24.3 Atomic Structure (8) Bots fit potlte Electron ca reve ound annclens ol i certain allowed dnt orbits Jorwhick the trl angier momenta i ev egraluntipe of were his plans content i" Lemire 1-423, Lis the angular momentum of the revolving electron Bokr’s second postulate - When an electron jumps from higher energy orbit, Ei to a lower energy orbit, Ey the difference in the energy is radiated as a photon. EE hf where fis frequency of ratiation. @ — When an electron revolves sound a nucleus, the electrostatic force between the electron and the proton in the aucleus supplies the centripetal force Feantripetat F, electrostatic move Substitute 2 into 1For a ground state hyccogen electron, ne land Z eB 1 Game? ry = 0.53% 107? me (a) Total energy of the electron= KE + PE _ikze® _kzZe? 24 r kaze ar neh? oem Puttingr = = 28? mk2z7e* Phe a> substitute k= = 20?mz%e* Gren ne = 2n?mze4 on? eg2n2h® _ omztet © 8 eon? For hydrogen Zai,Es 713.6 re‘The -ve sign implies that electron is bound to the ucleus, Asin increases, the totel energy of electronis more ‘than thet in the inner orbits (8) Evidence ofthe existence of discrete electron entrgy levels in stomsis provided by line spectrum, When en electron in the excited state i drops to slower energy level By, the energy difference (B)—Ei) is emitted ase photon of frequency given by i= @-B) Since the energy levels are quantized, photons of discrete frequency are emitted and form line spectrum. Paachen sores (aoa) [ator sor (Waa gt end Eyenaaey {ata eds) ‘jon sores (Unravalaty Eent0w Figue shows the transitions of the electron in the hydrogen etom thet produces the line spectrum of hhyckogen All the possible transtions are grouped into series. Each series consists of trnsitions ending on pesticuler level ‘The Lyman series consists of trenstions ending on the ground stete, n= 1. The photons emitted are ‘traviolet radiations. The Belmer sesies ending on the first excited state, a= 2 are visible light. The Paschen series ends at n= 3, end ere all infrared radiations (©) The stom is seid to be in the ground state ifthe electronis atthe lowest energy level, Ep. The etom is most stable at this state. The atom is in the excited state when the electron is at eny one of the energy levels higher then the ground state, such as Es By ‘The energy sequited by the electron to move up from the ground state, m= 1 to the first excited state, w= 2is excitation energy of the stom. ‘The ionisation energy ofthe stom is the energy required by en electron in the ground state to escape completely from the attraction of the sucleus‘There are two ways electrons can be excited (@ Bombardment by en electron ‘When @ fast electron collides with the electron in the ground state, energy is transferred to the electron, in the ground state. This ceuses the electron to transit to a higher energy level. The atom is seid to be excited. If the electron is ejected from the atom, then the stom is ionised, The excited electron does not stay long in the excited stete but falls back toe lower energy level. In the process a photon equals to the energy difference ‘between the initial higher energy level and the lower energy level is emitted (© Absomption of a photon (One way the electron cen be excited or ionized is to absorb # photon. The energy of the photon hf must bbe equal to the energy difference between the initial lower energy level and the final higher energy level. Since the excited electron falls back to the lower energy level by emitting « photon equal to the energy difference ‘between the two energy levels, an stom would ebsorb photons which have the seme frequencies as the frequencies of the photons it emits. Example 5 (@ Explain the terms energy levels in an atom, and state the reason for its negetive signs (© Explain whet do you understand by @) the ionisation energy of en atom, (@ the occurrence of aline spectrum (©) A hydcogen atom in its second excited state undergoes a transition to the ground state by emitting photons, Determine the possible wavelengths of the emitted photons. (@ A hydrogen atom is excited with its electron in the energy level n= 4. Determine the energy, in eV, thet is required to ionise it (© An electron with energy 1 80 x 107°J collides with « hydrogen atom in its ground state end the electronis deflected If the hydrogen stom is excited with its electron in the energy level n= 2, determine the energy of the deflected electron [The enesgy level for hydrogen atom is —2* ey where mis en integer] Shion (The eoegy level oe hyhogen sam, Ea= «226 ee the total nt tic energy + elec pote energy) of electron inthe hyécogen som. The negative sign indctes thatthe force bebreen the meleus end Alcon traction free (@ 6) Ioniston energy of inkogen stom is the minimum energy required remove the leon inthe ground ste fom te atom (@ When electon rants fiom aight energy level oa lower energy lve te ference in energy ofthe leon is radiated asa photon Becmuse the energy levels in en stom are sree, «spectrum line which consis of ember of ines wth discrete waveenghsispodaced (© Elen in the second excited ate may tant directly tothe rom st, or tothe it excited sae flowed by tnsiton tothe gound sate as shown nthe degen244 X-rays (® An X-ray tube is shown in the diagram below vacuum A heavymetal target _ Arprer anode % ray beam, ‘When a potential difference is epplied across the enode end cethotl, the electrons from the filement are accelerated towards the target metal. When the electrons bombard the target metal, «radiation of X-ray is produced. The spectrum of X-rays es shownin the figuee below. y X-ray intensity Ne 0.1 0.2 Wavelength, \ (nm) ‘The X-ray spectra consist of continuous spectrum and characteristics line spectrum, @ 1. Characteristic line spectrin: If the electron has enough energy it cen knock an orbitel electron out of the inner electron shel of metal atom, and asa emt, electrons from higher energy levels then fll up the vacency and X-ray photons are emitted. This process produces an emission spectrum of X-rays at @ few discrete frequencies, sometimes referred to as the spectral lines. The spectral lines generated depend on the target (anode) element used and thus are celled charecteistic Hines. Ususlly these aze tuansitions from upper shells info K shell (called K lines), info L shell (called lines) and so on. 2. Continuous spectrum: The majority of the electrons colliding with the taiget ae stopped after a few collisions with atoms of the target. For each collision a fection of the energy of the electron is converted into a photon of X-ray. Since the fraction of the energy of the colliding electron which is converted into Xay photon differs for different electrons, X-aays of different wavelengths ace produced These X-cays formed the continuous background spectrum© A photon of X-ray of minimum wavelength Aesais produced when the energy of an electron accelerated ‘through the X-ray tube is completely convested into a photon of X-ray. This happens when the electron colliding with the target is decelerated and stoppediin a single collision. he “tee Faux ™ maximum frequency of X-ray photon ‘ai = minimum wavelength of x-ray photon = Plenck constant = speed of light in vacuum Example 6 Blectronsin en X-ray tube are accelerated by a potential difference of 10 LV. Whetis the minimum wavelength ofthe resulting X-rays? Solution: er nin (6.63 x 10*4)(3.00 x 108) (60% 10-2°)(d0 w 108) =12210%m X-Ray Diffraction oO T d / ALS Pipa ‘Two beans with identical wavelength and phase approech «crytelline solid and ae scattered off two diferent stoms-withinit The lover beam traverses an extra lengh of 2 iin8. Constructive interference occurs when this length is equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength ofthe radiation. Bragg diffraction ocows when radietion, with wavelength comparable to atomic spacing, is scattered in a specular feshion by the atoms of « crystalline system, and undergoes constructive interference () For a cystlline solid the waves axe scattered from Latice planes separated by the interplanar distance d ‘When the scattered waves intesfece constructively, they remsin in phase since the difference between the path lengths of the two waves is equal to aninteger multiple ofthe wavelength. The path difference between to waves undergoing interference is given by 2d snd, where 8s the seatering/elencing angle (see figure below).‘The path difference between twowaves= AB+BC = dsind+ dsind 2d sind ‘The effect of the constructive or destructive interference intensifies because of the cumulative effect of reflection in successive crystallographic planes of the crystalline lattice. This leads to Bragg’s ew, which describes the condition on @ for the constructive interference to be at its strongest 2dsiné = nd, where nis « positive integer, @is the glancing angle and is the wavelength of incident wave. Example 7 (@ State two characteristics of X-ray. (®) When a monochromatic X-ray beam of wavelength §.3 x 10" m fell on the suface of a sodium chloride caystal, the first order Bragg diffraction occurs ata glancing engle of 8.5" @ Calculate the seperation of the atomic plane @ Determine the maximum order of diffraction thet can be obtained Solution: (@ Shost wavelength, electromagnetic wave, travels with the speed of light, high penetration power (OO 2dsine=m 2dsin8.5°= (1) 83x 10% d=28x10%m @ 2dsne=m na sne=24.5 Nanoscience (O) Nanoscience is the study of structures end materials on the scale of 1 nm to 100 am. metric prefix 10° (Applications of nanoscience flexible electronic circuit. integrating silicon nanophotonics components nanomagnets as switches silver nanopartile ink nanotube transistors. vvyvyyy semiconductor nanowires Example 8 State three advantages ofthe use of nanoscience in electronic devices Solution: 1. Smoller size devices 2. Faster processing of date 3. Lighter weight and thinner devices ‘Nano refers to the