+ve supply

Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps):

• Analogue integrated circuits designed for linear Inverting input _
amplification Output
• Offer near ideal characteristics: High voltage gain and Non-inverting input
input resistance. Low output resistance. Wide bandwidth
+
Fig. 1: Op-Amp symbol
• Universal ‘Gain Block’ to which external components are -ve supply
added in order to define their function within a circuit
+V supply rail
Symbols and connections +
• Device has 2 inputs and 1 output. No common U1
Positive rail
connection. supply

7
3
-
• Inverting (-) input produces an amplified output with 180˚ 2
6

phase shift (Compare to Common Emitter circuit).

4
1
5
741
+
• Non-inverting (+) input produces an output with unity Common 0V rail (Gnd)
Negative rail
gain and 0˚ phase shift (Compare to Common Collector supply
circuit). -
• Op-amp requires a symmetrical (dual rail) power supply -V supply rail
which allows the output voltage to swing both positive Fig. 2: Op-Amp supply connections
and negative. Hence 2 power supplies are required.
• The common connection to the 2 supplies (0V) is the
circuit common rail. Input & output voltages are Fig. 3: Typical 8-pin dual in line
(DIL) op-amp IC package
measured relative to this rail.

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 138

Applications
Op-Amp Parameters and Characteristics:
• Open Loop voltage gain Av(OL):
• Ratio of output voltage to input voltage (Vout/Vin) measured without feedback applied
• Can be considered as the ‘internal’ voltage gain of the device since no external components
are involved
• Value is exceptionally very high and varies from device to another
• Ideally it should be infinity
• Closed Loop voltage gain Av(CL):
• Ratio of output voltage to input voltage (Vout/Vin) measured with a small proportion of the
output fed back to the input (i.e. with feedback applied)
• Effect of negative feedback is to reduce the loop voltage gain
• In closed loop value of gain is predictable and can be controlled
• Input resistance:
• Ratio of input voltage to input current, expressed in ohms
• Depends upon the semiconductor technology employed (CMOS much higher than bi-polar)
• Ideally it should be infinity
• Output resistance:
• Ratio of open circuit output voltage to short circuit output current, expressed in ohms
• Ranges from less than 10Ω to around 100Ω, depending upon configuration and amount of
feedback used
• Ideally it should be 0Ω
MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 139
Applications
More Op-Amp Parameters and Characteristics: +Vs

• Input offset voltage:

• Ideally an op-amp should give 0V output when

7
U1
3
both inputs are equal, but in practice some inputs 2
741
6
output

output voltage will exist due to imperfect

internal op-amp balance

4
1
5
• Input offset voltage is the input voltage
required to produce a 0V output offset null control

• Minimized by applying large amount of

feedback or by using the offset null facility -Vs

provided by the Op-Amp IC Input voltage Vin

• Slew rate:
Time (t)
• Rate of change of output voltage with time, 0

when a square wave is applied to the input

• Measured in Volts/sec.
• Given by: Change in voltage (∆Vout) Output voltage Vout
saturation
Change in time (∆t) +Vs
Slope = Slew Rate
• Ideally it should be very high
Time (t)
• Change in voltage must be high compared with 0

change in time
saturation
-Vs

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 140

Applications
Negative feedback and bandwidth: +Vs
• Feeding back some (or all) of the output to the
inverting input

7
U1
• Produces a voltage at the output that opposes the 3
output
6
one from where it is taken inputs 2
741

• Reduces the new output from the amplifier

4
1
5
• Closed loop gain will be less than open loop gain
RF
but a wider range of voltages can be applied to the
input
• Some advantages are: some feedback applied
-Vs
• Gain is predictable and constant +Vs
• Distortion at output reduced
• Better frequency response (i.e. increased

7
bandwidth) U1
3
6
output
• Increased amplifier stability inputs 2
741

• One disadvantage:

4
1
5
• Loss of gain
• Can be overcome by connecting op-amp
stages together full feedback applied
-Vs

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 141

Applications
Op-Amp voltage amplifiers:
• Inverting amplifier with negative feedback:
• Feedback resistor R2 is feeding back a
fraction of the output to the inverting input
Point A
• Op-amp input resistance is infinity and so Op- R2

amp input current Iic is zero If

• When an input voltage Vin is applied to the Iin R1 Iic _
inverting input, a circuit input current Iin flows
through resistor R1 Ric = IC input
VRic
• Since value of Iic is zero, then value of If will resistance
+
be equal to Iin Vin
Vout
• Since value of Iic is zero, then value of op- R3
amp input voltage (VRic) will be zero
• So point A is at the same potential as Ground
(0V). Point A is called a virtual ground
• Then Vin = Iin x R1 and Vout = If x R2
• Gain Av = Vout = If x R2
Vin Iin x R1
• But If = Iin and then:

Gain Av = R2/R1

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 142

Applications
Circuit input impedance (resistance):
• Since point A is a virtual ground and since Vin
is applied with reference to ground
• Then R1 may be considered as connected in
parallel with the op-amp input impedance Point A R2

• The circuit input impedance hence becomes the If

total value of the parallel combination R1//Ric
Iin R1 Iic _
• Ric is very high, and so the input impedance of
the circuit becomes practically equal to R1 Ric = IC input
VRic
• In this way the input impedance of the circuit resistance
+
can be controlled by varying R1 Vin
Vout
R3

Function of resistor R3:

• To preserve symmetry
• To minimize the effect of offset voltage
• Value should be equivalent to the parallel
combination of R1 and R2

R3 = R1 + R2
R1 x R2

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 143

Applications
Op-Amp voltage amplifiers:
• Non-inverting amplifier
• Input voltage applied to the non-inverting (+) input. This produces a Vout which is in phase with
the input. Since the (+) input circuit is equivalent to the Common Collector connection, no gain is
produced by Vin
• Gain is achieved by the inverting input, which is equivalent to the Common Emitter connection.
Inverting input is connected to ground via R1. Portion of the output current is fed back via R2 to
the (-) input. This is If
• Due to op-amp infinite input resistance, value of input currents Iin(1) and Iin(2) is zero
• Hence the value of the current fed back (If) is equal to the current flowing to ground via R1 (Iin3)
• Voltage Vin developed across R1 is then:
If R2
Iin(3) x R1
• Also the value of Vout is the voltage Iin(3) R1 _
developed across potential divider formed by Iin(2)
R1 and R2 and is given by: Ric = IC infinite
input resistance
If x (R1 + R2)
R3
• Hence the gain then becomes:
Iin(1) + Vout
Vin
Av = Vout = If x (R1 + R2) = R1 + R2 = 1 + R2
Vin Iin(3) x R1 R1 R1
(Keep in mind that If = Iin(3), and hence they cancel)

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 144

Applications
Non-inverting Amplifier input impedance:
• Due to the infinite input resistance of the Op-Amp IC, the input current [Iin(1)] at the (+) input and
the input current is zero [Iin(3)] at the (-) input are both zero
• Due to the same reason we can consider that there is an open circuit between the (+) and (-) inputs
• Hence there is no ‘virtual earth’ at the non-inverting input
• So the input impedance of the non-inverting amplifier circuit is much higher than that of the inverting
amplifier circuit
• The non-inverting amplifier is then unaffected if the gain is altered by changing R2 and/or R1
• So an advantage of this circuit is that it offers good matching with high gain

Practical Voltage Gain: If R2

• It is obtained by measuring the values of
the applied Vin to the (+) input and the Iin(3) R1 _
resulted Vout. Iin(2)
• Gain Av is then calculated normally with Ric = IC infinite
input resistance
the formula:
R3

Iin(1) + Vout
Linear Gain Av = Vout / Vin Vin

(Please note that the same applies to the inverting

amplifier. The only difference would be that the
output is 180 degrees phase shifted)

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 145

Applications
Measuring amplifier voltage gain: V
• Gain (amplification) is the ratio between output and Vout (p to p)
input voltage V
• When we apply a changing (ac) voltage to the base, Vin (p to p)
we get a larger, but proportional change in output 0 0
(collector) time time
Gain Av = ∆ Vout or Vout peak to peak
∆ Vin Vin peak to peak

The Decibel:
• Ear response to sound level change (amplitude) is logarithmic (i.e. ear responds to proportional
changes in sound levels rather than to absolute levels themselves.
– For the human ear a change from 1 to 10 W is the same as a change from 10 to 90W (i.e. Same ratio)
– In a logarithmic scale, an increase of 1 unit represents a x10 increase in quantity measure
• Log1010 = 1, Log10100 = 2, Log101000 = 3, etc.
• Decibel (dB) is a way of expressing amplifier gain and loss as ratio (i.e. logarithmic gain)
• Power gain in Decibels (dBs) = 10 log10 Output Power
Input Power
• Since Power is proportional to the square of voltage or current, then:
Voltage dB gain = 20 log Vout or Current dB gain = 20 log Iout
Vin Iin
• In multiple stage amplifier: dB gains added, linear gains multiplied.

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 123

Applications
Op-Amp Coupling and frequency response C2
• With direct coupling frequency response
characteristics extend to dc
R2
• Coupling capacitor C1 blocks any unwanted
dc at the input and in conjunction with R1
determine the lower cut-off frequency of the +Vs
bandwidth

7
• The feedback capacitor C2 in conjunction with 3
its parallel feedback resistor R2 determines C1 R1 6
2
the upper cut-off frequency of the bandwidth

4
1
5
• At low frequencies capacitor C1 reactance (ac
ac Vin ac Vout
resistance) will be high, reducing the value of
-Vs
ac Vin applied, hence reducing the gain
• At high frequencies C2 reactance (ac
resistance) will be low, increasing the
feedback and hence reducing the gain
How to determine lower and upper cut-off frequencies?

Lower cut-off frequency = 1 Upper cut-off frequency = 1

2πC1 R1 2πC2 R2

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 146

Applications
Frequency Response and Bandwidth:
• Amplitude of Vin kept constant and frequency of Vin is varied
– Voltage gain is fairly constant over most of the frequency range
– At lower frequencies capacitor reactance is high, blocking input signal
– At higher frequencies stray capacitances in the circuit will cause Vout to decrease
• Frequency response is a graph of Voltage gain versus frequency
• The Bandwidth is the range of frequencies within which the linear Gain does not fall below 0.707
(√2) of the Maximum Gain.
– The bandwidth will have a lower, a centre and an upper frequency.
– Bandwidth = Upper frequency – Lower frequency.
– Centre Frequency = ½ x (Upper frequency – Lower frequency)
– Point at which Gain falls to 0.707 of maximum is also called the -3dB Point.

Gain (Av)

Av max

0.7 x Av max Frequency Response Graph

(-3dB point)

Bandwidth

Frequency

Low frequency High Frequency

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 124

Applications
The voltage follower

• A non-inverting amplifier with 100%

+ Vs (dc)
feedback (i.e. full output is fed back to the
non-inverting input
• Value of Rf is zero

7
• Value of Rin is infinity 3
• Gain Av is almost unity (one) 6
2
• Called ‘Voltage follower’ since ac Vout
follows ac Vin (they are practically equal)

4
1
5
• Mainly used as a Buffer ac Vin ac Vout
• Has very high input impedance and a
low output impedance - Vs (dc)
• Gives High Current amplification but
keeps voltage the same
• Perfect in matching a high impedance
source to a low impedance load

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 147

Applications
Use of single supply rails
• The op-amp amplifiers we have covered up R2
till now make use of a dual rail power supply
+Vs
• Advantages of dual rail supply:
• Output is able to swing on both sides
of the 0V value, between the values of
the supply R3

7
3
• Output can be adjusted to 0V when the R1 6
differential input is zero 2

• Disadvantage of dual rail supply

4
1
5
• Circuit requires 2 supplies ac Vin ac Vout
• Single power supply can be used as shown R4 C1
• Non-inverting input is held normally at
half the supply by the potential divider
R3/R4
• Disadvantage of single rail power supply
Capacitor C1 is a de-coupling
• There will be a dc component present capacitor which maintains the non-
on the output waveform inverting input as a short circuit to
• DC component can be blocked by adding a signal frequencies – i.e. Maintains a
coupling capacitor in series with the output stable operating point

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 148

Applications
The Op-amp as a Summing amplifier
• A special version of the inverting amplifier:
• In the Inverting Op-amp we know that the
value if the IC input current is zero If R1
• We know also that point P is a ‘virtual
+Vs (dc)
earth’ (called ‘Summing Point’)
• It follows that: I1 R2

7
If = I1 + I2 + I3 3
I2 R3 6
If = V1 + V2 + V3 2

R2 R3 R4 P
I3 R4

4
1
5
V1
If = - Vout Vout
V2
R1 V3 -Vs (dc)
-Vout = V1 + V2 + V3
R1 R2 R3 R4
-Vout = R1 x V1 + V2 + V3
R2 R3 R4
• The circuit output shows the ‘addition’ of the voltages applied at the inputs
• If all resistors are the same the output will be the true addition of the inputs. Else it depends upon the
ratio of each input resistor and the feedback resistor R1
• Applications of Summing amplifier:
• Analogue computing, Audio mixing, Digital to analogue conversion

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 149

Applications
The Op-amp as a Difference Amplifier:
R2
• Produces an output that is proportional to the
difference between two input signals applied to
the op-amp inputs -Vs (dc)
• Difference amplifier rules:
• IC input currents = 0

4
1
5
• Voltage between IC input pins = 0 (‘virtual R1 2
earth concept’) 6
3
• Value of R1 must be the same as R3
R3
• Value of R2 must be the same as R4

7
• Value of resistors ensure that both inputs V1 Vout
V2 R4
produce equal gain
• From the concept of the basic op-amp amplifier +Vs (dc)
it tells us that:
• Gain Av = Vout/Vin = R2/R1
• The input voltage (Vin) for this ‘double ended’
amplifier circuit is:
• - V1 + V2
Vout is given as negative because of
• So we can say that:
the phase inversion created by the
• - Vout = R2 x (V1 – V2) inverting op-amp
R1

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics

Applications 150
The Op-amp as Voltage Comparator: +10V

• Op-amp inputs used simultaneously

• Vout = Av (V2 –V1) R1
10k U1
• No negative feedback applied (open loop gain),

7
so circuit uses maximum op-amp gain Vin
3
6
Vout
2
Vref
• A very small voltage difference between the two
inputs will be sufficient to cause op-amp output

4
1
5
741
R2
to go into saturation 1k -10V

• Output will switch to the maximum possible

values (i.e. almost equal to the supply voltages)
• Voltage at the (-) input is slightly greater V
than that at the (+) input, output will switch
to a voltage almost equal to the voltage at Vin
Vref
the negative rail of the supply +1
• Voltage at the (+) input is slightly greater 0
time
than that at the (-) input, output will switch
to a voltage almost equal to the voltage at +10
the positive rail of the supply Vout
• Op-amp acts as a difference amplifier and
0
compares two voltages time
• Typical application – comparing a signal voltage
with a reference voltage -10

MCAST EEI NDE1: Unit 35 - Electronics 151

Applications