SF017

The study of interference,

diffraction and polarization
of light. Light is treated as
waves rather than as rays.

UNIT 2:Physical Optics

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2.1 Wavefronts
{ Definition – is defined as a line or surface, in the path of a wave
motion, on which the disturbances at every point have the same
phase.
{ Figure below shows the wavefront of the sinusoidal waves.
wavefront
A D

B v
E

C F

λ
z Line joining all point of adjacent wave, e.g. A, B and C or D,E and
F are in phase
z Wavefront always perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation.

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{ Type of wavefronts
(a) Circular Wavefront

Source, S

(b) Plane wavefront

Plane wavefront

Simulation
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{ Ray
Definition - A ray is a line represents the direction of travel of a wave.
It is at right angle to the wavefronts

ray

λ
wavefront

{ Beam of light
A collection of rays or a column of light
(a) parallel beam, e.g. a laser beam

Source of
light from
infinity
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(b) divergent beam, e.g. a lamp near you

(c) convergent beam

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2.2 Huygens’ Principle

{ State – Every point on a wavefront can be considered as a source of
secondary wavelets that spread out in the forward direction at
the speed of the wave. The new wavefront is the envelope of
all the secondary wavelets - i.e. the tangent to all of them.

Secondary wavefront

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2.2.1 Application of Huygens’ Principle

(a) Construction of new wavefront for a plane wave

{ If the wave speed is v, hence in

time t the distance travels by the
A A’
P1 Q1 wavelet is s = vt.
{ From Huygens’ Principle, points
P2 Q2 P1, P2, P3 and P4 on the
wavefront AB are the sources
Q3 of secondary wavelets.
P3
{ From the points, draw curves of
radius s.
P4 s Q4
{ Then draw a straight line A’B’
B B’ which is tangent to the curves at
points Q1,Q2,Q3 and Q4
{ Hence, line A’B’ is the new
wavefront after t second.

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(b) Construction of new wavefront for a circular wave

A’ Q1 { Explanation as in the
construction of new wavefront
for a plane wavefront
A Q2 { But the wavefront A’B’ is a
P1 s curve touching points Q1,Q2,Q3
P2 and Q4.
source { The curve A’B’ is the new
P3
(circular) wavefront after t
P4 Q3 second.
B

B’ Q4

Ray

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(c) Diffraction of wave at a single slit

{ Huygens’ principle can be used to explain the
diffraction of wave.
{ Each of the point in figure shown, acts as a
secondary source of wavelets (red circular arc)
{ The tangent to the wavelets from points 2, 3 and
4 is a plane wavefront.
{ But at the edges, points 1 and 5 are the last
points that produce wavelets.
{ Huygens’ principle suggest that in conforming to
the curved shape of the wavelets near the
edges, the new wavefront bends or diffracts
around the edges - applied to all kinds of waves.

{ If the size of the slit is small (a << λ), then

diffraction will occur as shown in figure .

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2.3 Interference of Light waves

{ Light waves are electromagnet waves.
{ Consists of varying electric field E and varying magnetic field B
which are perpendicular to each other

Electric field: E = EO sin (ωt-kx)

Magnetic field: B = BO sin (ωt-kx)
{ Interference
When two light waves meet at a point, a bright or a dark region
will be produced in accordance to the Principle of
Superposition.
{ Principle of Superposition:
The resultant displacement at any point is the vector sum of
SF027 the displacements due to the two light waves. 10
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{ Constructive interference
} Reinforcement of amplitudes of light waves that will produce a
bright fringe (maximum).
{ Destructive interference
} Total cancellation of amplitudes of light waves that will produce a
dark fringe (minimum).

2.3.1 Conditions for Fixed Interference

(a) Two coherent sources,
{ The sources must have the same wavelength
(monochromatic).
{ the sources must have a constant phase difference between
them.
(b) The waves that are interfering must have the same or
approximately the same amplitude to obtain total cancellation at
minimum or to obtain a good contrast at maximum.

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2.3.2 Path Difference, ∆L

{ Definition – is defined as the difference in distance from each source
to a particular point.

P
P

x1
x2
S1

S2

Path Difference, ∆L = |S2P - S1P|

= |x2 –x1|
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2.3.3 Interference of two coherent sources in phase

{ Path difference for constructive interference

™ Therefore
2π
x1 2 mπ = ∆L
S1 λ
∆L = mλ
S2 x2 where m = 0,1,2,.....
λ : wavelength
™ A bright fringe at P if ™ Note
∆Φ = 2mπ where m = 0,1,2,...
When
™ At P, m=0 Central bright fringe
E1 P = E0 sin(ωt − kx1 )
m=1 1st bright fringe
E2 P = E0 sin(ωt − kx2 )
then m=2 2nd bright fringe

∆Φ = (ωt − kx2 ) − (ωt − kx1 )

2π
∆Φ = k ( x1 − x2 ) since k = and
2π λ
SF027 ∆Φ = ∆L ( x1 − x2 ) = ∆L 13
λ

{ Path difference for destructive interference

™ Therefore
2π
( 2m + 1)π = ∆L
λ
 1
™ A dark fringe at Q if ∆L =  m + λ
∆Φ = (2 m + 1)π  2
wherem = 0,1,2,... where m = 0,1,2,.....
™ At Q, ™ Note
E1Q = E0 sin(ωt − kx1 ) When
E2 Q = E0 sin(ωt − kx2 ) m=0 1st dark fringe
then m=1 2nd dark fringe
∆Φ = (ωt − kx2 ) − (ωt − kx1 ) m=2 3rd dark fringe
2π
∆Φ = k ( x1 − x2 ) since k = and
λ
2π ( x1 − x2 ) = ∆L
∆Φ = ∆L
SF027 λ 14
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{ Interference pattern for two coherent sources in phase

∆Φ m ∆L
2nd bright fringe 4π 2 2λ
2 dark fringe
nd 3π 1 3
2
λ
1st bright fringe 2π 1 λ
S1 1 dark fringe
st π 0
1
2
λ
Central bright fringe 0 0 0
1st dark fringe π 0 1
λ
2
S2 2π 1
1st bright fringe λ
2nd dark fringe 3π 1 λ
3
2
2nd bright fringe 4π 2 2λ

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2.3.4 Interference of two coherent sources in antiphase

{ Path difference for constructive interference
x1
S1 P ™ Therefore
 2π 
2mπ =  ∆L  − π
 λ 
x2  1
S2
∆L =  m + λ
 2
where m = 0,1,2,.....
™ A bright fringe at P if
™ Note
∆Φ = 2mπ where m = 1,2,...
When
™ At P, m=0 1st bright fringe
E1 P = E0 sin(ωt − kx1 )
m=1 2nd bright fringe
E2 P = E0 sin(ωt − kx2 − π )
then m=2 3rd bright fringe

∆Φ = (ωt − kx2 − π ) − (ωt − kx1 )

2π
∆Φ = k ( x1 − x2 ) − π since k = and
 2π  λ
SF027∆Φ =  ∆L  − π ( x1 − x2 ) = ∆L 16
 λ 
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{ Path difference for destructive interference

S1 x1 ™ Therefore
 2π 
Q (2m + 1)π =  ∆L  + π
 λ 
S2 x2
∆L = mλ
where
™ A dark fringe at Q if
m = 0,1,2,.....
∆Φ = (2 m + 1)π
™ Note
where m = 0,1,2,...
When
1Q = E0 sin(ωt − kx1 )
™ At Q, E
m=0 Central dark fringe
E2 Q = E0 sin(ωt − kx2 + π )
m=1 1st dark fringe
then
∆Φ = (ωt − kx2 + π ) − (ωt − kx1 ) m=2 2nd dark fringe
2π and
∆Φ = k ( x1 − x2 ) + π since k =
λ
 2π  ( x − x 2 ) = ∆L
∆Φ =  ∆L  + π 1
SF027  λ  17

{ Interference pattern for two coherent sources in antiphase

∆Φ m ∆L
2nd dark fringe 5π 2 2λ
2nd bright fringe 4π 1
3
2
λ
1st dark fringe 3π 1 λ
S1 1st bright fringe 2π 0
1
2
λ
Central dark fringe π 0 0
1st bright fringe 2π 0 1
λ
2
S2 3π
1st dark fringe 1 λ
2nd bright fringe 4π 1 3
2
λ
2nd dark fringe 5π 2 2λ

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{ Summary of 2.3.3 and 2.3.4

2 Coherent sources Bright fringe Dark fringe

∆L = mλ  1
∆L =  m + λ
 2
In phase m = 0,1,2,.....
m = 0,1,2,.....
∆Φ = 2mπ ∆Φ = (2 m + 1)π
m = 0,1,2,... m = 0,1,2,...

 1 ∆L = mλ
∆L =  m + λ
 2 m = 0,1,2,.....
Antiphase m = 0,1,2,.....
∆Φ = 2mπ ∆Φ = (2 m + 1)π
m = 1,2,... m = 0,1,2,...

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2.3.5 Methods of obtaining two coherent sources

(a) Division of wavefront

{ A slit S is placed at equal distance
from slits S1 and S2 as shown in
figure.
{ Light waves from S that arrived at S1
and S2 are in phase.
{ Therefore, both slits S1 and S2 are
two new coherent sources,
e.g. in Young’s double slit
experiment
(b) Division of amplitude
Incident ray 1 2 { The incident wavefront is divided into
two waves by partial reflection and
partial reflection
partial transmission.
{ Both reflected waves 1 and 2 are
coherent and will result in
interference when they superpose.
{ e.g. Newton’s ring, air wedge fringes
and thin film interference.
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2.4 Young’s Double-slit experiment

{ Figure below shows the schematic diagram of Young’s double-slit
experiment. Intensity

Max
Min
Max
S1 Min
Max
S2 Min
Max
Single
slit Double Min
slits Max
{ Explanation of Young’
Young’s double-
double-slit experiment. by using
Screen
Huygens’
Huygens’ principle
™ Wavefront from light source falls on SO and diffraction occurs.
™ Every point on the wavefront that falls on SO acts as sources of
SF027
secondary wavelets that will produce a new wavefront that 21
propagate to slits S1 an S2 .

™ S1 and S2 are two new sources of coherent waves in phase

because they originate from the same source SO .
™ An interference pattern is formed on the screen.
2.4.1 Equation of Young’s double-slit experiment

M
∆y
P

ym+1
θ ym
S1

d Q θ
N O
N
S2 mλ

D
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{ Suppose P as shown in figure is the mth bright fringe, so that

S2P –S1P = mλ
{ Let OP = ym = distance from P to O .

{ If NP = S1P then S2N = S2P-NP = mλ.

{ In practice d is very small (<1mm) and D>>d, then S1N meets PQ
at right angle. Therefore,

angle PQO = angle S2S1N = θ

{ From the figure,
S 2 N mλ
∆ S2S1N sin θ = =
S 2 S1 d
PO ym
∆PQO tanθ = =
QO D
Since θ is small, tan θ =sin θ
ym mλ
∴ =
SF027
D d 23

{ Therefore, the separation between central bright fringe with mth and
(m+1)th bright fringe is given by
For the mth bright fringe :

mλD
ym =
d
For the (m+1)th bright fringe :

(m + 1)λD
y m +1 =
d
{ The separation between successive (consecutive) bright or dark
fringes, ∆y is given by
(m + 1)λD mλD
∆y = y m + 1 − y m = −
d d
λD where
∆y =
d m : order = 0,1,2,.....
λ : wavelength
D : distance between double - slits and the screen
SF027
d : separation between double - slits 24
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{ The separation between mth dark fringe and central bright fringe is
given by
1 λD where
xm = ( m + 2 )
d m : order = 0,1,2,.....
2.4.2 Appearance of Young’s Double-slit experiment
From the equation below,
λD
{

∆y =
{ ∆y depends on : d
i) the wavelength of light, λ
ii) the distance apart, d of the double slits,
iii) distance between slits and the screen, D
{ Explanation for the above factors:

(a) if λ is short and hence ∆y decreases for fixed D and d. The

interference fringes are closer to each other and vice-versa.

(b) if the distance apart d of the slits diminished, ∆y increased for fixed D
and λ and vice-versa.

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(c) if D increases ∆y also increases for fixed λ and vice-versa.

(d) if the source slit SO is widened the fringes gradually disappear.
The slit SO then equivalent to large number of narrow slits, each
producing its own fringe system at different places. The bright
and dark fringes of different systems therefore overlap, giving
rise to a different illumination.
(e) if one of the slit, S1 or S2 is covered up, the fringes disappear.

(f) if the source slit SO is moved nearer the double slits, ∆y is

unaffected but their intensity increases.
(g) if the experiment is carried out in a different medium, for example
water, the fringe separation ∆y decreased or increased
depending on the wavelength, λ of the medium.
(h) if white light is used the central bright fringe is white, and the
fringes on either side are coloured. Blue is the colour nearer to
the central fringe and red is farther away as shown in figure
below.

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Table below shows the range of wavelength for colours of visible

light.
Colour Range of λ/nm
Violet 400 – 450
Blue 450 – 520
Green 520 – 560
Yellow 560 – 600
Orange 600 – 625
Red 625 - 700

Simulation

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{ Example 1
In a Young’s double experiment, the slits separation is 1.0 mm. The distance
between the slits and the screen is 1.0 m. The wavelength of the sodium light
used is 5.9 x 10-5 cm.
a. Calculate the separation between two consecutive dark fringes.
b. If the sodium light is replaced with a blue light, what is the changes
to the interference pattern on the screen?

Solution: d = 1 x 10-3 m, D = 1.0 m, λ =5.9 x 10-7 m

a. By applying the formula below,
λD
∆y =
d
∆y = 5.9 x10 −4 m
b. Sodium light is yellow
λD
λblue < λyellow and ∆y = , where D and d are constant
d
∆yblue < ∆y yellow
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hence, the fringes get closer to each other.
SF017

{ Example 2
A monochromatic light of wavelength 600 nm falls on a system of
double-slits of unknown slit separation. At the same time, the double-
slits is illuminated by a monochromatic light of unknown wavelength. It
was observed that the 4th order maximum of the known wavelength light
overlapped with the 5th order maximum of the unknown wavelength
light. Find the wavelength of the unknown wavelength light.

Solution: λ1 = 600 x 10-9 m

4th order 5th order
maximum maximum
S1 S1
d zeroth order d zeroth order
S2 S2
maximum maximum
D D
λ1 λ2 = ?
By applying the separation from central bright fringe for maximum
(bright) fringe, thus mDλ
ym =
For 4th order maximum : d For 5th order maximum :
4 Dλ1 5 Dλ2
SF027 y4 = y5 = 29
d d

Because the fringe is overlap, thus

y4 = y5
4 Dλ1 5 Dλ2
=
d d
λ2 = 4.8 x10 −7 m or 480 nm
{ Example 3: A
S1
3mm
S2
2m

B
The above figure shows two coherent sources of light S1 and S2 in
phase. The separation of S1 and S2 is 3.0 mm and the screen is 2.0 m
from the source.
a. The frequency of the light from S1 and S2 is 6 x 1014 Hz. Calculate
i) the wavelength of the light used
ii) the separation between two consecutive bright fringes if the
experiment is carried out in air.
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b. If the experiment is carried out in an optical medium of refractive

index 1.3 with the same setup, calculate the separation of two
consecutive bright fringes.

Solution: d = 3 x 10-3 m, D = 2 m, f = 6 x 1014 Hz

a. i. By using the wave speed equation,
c = λa f where c : speed of light = 3.0 x10 8 m s -1
λ a = 5 x10 −7 m
ii. Apply the formula of separation between consecutive fringes,
λa D
∆y =
d
∆y = 3.33x10 −4 m
b. Given n = 1.3
From the definition of refractive index,
c λa f
n= = λ m = 3.85 x10 −7 m
v λm f
Apply the formula of separation between consecutive fringes,
λm D
SF027
∆y ' = ∆y ' = 2.56 x10 −4 m 31
d

{ Example 4 : (exercise)
Young’s double-slit experiment is performed with 589-nm light and a
distance of 2.00 m between the slits and the screen. The tenth
interference minimum is observed 7.26 mm from the central maximum.
Determine the spacing of the slits.
(No.37.5 pg1198 Physics for scientists and engineers – Serway)
Ans: 1.54 mm
{ Example 5 : (exercise)
A Young’s interference experiment is performed with monochromatic
light. The separation between the slits is 0.500 mm, and the interference
pattern on a screen 3.30 m away shows the first side maximum 3.40
mm from the centre of the pattern. What is the wavelength?
(No.37.2 pg1197 Physics for scientists and engineers – Serway)
Ans: 515 nm

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2.5 Interference of Air Wedge

S L Q

air
O P tm Tn = 1
α
X B Y
lm
L
{ Explanation:
Ray S incident at point O is
(i) partially reflected (ray OL)
(ii) refracted (OB) and then reflected
at B (ray PQ)
m 00 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 (iii) The two wave-trains are coherent
1stdark since both have originated from
fringe the same point O.
(iv) OL and PQ produce interference if
brought together by the eye or a
SF027 33
∆x microscope

(v) Since the incidence is nearly normal (point P very close to O), the path
difference between the rays at O (ray OL and ray OBPQ) is given by,
path difference, ∆L = OB +BP = ntm + ntm
= 2ntm where n is refractive index of air = 1.0
(vi) At X, tm = 0 and thus the path difference = 0 and a bright fringe is expected,
but a dark fringe is observed at X. This is due to the phase change of π rad
for ray PQ (reflected at a denser medium at B) Simulation
(vii)Hence, ray PQ is in antiphase with ray OL and when brought together (by the
retina or lens) to interfere, a dark fringe is obtained.
1
For constructive interference : 2ntm = mλ + λ
(bright fringe) 2
1
2ntm = (m + )λ; m = 0 ,1,2,3,......... …..(1)
2
For destructive interference :
(dark fringe)
2 nt m = mλ ; m = 0,1,2,3,...... …..(2)
{ a phase change of π rad is equivalent to a path difference of ½ λ
SF027 34
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{ From equation (1) :

When m = 0, t0 = 41 λ 1st bright fringe (1st order maximum)
m = 1, t1 = 43 λ 2nd bright fringe (2nd order maximum)
m = 2, t 2 = 54 λ 3rd bright fringe (3rd order maximum)

i.e. Bright fringes are formed when the thickness of

air film, t m = 14 λ, 34 λ, 54 λ,.......
{ From equation (2) :
When m = 0, t0 = 0 1st dark fringe (1st order minimum)
m = 1, t1 = 21 λ 2nd dark fringe (2nd order minimum)
m = 2, t2 = λ 3rd dark fringe (3rd order minimum)

i.e. Dark fringes are formed when the thickness of

air film, t m = 0 , 12 λ, λ, ,.......
{ Notes :
{ Ray reflected on a denser medium π rad phase change
SF027 { Ray reflected on a less dense medium no phase change 35

{ fringe lm
The separation between the 1st dark fringe to the m th dark fringe,

T tm
tan α = =
L lm
tm
lm = …..(3)
tan α
mλ
From equation (2) : tm = substitute into equation (3)
2n
mλ
lm = …..(4)
2 n tan α
where
m = 0,1,2,.....
λ : wavelength
n : refractive index
SF027 α : angle of inclination of glass slide 36
SF017

{ fringe lm
The separation between the 1st dark fringe to the m th bright fringe,

(m + 12 )λ
From equation (1) : tm = substitute in equation (3)
2n
(m + 21 )λ
lm =
2 n tan α
where m = 0,1,2,.....
{ The separation between adjacent dark fringes or bright fringes,
fringes ∆x
Put m =1 into equation (4),

λ
∆x =
2 n tan α

SF027 37

2.6 Newton’s Ring

dm

(a) Apparatus setup

Explanation for the dark circle at

the centre is the same arguments
as for air wedge.
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(b) Newton’s Ring
SF017

For constructive interference :

(bright ring)
1
2 nt m = (m + )λ ; m = 0 ,1,2 ,3 ,......... …..(1)
2
For destructive interference :
(dark ring)
2 ntm = mλ ; m = 0,1,2,3,...... …..(2)

By using the figure below and Pythagoras’ theorem:

2
C d 
R 2 = ( R − tm ) 2 +  m 
 2  2
2 d
R = R − 2 Rt m − t m + m
2 2

R
4
2
R-tm t m is very small, hence t m ≈ 0
2
dm
A Y
= 2 Rt m …..(3)
4
dm where d m : diameter of ring
2 R : radius of curvature
SF027 t m : thickness of air 39

{ Diameter of dark ring

mλ
From equation (2) : tm = substitute in equation (3)
2n
d m2  mλ 
= 2 R 
4  2n 
4 Rmλ where
d m2 =
n m = 0,1,2,.....

When m=0 Central dark spot (zeroth order minimum),d 0 =0

m=1 1st dark ring (1st order minimum)
m=2 2nd dark ring (2nd order minimum)
m=3 3rd dark ring (3rd order minimum)

SF027 40
SF017

{ Diameter of bright ring

(m + 12 )λ
From equation (1) : tm = substitute in equation (3)
2n
 (m + 21 )λ 
2
dm
= 2R 
4  2n 
4 R(m + 21 ) λ where
d m2 = m = 0,1,2,.....
n

When m=0 1st bright ring (1st order maximum)

m=1 2nd bright ring (2nd order maximum)
m=2 3rd bright ring (3rd order maximum)
m=3 4th bright ring (4th order maximum)

SF027 41

2.7 Thin Film Interference

{ Thin oil films on water and soap bubble display rainbow like colours.
{ The colours are the result of constructive interference between light reflected
from two surfaces of the thin film.
2.7.1 Thin film on a denser medium, e.g non-reflective coating
{ The figure below shows the interference between light waves reflected from
the upper and lower surfaces of thin film (refractive index, n) on a denser
medium. Phase difference between ray 1 and ray 2,
π rad phase ∆φ = π − π = 0 2 sources
change
π rad phase in phase
change Path difference between ray 1 and ray 2,
path difference = 2 nt m
Constructive interference:
n1 = 1.0 where
2 nt m = mλ m = 0,1,2,.....
n = 1.5 tm
Destructive interference:
where
2 nt m = (m + 21 )λ
n2 = 3.5 m = 0,1,2,.....
SF027 42
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2.7.2 Thin film in air

{ The figure below shows the interference between light waves reflected from
the upper and lower surfaces of thin film (refractive index, n) in air.
Phase difference between ray 1 and ray 2,
π rad phase no phase
change
change ∆φ = π − 0 = π 2 sources in
antiphase
Path difference between ray 1 and ray 2,
path difference= 2ntm
n1 = 1.0 Constructive interference:
where
2 nt m = (m + 21 )λ
n = 1.33 tm m = 0,1,2,.....
Destructive interference:
n1 = 1.0 where
2 nt m = mλ
m = 0,1,2,.....

SF027 43

{ Example 6 :
Two flat microscope slides of 45 mm in length are in contact along one edge,
and the opposite edges are separated by a fine piece of wire. When the air-
wedge formed is illuminated by light of wavelength 430 nm, interference
fringes of separation 0.19 mm are observed.
Calculate:
a. the angle of the air wedge,
b. the diameter of the wire.

Solution: λ=430x10-9 m, L =45x10-3 m, ∆x =0.19x10-3 m, n = 1

α d
L
a. By applying the equation of separation between fringes in air wedge,
λ
∆x =
2n tan α
 λ 
α = tan −1  
 2 n∆x 
SF027
α = 1.13 x 10 −3 rad or 0.065o 44
SF017

b. From the figure, d

tan α =
L
d = 5.09 x10 −5 m
{ Example 7 :
A soap film reflects strongly red light (λ1 = 700 nm) and green light (λ2 = 500
nm ) when illuminated by white light. If the refractive index of soap is 1.40,
calculate minimum thickness of the soap film.

Solution: n = 1.40
For red light (λ1) – Constructive interference occurs if
1
2nt m = (m + )λ1 ; m = 0,1,2,3,......
2
(m + 12 )λ1
tm =
2n
When m =0 , hence
λ1
tm = = 125 nm
4n
SF027
For red light, the minimum thickness : 125nm. 45

For green light (λ2) – Constructive interference occurs if

(m + 21 )λ2
tm =
2n
When m =0 , hence λ
t m = 2 = 89.3 nm
4n
For green light, the minimum thickness : 89 .3 nm.
{ Example 8 :
In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the mth dark ring is 0.56 cm and
the diameter of the (m+19)th dark ring is 1.34 cm. Determine the radius of
curvature of the plano-convex used in the experiment if the wavelength of light
used is 589 nm.

Solution: dm = 0.56 x 10-2 m, dm+19 = 1.34 x 10-2 m, λ = 589 x 10-9 m

, n =1
For mth dark ring : d 2 =
4 Rmλ
m
n

SF027
(0.56 x 10 ) -2 2
= 4 Rmλ ..........(1)
46
SF017

For (m+19)th dark ring : d m2 +19 = 4 R(m + 19)λ

(1.34 x 10 ) -2 2
= 4 R (m + 19)λ ..........(2)
2
Divide eq. (2) by eq. (1):  1.34  m + 19
  =
 0.56  m
5.73m − m = 19
m=4 .........(3)
Substitute eq. (3) into eq. (1):
R = 3.33 m
{ Example 9 : (exercise)
A thin film of gasoline floats on a puddle of water. Sunlight falls almost
perpendicularly on the film and reflects into your eyes. Although the sunlight is
white, since it contains all colours, the film has a yellow hue, because destructive
interference has occurred eliminating the colour of blue (λ=469 nm) from the
reflected light. If the refractive indices for gasoline and water are 1.4 and 1.33
respectively, find the minimum thickness of the film.
Ans. : 168 nm
SF027 47

2.7 Diffraction of Light

{ Definition – is defined as the bending of waves as they travel
around obstacles or pass through an aperture comparable
to the wavelength of the waves.
{ For examples:
λ λ λ

(a) obstacle (b) a > λ (c) a ≈ λ

SF027 48
SF017

2.8 Diffraction by a single slit

-3λ/a -2λ/a -λ/a 0 λ/a 2λ/a 3λ/a sin θ

{ The central fringe is a bright

fringe (central maximum).
{ Other rays with angle θ and θ1 will
produce minimum and maximum
on both sides of the central
θ1
maximum.
θ

SF027 49

2.8.1 Equation of Single Slit Diffraction

P

yn

a A θ1
2 θ
1
a C aE Central
Q maximum
a sin θ1
2
2 B
a
sin θ1
2
D
screen
{ The slit is split into two equal parts, AC and CB. A,C and B are new
sources of secondary wavelets. (Huygen’s principle)
{ When the wavefronts from A, C and B superpose, interference will
occur at P.
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SF017

{ As AB is very small, thus AE is perpendicular to CP and AP = EP, and

therefore the path difference at P between ray AP and CP is :
a
path difference = CE = sin θ1
2
{ If the first minimum (first order) is at P, hence :
a λ
path difference = sin θ1 =
2 2
a sin θ 1 = λ
{ If AB is split into 4 equal parts, 6 equal parts and so on, we get:

2λ 3λ
a a
4 θ2 6 θ3
a a

Second
minimum
a λ Third
a λ
(2nd order sin θ 2 = minimum sin θ 3 =
minimum) 4 2 6 2
(3rd order
SF027 a sin θ 2 = 2λ minimum) a sin θ 3 = 3λ 51

{ In general, for minimum (dark fringes)

a sin θ n = nλ , where n = ±1,±2,±3,..

{ If the distance of single slit to the screen is D, and D>>a then:

yn
sin θ n = tan θ n =
D
{ The distance of nth order minimum from central maximum (zero-order
maximum) is:
nλD
yn = where n = ±1,±2,±3,.....
a
{ For bright fringes (maximum), slit a can be split into 3, 5, 7, …… equal
parts. a λ
3λ For 3 equal parts : sin θ1 =
2 3 2
a (1st order maximum) 3λ
3 θ1 a sin θ 1 =
a 2
a λ
For 5 equal parts :
sin θ 2 =
5 2
(2nd order maximum) 5λ
a sin θ 2 =
SF027 52 2
SF017

{ In general, for maximum (bright fringes)

a sin θ n = ( n + 12 )λ , where n = ±1, ±2, ±3,..

{ The distance of nth order maximum from central maximum (zero-

(zero-order
maximum) is:
(n + 12 )λD
yn = where n = ±1,±2,±3,.....
a
{ Notes:
{ For first minimum (n=1), the angle of
diffraction is θ1, but the angle 2θ1 is the
angle subtended by the central
θ1
y1 maximum.
maximum
θ1 y1 { The width of central maximum is 2y1
{ To calculate the maximum number of
2θ1 observed θ
orders observed, = 90o
SF027 53

{ Example 10 :
A monochromatic light of wavelength 6 x10-7 m passes through a single slit of
width 2 x 10-6 m.
a. Calculate the width of central maximum:
i. in degrees;
ii. in centimetres, on a screen 5 cm away from the slit
b. Find the number of minimum that can be observed.

Solution: λ = 6 x 10-7 m, a = 2 x 10-6 m

a. i. a sin θ n = nλ ; n =1
θ 1 = 17.46 o
The width of central max.,2θ 1 = 2 x17.46 o = 34.96 o
ii. Given D = 5x10-2 m
nλ D
yn = ; n =1
a
λD
y1 = = 0.015 m
a
SF027 The width of central max.,2 y1 = 2 x0.015 = 0.030 m = 3.054cm
SF017

b. a sin θ n = nλ
For maximum no. of n, θ = 90 o
a sin 90 o = nλ
a
n= = 3.33
λ
maximum order, n = 3
Thus the number of minimum that can be observed is 6.
{ Example 11 :
A beam of a monochromatic light of wavelength 600 nm passes through a
single slit of width 3 x 10-3 mm. The beam of light has a radius of 1.5 mm.
Calculate the distance of the screen from the slit so that the radius of the
central maximum is 2 times the radius of the light beam.
Solution: R = 1.5 x 10-3 m
a = 3 x10-3x 10-3 m
y=r = 3 x 10-6 m
R θ
λ = 600 x 10-9 m
y1 = r =2R= 2(1.5 x 10-3)
D
SF027 55
y1 =3.0 x 10-3 m

For central maximum :

nλ D
yn =
a
λD
when n = 1, y1 =
a
y1a (3.0x10 −3 )(3x10−6 )
D= =
λ 600 x10 −9
D = 1.5 x10 −2 m @ 1.5 cm
{ Example 12 : (exercise)
Monochromatic light of wavelength 689 nm falls on a slit. If the angle between
first bright fringes on either side of the central maximum is 38°, find the slit
width. (Gc.913.4)
Ans. : 3.2 µm
{ Example 13 : (exercise)
Light of wavelength 633 nm from a distant source is incident on a single slit
0.750 mm wide, and the resulting diffraction pattern is observed on a screen
3.50 m away. Determine the distance between the two dark fringes on either
side of the central bright fringe. (Young & freedman,pg.1396.36.4)
SF027 Ans. : 5.91 mm 56
SF017

2.8.2 Diffraction by a circular aperture

{ Circular aperture is a circular opening such as a circular lens which light can
pass.
{ The figures below show the diffraction by the circular aperture for one point
source and two point sources.
(a) A point source

Point
source Intensity

a
θ1

For first minimum,

1.22λ
sin θ1 = , where a : diameter of circular aperture
a
SF027
θ1 : diffraction angle of first minimum
57
ring

(b) Two point sources

S1
θ θ
S2

where θ : the angle subtended by two point sources

for example :

SF027 58
SF017

2.9 Diffraction Grating

{ Definition – is defined as a large number of equally spaced parallel slits.
{ Diffraction grating can be made by ruling very fine parallel lines on glass
(transmission
transmission grating)
grating or metal (reflection
reflection grating)
grating by a very precise
machine.
{ The untouched spaces between the lines serve as the slits as shown in
figure below.
{ Light passes through the slit because it is transparent.
d
{ The spaces between the lines are the slits, for example :
if there are four lines then we have 3 slits.

{ If there N lines per unit length, then slit separation, d is

given by: 1
d=
N
e.g. If a diffraction grating has 2000 lines per cm, then
lines slit 1 cm
d= = 5 x10−4 cm or 5x10-6 m
2000
{ The light that passes through the slits are coherent .
{ Interference pattern is narrower and sharper than double-slits.

SF027 { Diffraction grating is used in spectrometer to determine the wavelength

59 of
light and to study spectra.

2.9.1 Explanation of diffraction by using Huygens’ principle

C
first order wavefront
A

Source of secondary E
wavelets
second order wavefront

incident wave
third order wavefront
D
F
zero order wavefront

grating
B

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SF017

{ Using Huygens’ principle, each maximum is located by taking the tangent of

the wavelets from the slits.
{ If the wavelets from each of the slits are drawn and a tangent AB is drawn, a
plane wavefront parallel to the diffraction grating is obtained. This represents
the zeroth-order maximum (n = 0).
{ If the wavelets are grouped such that the first wavelet from one slit is
combined with the second wavelet from the next slit, the third wavelet from
the third slit and so on, the tangent CD will represent the first-order
maximum (n =1).
{ For the second-order maximum, the wavelets are grouped are such that the
second wavelet of one slit is combined with the fourth wavelet of the next
slit, the sixth wavelet from the third slit and so on. (tangent EF)
{ Similarly, the third-, fourth-,…. order maximum may be obtained.

SF027 61

2.9.2 Equation of Diffraction Grating

{ For constructive Interference
(bright):

(n =1) Path difference = nλ

d sinθn = nλ, n = 0,±1,±2,±3,...

where n : the nth order
(n =0)
θn: the nth angle
of diffraction
then nλ
(n =1) sin θ n =
d nλ
{ If θn = 90o, sin 90o =
d sinθ
d
d
n max =
d
θ
λ
θ where nmax : maximum number of
orders that can be
observed.
SF027 62
SF017

{ Figure below shows the diffraction grating pattern.

Second-order
maximum

θ2 First-order
maximum
θ1
Zero-order
maximum
First-order
maximum

Second-order
maximum

SF027 63

{ Example 14 :
A monochromatic light of wavelength 600 nm incident normally on a
diffraction grating. The angle subtended by the first-order maximum lines is
30o.
a. Calculate the number of lines per cm of the grating.
b. What is the angle between the first-order and second-order maximum
lines?

Solution: λ = 600 x 10-9 m, 2θ1 = 30o, θ1 = 15o, n=1

1st order max.
max
o θ1
30

1st order max.

max

a. By applying the equation of diffraction grating for maximum,

1
d sin θ n = nλ and d=
N
sin θ 1
N= N = 4.31x105 lines per m
SF027 (1)λ 64
or 4.31x10 3 lines per cm
SF017

b. By applying the equation of diffraction grating for maximum,

1
d sin θ n = nλ and d=
N
sin θ n = nNλ
For 2nd order, n=2:
sin θ 2 = (2)(4.31x105 )(600x10-9 )
θ 2 = 31.1o
thus, the angle between 1st and 2nd order maximum is given by
∆θ = θ 2 − θ1 = 16.1o
Second-order
maximum
∆θ
θ2 First-order
maximum
θ1
Zero-order
maximum
First-order
maximum

Second-order
SF027 65
maximum

{ Example 15 :
A diffraction grating with 600 lines per mm is illuminated normally with a
monochromatic light of wavelength 589 nm. Calculate
a. the angles of the first-order and second-order maximum lines from the
zero-order maximum line.
b. the number of orders that can be observed.

Solution: λ = 589 x 10-9 m, N = 600 lines per mm

a. By applying the equation of diffraction grating for maximum,
d sin θ n = nλ
 nλ 
θ n = sin −1  
 d 
θn = sin −1 Nnλ
For 1st order, n=1:
600 (1) (589x10-9 )
θ1 = sin −1
(1x10 −3 )
θ 1 = 20.7 o
SF027 66
SF017

For 1st order, n=2: 600 (2) (589x10-9 )

θ 2 = sin −1
(1x10 −3 )
θ 2 = 45 o
b. By applying the equation of diffraction grating for maximum,
nλ
sin θ n =
d
For the number of orders can be observed, θ=90°
nλ
sin 90o =
d
d 1
n= =
λ Nλ
(1x10−3 )
n=
600( 589x10−9 )
n = 2.8
n=2
hence, the number of orders can be observed is 2.

SF027 67

{ Example 16 : (exercise)
The first-order maximum line of 589 nm light falling on a diffraction grating is
observed at an angle of 15.5°. Determine
a. the slit separation on the grating.
b. the angle of diffraction for third-order maximum line. (Gc.914.32)
Ans. : 2.20 µm, 53.4°
{ Example 17 : (exercise)
A diffraction grating has 6000 lines per cm. Calculate the angular separation
between wavelengths 5.896 x 10-7 m and 5.461 x 10-7 m respectively after
transmission through it at normal incidence, in the first-order spectrum
(maximum line).
Ans. :1.60°
{ Example 18 : (exercise)-Newton’s ring
The diameters of the nth and (n+10)th bright rings formed by such a plano-
convex lens resting on a plane glass surface are respectively 0.14 cm and
0.86 cm. When the space between lens and glass is filled with liquid the
diameters of the qth and (q+10)th bright rings are respectively 0.23 cm and
0.77 cm. Determine the refractive index of liquid.
SF027 Ans. :1.35 68
SF017

2.10 Polarization of light waves

{ Wave motions are either longitudinal or transverse.
{ Longitudinal waves are waves in which the vibrations are along the
direction of the wave propagation (e.g. sound waves, compression waves
in string).
{ Transverse waves are waves in which the vibrations are perpendicular to
the direction of the wave propagation (e.g. electromagnetic waves, water
waves).
{ Transverse waves can be polarized, longitudinal waves cannot be
polarized.
{ If all the vibrations of a transverse wave are in a single plane which
contains the direction of propagation of the wave, the wave is said to be
plane-polarized (or linearly polarized).
{ Polarization of light is defined as the process of confining the
vibrations of the electric vector of light waves to one direction.
direction.
{ The analogy of polarization of light can be shown in figure below.

SF027 69

A vertically polarized wave passes A horizontally polarized wave

through a vertical slit cannot passes through a vertical slit

2.10.1 Polarization and light waves

{ Light wave is a varying electric (E) and
magnetic field (B), which are
perpendicular to each other.
{ Each of the fields is perpendicular to
the direction of propagation, and
therefore light is a transverse wave.
{ When light wave interact with matter,
A plane-polarized light wave the effects of the electric field
in xy-plane dominates those of the magnetic field,
thus the plane of polarization is
SF027
regarded as the plane that contains70E.
SF017

{ Most sources of light emit unpolarized light, which means that the source
has oscillations in many planes at once as shown in figure below.

2.10.2 Production of plane-polarized light by using Polaroid

{ Polaroid contains material that transmits light in one particular direction.

Io
Eo
I1=½Io
E=Eocos θ
Simulation

Sunglasses
SF027 71

{ From the relationship between intensity and amplitude of mechanical wave :

Intensity , I α A2
{ Due to electric field, the amplitude is E0, then
I o α Eo2 ......(1)
I α E 2 .......(2)
Divide Eqn. (2) by (1), 2
I  E 
{

= 
I o  Eo 
but, E = Eocos θ, hence

I = I o cos 2 θ Malus’
Malus’ Law

where I : intensity of transmitted light

I o : intensity of incident light
θ : rotation angle of polaroid
SF027 72
SF017

2.10.3 Production of plane-polarized light by reflection

{ When unpolarized light is reflected from a surface, the reflected light may be
completely polarized, partially polarized or unpolarized depending on the
angle of incidence.
{ If the angle is 0o, the reflected light is unpolarized. For other angles of
incidence, the reflected light is partially polarized, and for a particular angle
of incidence, the reflected light is completely polarized.
Incident light Reflected light { Suppose that an unpolarized light is
incidence on the surface as in Figure.
Each individual electric field vector can be
θ1 θ1
{
resolved into two components: one
parallel to the surface (dots) and the other
n1 (arrows) perpendicular both to the first
component and the direction of
n2 propagation.
{ The parallel components (dots) reflect
more strongly than the perpendicular
θ2 component and result in partially
polarized light. The refracted light is also
partially polarized.
Refracted light
SF027 73

{ Now suppose the angle of incidence θ1 is varied

until the angle between the reflected and the
refracted light is 90o as in Figure. Incident light Reflected light
{ At this angle of incidence, the reflected light is θp θp
completely polarized (with its E-field vector
parallel to the surface). n1
{ The refracted light is still only partially polarized. n2
{ The angle of incidence at which this polarization 90°
occurs is called the polarizing (Brewster)
angle, θp θ2
{ From Figure, θp + 90o + θ2 = 180o
{ Using Snell’s law of refraction, Refracted light
n2 sin θ1 sin θ p
= =
n1 sin θ 2 sin θ 2
n2 sin θ p
=
n1 sin θ 2

SF027 74
SF017

{ Because sin θ2 = sin (90o – θp) = cos θp

n2 sin θ p
= = tan θ p Brewster’
Brewster’s law
n1 cos θ p
where n2 : refractive index of medium 2
(containing the refracted ray)
n1 : refractive index of medium 1
(containing the incident ray)
I o : intensity of incident light
{ If the medium 1 is air (n1=1) and refractive index of medium 2, n2=n,
thus the Brewster’s law can be written as

n = tan θ p Brewster’
Brewster’s law for light travel
from air into medium.

where n : refractive index of medium

SF027 75

{ Example 19 :
When one of two parallel Polaroids is rotated 60o, calculate
a. the percentage of the intensity
b. the percentage of the amplitude of light that passed through it.
Solution:
a. By using the Malus’ law,
I = I o cos 2 θ
I 1
= cos 2 θ = cos 2 60 o =
Io 4
therefore, the percentage of intensity is given by
I
x100% = 25%
Io
b. From the relationship between intensity and amplitude of wave, we get
2
I  A A 1
=  =
I o  Ao  A0 2
then, the percentage of light amplitude is given by
A
SF027
x100% = 50% 76
Ao
SF017

{ Example 20 :
An unpolarized light is incident from air to a glass surface (n = 1.54). What
is the angle of incident if the reflected is completely polarized?
Solution:
By applying the Brewster’s law :
tan θ p = n
θ p = tan −1 1.54
θ p = 57 o = i
{ Example 21 : (exercise)
Light travelling in water strikes a glass plate at an angle of incidence of
53.0°, part of the beam is reflected and part is refracted. If the reflected and
refracted portions make an angle of 90.0° with each other, find the refractive
index of the glass. (Young & freedman,pg.1279.33.22)
(Given refractive index of water is 1.33)
Ans. : 1.77

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