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English Grammar: Logical Connectors

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 Logical Connectors
English Grammar
University of Tikrit
English Department
Sara Muayad Sultan
 What Are Connectors?

 They connect between ideas in

sentences and paragraphs.
They help your reader follow your
reasoning.
They are essential in producing good
writing.
What is wrong with these sentences?

I went to the beach.

There were too many
jellyfish. I decided to
stay. I had a good
time. I met some
friends
{Connectors Make Logical Connections}

I went to the beach.

Although there were
too many jellyfish, I
decided to stay. I had
a good time because I
met some friends
 Types of Logical Connectors

Coordinating conjunctions
 Combine two constituents of the same type to produce another larger
constituent of the same type
e.g. John likes ice cream and Tony does too.

Adverb subordinators
 Link one clause to another and they have the force of an adverbial
e.g. Although the black clouds looked threatening, no rain was predicted

Linking adverbs
 Connect independent clauses
e.g. The black clouds looked threatening, however, rain was predicted
 Common Problems that ESL/EFL Learners Have with the
Forms, Meanings, and Uses of Connectors

 Using a connector that does not have the appropriate meaning

for the context
e.g. The golden eagle is a large bird, with a wingspan of over 8 feet. *On the
contrary, some hummingbirds are not much bigger than large insects.

 Using a connector with an inappropriate level of formality (either

more formal or less)
e.g. I had a bad cold on Sunday. *Hence, I couldn’t go swimming.

 Using incorrect punctuation for a connector

e.g. * The road was closed, as a result, we had to take a detour.
 The overuse in academic writing
 Adverbial Subordinators
Simple Complex

after so/as long as

lest inasmuch as
once in that
before as soon as
when(ever) in case (that)
while now that
where(ver) in order that
although even if
Whereas provided that
though insofar as
as even though
since so that
Until given that
unless
because
If
 “Adverbial subordinators occur
in initial, medial, and final
positions”
- In case it rains, bring an umbrella
- We will not have our next class
until the end of the week
- Bring an umbrella in case it rains
Which one is an adv. Sub.?
Which one is a preposition?
 Since Monday, it was terrible
hot
 Since you talked to me about
it, I have become convinced
 Until it cools off, I am not doing
any yardwork
 We will not have our next class
until the end of the week
 Before/after the play ended,
many patron were crying
 Before/after the play, we had
coffee
 Linking Adverbs
Conjunctive Adverbials

Additionally Hence Moreover

After all However Nevertheless
Also In addition Next
Alternatively In any case/event on the contrary
As a result Indeed On the one/other hand
As a consequence In contrast Otherwise
besides In fact Rather
By contrast In other words Similarly
Consequently In particular Still
Conversely In spite of that That is
Despite that In sum Therefore
First(ly)..second(ly)..finally In turn Thus
For example/instance Last(ly)
furthermore likewise
 “Conjunctive adverbials are also
capable of appearing in different
places in a clause”
e.g. Raccoons and bears are related animals.
However, raccoons are much smaller.
e.g. Raccoons are much smaller, however.
e.g. Raccoons, however, are much smaller.
 Punctuation
The punctuation of sentences with logical connectors,
including coordinating conjunctions, adverb subordinators,
and linking adverbs, can be challenging for ESL/EFL learners
for several reasons:
 Because the three classes of connectors are functionally so
similar
e.g. I wanted to take an economics class winter term. *Although, I need to take
a statistics course first.
 Not all languages distinguish the three classes of connectors in
the way that English does
e.g. I wanted to see all the Harry Potter films. *Because I had read every book in
the series.
 Many of the linking adverbs such as in addition, nevertheless,
and consequently are rarely used in conversational English; as a
result, intonational cues as to where one might put commas or
other punctuation are not available to learners
 Punctuation with Coordinating
Conjunctions
There are three ways:

 e.g. They had just arrived at their vacation retreat,

but already they wanted to leave

 e.g. They had jut arrived and dinner was served

 e.g. They had just arrived. But they wanted to

leave when they learned that heavy rain was
expected for the entire week
Punctuation in Adverbial Subordinators
Depending on two-clause sequence
 If the subordinate clause comes first, a comma is placed at the end
to separate it from the main clause
e.g. Even though she tried every means possible, she could not steer the boat
out of the storm

 Usually no comma is used when the subordinate clause follows the

main clause
e.g. She could not steer out the bout out of the storm even though she tried
every means possible
Note! Avoid the writing error “sentence fragment”
*She could not steer the boat out of the storm. Even though she tried every
means possible.
 Punctuation with Linking Adverbs
1- When it is in the clause-initial position, usually it followed by a comma
- He tried every possible. However, he couldn't steer the boat out of the storm
- He tried every possible; however, he couldn't steer the boat out of the storm
*Note: some special conjunctive adverbials do not need a following comma
(nevertheless, thus, rather)
- Larry tried every possible. Nevertheless he couldn't steer the boat out of the
storm.
2- When it falls in middle of a clause, we need to bracket it in commas
- He tried every possible; he couldn't, however, steer the boat out of the storm.
*Note: the word (also), need not be set off with comma
- He tried every possible. His parents also tried.
3- when the conjunctive adverbials fall at the end of sentence, we don't usually
need a punctuation
- He was still trying every possible. He was too tired though.
*Note: (however) requires a comma before it
- He tried every possible. He couldn't steer the boat out of the storm, however.
 Other Problems with Connectors
Because vs. Because Of
While semantically and functionally similar, they are syntactically distinct
e.g. * We were late because of we had car problems.

As a result vs. As a Result Of

e.g. * As a result of I had a bad car accident, I missed several weeks of school.
Due To vs. On Account Of
e.g. * I could not finish my homework due to it was too hard.

For Example vs. Such As

(Such as) is most often followed by a noun, not by a full clause
e.g. We like beaches that have good surf such as Hapuna and Rincon.
(For example) may semantically connect constituents smaller than full clauses,
including nouns. However, it is most often set off from the main clause by a dash or a
colon
e.g. We like beaches that have good surf- for example, Hapuna and Rincon.
e.g. We like beaches that have good surf: Hapuna and Rincon, for example.
Other Problems with Connectors

During vs. While

(During) can appear only before noun phrases
e.g. During the course of the day, four meals were served.
e.g. During 1999, I was working in Europe.

(While) cannot appear before noun phrases

e.g. *While 1999, I was working in Europe.

e.g. while I was making dinner, the phone rang.

 The Meaning and Use

Truth conditional vs. Inferential

Truth-conditional connectors
like before/after, which contribute to propositional content and the truth-
falsity of the sequences in which they occur
e.g. Julius Caesar’s career was finished long before/after Napoleon rose to
power in France
Inferential connectors
like thus and therefore, which do not contribute to truth or falsity but which
do clarify the logical relationship the speaker/writer intends
 The Meanings of Adverb Clauses
Using adverbial clauses for modifying other clauses
 Time: after, as long as, as soon as, before, since, when, whenever, until
 Location: where, wherever
 Manner: as (e.g: Do that as your brother does it.), in that
 Purpose: so that, in order that
 Reason: since, because, as (e.g.: He left, as it was late.), inasmuch as, now that
 Circumstantial: by+ -ing
 Simultaneous: while, as (e.g: As I was leaving, I saw her.)
 Conditional: if, even if, as long as, in case, provide that
 Concessive: although, even though, though, while
 Substitutive: rather
 Additive: in addition, moreover, furthermore
 Absolutive: as participial constructions
 Concessives

The concessives- although, even though, though,

and while- fall within the class of inferential
connectors.

 The use of concessive expressions involves a functional sort

of contrast; the information in the main clause is normally
intended as the primary focus, and it is the concessive
expression that draws the reader/listener to that inference
e.g. Although she has done good paintings, she is not a real artist.
 Reason
Two Types of Because
Because in truth-conditions As an inferential connector

e.g. My friend was fired e.g. My friend was fired,

because he didn’t come to because I don’t see him
work on time. anywhere.

e.g. The poplar tree died e.g. I think this is a poplar

because it was attacked by tree, because the leaves
a disease. are pointed at the top.
 The Meanings and Uses of Linking
Adverbs

Additive Adversative Causal Sequential

in addition however therefore then

moreover nevertheless consequently next
that is in fact then last
for instance actually otherwise finally
likewise instead up to now
similarly on the to sum up
contrary
 Issues in The Teaching of Logical Connectors
 Problem: Incorrect meanings/ Misuse
Chinese L1 writers use the corrective adversative on the contrary instead of the
appropriate in contrast or on the other hand to signal a contrastive meaning
e.g. Most primates, including humans, are active during the day. *On the contrary,
some primate families, such as South American night monkeys, are solely
nocturnal.
 Problem: Inappropriate register
1- using informal connectors in formal registers, such as academic prose
2- using connectors appropriate to formal registers in less formal contexts
 Problem: Unclear reference
In written English, a lack of clear connection to previous information can create
reader comprehension problems

 Problem: overuse and underuse

 Teaching Suggestions
 Teaching logical connectors in context: Dictogloss,
rearrange a scrambled paragraph, giving an uncompleted
paragraph, students fill in the blanks, or complete
sentences using logical connectors
 Ask students to substitute logical connectors in sentences
from one register to another.
 Show them a paragraph with the overuse of logical
connectors, then help them to rewrite the paragraph.
 Give them the paragraph with 2 forms: subordinate clause+
main clause and vice versa, they have to choose the order,
then explain why
 Practice
 The concept of fairness is central to understanding plagiarism.
Fairness means being fair both to yourself and others. (1)______
, everybody both gives and receives their proper due, and
nobody has anything to complain about. (2)______ , an
incident involving unfairness could be taking someone else’s
work and passing it off as your own. (3)______ , the person
whose work has been taken receives no recognition or
acknowledgment for their research and thinking. (4)______ ,
writers who plagiarize are not being fair to themselves either
because they are not developing their own independent
academic skills. (5)______ , students who do their own work
with due acknowledgement of the work of others should
develop their own academic skills and self- confidence far
more than those who merely misuse the work of others.
(Furthermore, Moreover, As a result, For example, Therefore )
 References

• Larsen-Freeman, Diane, et al. The grammar book: Form, meaning, and use
for English language teachers. National Geographic Learning, Heinle
Cengage Learning, 2016.

• https://www.ccsoh.us/cms/lib/OH01913306/Centricity/Domain/207/ADDIN
G%20TRANSITIONS.pdf

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