 250
MPa can be determined from the following equation:
K IC = f σ π a,
where KIC is the plane strain fracture toughness, f is the geometry
factor, σ is the applied stress, and a is the crack length. Rearranging,
2
1 ⎡ 25 MPa m ⎤
2
1 ⎛ KIC ⎞
a= = = 0.00318 m = 3.18 mm
⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎥
π fσ π 1.0(250 MPa)
⎝ ⎠ ⎣ ⎦
The stress value of 250 MPa is of interest since this is the applied stress
when the material fails. When subjected to the first round of cyclic
testing, the crack grows to a length a1 given by

112
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 2 ⎡(a )(2– n ) / 2 – (a )i (2– n ) / 2
N= ⎣ 1
(2 – n)Cf n Δσ nπ n /2
where ai is the initial flaw size and N is the number of cycles. The
term ∆σ is the difference between the maximum and minimum cyclical
stress, which in this case is 125 – 25 = 100 MPa. Substituting,
2 ⎡⎣(a 1)( 2 – 3.1)/2 – (0.00001)( 2–3.1)/2 ⎤⎦
350,000 = ,
(2 – 3.1)(1.8×10 –10 )(1.0)3.1 (100 MPa)3.1π 3.1/2
and solving for a1,
a1 = 0.0000476 m = 0.0476 mm.
Then the part is subjected to tensile and compressive cyclic stresses
of 250 MPa. The term ∆σ is the difference between the maximum
and minimum cyclical stress; however, a crack does not propagate
under compression. Therefore, ∆σ = 250 MPa. Solving for N with ai
= 0.0000476 m and ac = 0.00318 m,
2 ⎡ (a )( 2– n ) /2 – (a ) (2– n)/2 ⎤ 2 ⎡(0.00318) (2–3.1)/2 – (0.0000476) (2–3.1)/2 ⎤
N= ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
c i
n n /2 =
(2 – n)Cf Δσ π n
(2 – 3.1)(1.8×10 )(1.0) (250 MPa) π
–10 3.1 3.1 3.1/2

= 13,560 cycles.

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