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5 MOTIVATION AT WORK

CHAPTER SCAN

This is the first of two chapters on motivation, behavior, and performance. This chapter
addresses internal and process theories of motivation, beginning with individual needs theories.
95
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96 Chapter 5: Motivation in Organizations

Next, it presents Herzberg's two-factor theory, and then concludes with discussions of two
individual-environment process theories of motivation, including equity theory and expectancy
theory.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Define motivation.
2. Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
3. Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.
4. Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.
5. Explain two new ideas in human motivation.
6. Describe how inequity influences motivation and can be resolved.
7. Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.
8. Describe the cultural differences in motivation.

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 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 97

KEY TERMS

Chapter 5 introduces the following key terms:

benevolent motivation factor

entitled need for achievement
equity sensitive need for affiliation
eustress need for power
expectancy need hierarchy
hygiene factor psychoanalysis
inequity self-interest
instrumentality Theory X
moral maturity Theory Y
motivation valence

THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED

I. THINKING AHEAD: AMERICAN EXPRESS COMPANY – The Working Mother

Hall of Fame

II. MOTIVATION AND WORK BEHAVIOR

Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior. Motivation

theories attempt to explain and predict observable behavior, and may be classified as internal,
process, or external theories. This is one of the most complex topics in organizational behavior
because of the large number of variables that affect motivation.

A. Internal Needs

Motivation research is increasingly specific, and examines smaller portions of the larger
theories. Writers have looked for internal, value-oriented reasons for motivation that
would relate to the meaning of work for society. The Protestant ethic was related to the
concept of working hard in order to secure a place in heaven. In contrast, Freud developed
psychoanalysis as a method of probing the subconscious mind to understand a person’s
motives and needs.

B. External Incentives

Early scholars assumed that self-interest and economic gain motivated people. Self-
interest refers to seeking one’s own best interest and benefit. Early theories of motivation
typically took one of two perspectives. The first was that people acted out of self-interest
for material gain; the second suggested that people act in ways that satisfy their emotional
needs. Adam Smith's basic assumption was that people are motivated by self-interest for
economic gain, and he concluded that employees would be most productive when

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98 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

motivated by self-interest. Frederick Taylor believed that the conflict between

management and employees was over how to divide profits. The Hawthorne studies
revealed the importance of social and interpersonal motivation. These early ideas stand in
contrast to newer theories of motivation.

C. Employee Recognition and Ownership

Modern management practices like employee recognition programs, flexible benefit

packages, and stock ownership plans build on Smith’s and Taylor’s original theories.
Scholars and managers increasingly emphasize the importance of psychological ownership
as a means of increasing organizational citizenship behavior.

III. MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY

A. The Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow divided human motivation into a needs hierarchy consisting of five levels of
needs to be satisfied, and suggested that as people satisfy needs on one level, they progress
to the next level of need as motivation for behavior. According to Maslow, only
ungratified needs motivate behavior and it is always the lowest level of ungratified needs in
the hierarchy that takes precedence.

B. Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor utilized the needs hierarchy to develop polarized assumptions about workers
based on whether they are motivated by lower order needs or by higher order needs.
Furthermore, he suggested that individuals in organizations should be treated differently
depending on which level of needs motivated them. Theory X represents the assumptions
associated with managing individuals motivated by lower order needs. Theory Y
represents the assumptions associated with managing individuals motivated by higher order
needs.

C. ERG Theory

ERG theory represents a reclassification of Maslow's need hierarchy into three levels of
needs. Alderfer also developed a regression hypothesis that suggests individuals will
regress to lower levels of need when they experience frustration in attempting to satisfy
higher level needs.

IV. MCCLELLAND'S NEED THEORY

McClelland's need theory focuses on personality and learned needs. He categorized motives into
three manifest needs: need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power.

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 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 99

A. Need for Achievement

The need for achievement refers to seeking excellence in performance, competition,

challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties. Research indicates that people
with a high need for achievement outperform those with a moderate or low need for
achievement.

B. Need for Power

The need for power is concerned with making an impact on others, influencing others,
changing people or events, and making a difference in life. McClelland further
distinguished between socialized power (used for the benefit of many) and personalized
power (used for personal gain).

C. Need for Affiliation

The need for affiliation emphasizes the establishment and nurturing of intimate
relationships with other people. In contrast, individuals with a high need for autonomy, as
outlined in Murray’s manifest needs theory, value independence and freedom from
constraints. Students will be able to identify the differences between individuals by using
an example of telecommuting and by discussing which individual would be more
comfortable with this change in organizational interaction.

V. HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

The two-factor theory examines the degree to which individuals are satisfied or dissatisfied at
work. Herzberg's theory provided two lists of needs. For example, work conditions related to
satisfying psychological growth needs were determined to be motivation factors. On the other
hand, hygiene factors were related to dissatisfaction and were caused by discomfort or pain.

A. Motivation Factors

Motivation factors lead to positive mental health and challenge people to grow, yet the
absence of these factors does not lead to dissatisfaction.

B. Hygiene Factors

Job dissatisfaction occurs when the hygiene factors are either not present or not sufficient.
However, because they cannot stimulate psychological growth, they do not lead to
satisfaction.

C. Critique of the Two-Factor Theory

Although the approaches of Maslow and Herzberg were more flexible than previous
theories, critics identify the lack of clear distinction between hygiene and motivation
factors, the absence of individual differences, and the absence of intrinsic motivators as

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100 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

deficiencies. History is full of examples of people who are motivated by causes, personal
missions, discovery, service, beliefs, creativity, and other factors not considered by
Herzberg.

VI. TWO NEW IDEAS IN MOTIVATION

Two new ideas in motivation have emerged in the past decade. The first centers on
eustress, strength, and hope. The second centers on positive energy and full engagement.

A. Eustress, Strength, and Hope

Eustress is the positive side of stress that is healthy and normal. Rather than focusing on
individuals’ needs or rewards and punishments, this new positive perspective focuses on
individuals’ interpretations of events.

B. Positive Energy and Full Engagement

The positive energy and full engagement approach takes lessons learned from professional
athletes and applies them to the corporate setting. According to this view, the manager’s
task is to help individuals learn to manage their energy so that they can experience periodic
renewal and recovery and thus build positive energy and capacity for work.

VII. SOCIAL EXCHANGE AND EQUITY THEORY

Social exchange and equity theory revolve around the balance between efforts and rewards in
organizations. The individual-organization exchange relationship addresses the contributions
and demands that each party makes in the relationship.

A. Demands and Contributions

Needs form the basis for the expectations or demands placed on organizations by
individuals. Organizations express demands on individuals through job expectations,
mission statements, and performance feedback.

Contributions are the basis for satisfying the demands expressed by the other party in the
relationship. Individual contributions include knowledge, skills, abilities, and professional
contacts. Organizational contributions include status, benefits, income, and affiliation.

B. Adams’s Theory of Inequity

Adams developed a theory of social exchange that analyzes inequity in the workplace.
Specifically, inequity is the situation in which individuals perceive that they are receiving
less than they are giving, or are giving less than they are receiving. Individuals calculate an
input−outcome ratio for themselves and compare it with an input−outcome ratio for a
comparable other person. If the ratios are not equivalent, perceived inequity results.
C. The Resolution of Inequity

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 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 101

Individuals seek to resolve inequity because it produces tension. The seven strategies for
restoring equity are (1) to alter the person's outcomes, (2) to alter the person's inputs, (3) to
alter the comparison other's outcomes, (4) to alter the comparison other's inputs, (5) to
change who is used as a comparison other, (6) to rationalize the inequity, and (7) to leave
the organizational situation.

D. New Perspectives on Equity Theory

New examinations of inequity have further refined the theory, including a new perspective
that takes into account individual differences in response to inequity. An equity sensitive
individual prefers a ratio that is equal to that of his or her comparison other, that is, in
accordance with Adams’s original theory. The benevolent individual is comfortable with
an equity ratio less than that of the comparison other. The entitled individual is
comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of the comparison other.

VIII. EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Expectancy theory is based on personal perceptions of the performance process and the idea that
people desire certain outcomes for behavior, and that they believe there are connections between
effort, performance, and outcomes. Expectancy theory is a cognitive process theory of
motivation that includes three key constructs: valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. Valence
is the value or importance an individual places on a particular reward. Expectancy is the belief
that effort will lead to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that performance is related to
rewards.

A. Motivational Problems

Motivation problems stem from three basic causes within the expectancy theory
framework. These causes are a disbelief in a relationship between effort and performance,
failure to perceive a clear relationship between performance and rewards, and lack of desire
for the rewards offered.

B. Motivation and Moral Maturity

Expectancy theory is grounded in the concept of self-interest, and does not explain
motivations that may be altruistic. Moral maturity is the measure of a person's cognitive
moral development that aids in explaining motivation for altruistic pursuits.

C. Cultural Differences in Motivation

In regard to Maslow’s, McClelland’s, Herzberg’s, and Vroom’s theories, differences have

been found in different cultures’ reactions to motivational techniques.

IX. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: MANY WAYS TO MOTIVATE PEOPLE

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102 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

X. LOOKING BACK: AMERICAN EXPRESS – Wanji Walcott, VP and Mother of Two

YOU

5.1 PROTESTANT ETHIC

This challenge provides an opportunity to discuss the implications for work behavior in
organizations due to different orientations toward the Protestant ethic. Also, discuss the different
approaches to managing and motivating that might be needed for an employee with a pro-
Protestant ethic score and an employee with a non-Protestant ethic score.

5.2 WHAT’S IMPORTANT TO EMPLOYEES?

The perceptions of employees and their supervisors differ considerably in regard to employee
motivation. One thousand employees were asked to rank what was important to them. Their
rankings of “job reward” factors follows. The rewards are listed from most to least popular.

-interesting work
-full appreciation of work done
-a feeling of being in on things
-job security
-good wages
-promotion and growth in the organization
-good working conditions
-personal loyalty to employees
-tactful discipline
-sympathetic help with personal problems

Supervisors’ rankings of the same factors follow, from most valuable to least valuable.

-good wages
-job security
-promotion and growth in the organization
-good working conditions
-interesting work
-personal loyalty to employees
-tactful discipline
-full appreciation of work done
-sympathetic help with personal problems
-a feeling of being in on things

Comparing these results to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Herzberg’s two-factor theory of
motivation suggests that organizations in the United States more effectively satisfy workers’
basic needs than they satisfy ego needs or self-fulfillment needs. Discuss with students why they
think this is the case.

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 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 103

* SOURCE: “Crossed Wires on Employee Motivation.” Training and Development, 49 (1995):

59-60.

DIVERSITY DIALOGUE

BALANCE: NOT JUST FOR WORKING MOMS ANYMORE

Students should include in their discussion an understanding of employees’ needs regardless of

gender. Companies should ensure that motivation strategies take into account demographic
similarities as well as differences. What companies may offer to mothers in the way of work-life
balance, they should also make available to fathers.

Though men may give up a certain level of career advancement, some sociologists believe that
men are still less likely to experience as much stigmatization as women for wanting to be at
home more. Men may be more willing than women to tell employers that being at home is
important to them.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

• Early economic theories of motivation emphasized extrinsic incentives as the basis for
motivation and technology as a force multiplier.
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory of motivation was the basis for McGregor's Theory X
and Theory Y assumptions about people at work.
• According to McClelland, the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are learned
needs that differ among diverse cultures.
• The two-factor theory found that the presence of motivation factors led to job satisfaction,
and the presence of hygiene factors prevented job dissatisfaction.
• New ideas in motivation emphasize eustress, hope, positive energy, and full engagement.
• Social exchange theory holds that people form calculated working relationships and expect
fair, equitable, ethical treatment.
• Expectancy theory says that effort is the basis for motivation and that people want their
effort to lead to performance and rewards.
• Theories of motivation are culturally bound and differences occur among nations.

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104 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

REVIEW QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

1. What are the key concepts in the expectancy theory of motivation?

This theory focuses on personal perceptions of desired outcomes of behavior, in conjunction

with effort and performance. Valence is the value placed on the anticipated reward.
Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that
performance is related to the rewards.

2. What three manifest needs does McClelland identify?

McClelland identifies needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. These needs are learned.
Individuals and cultures differ in their levels of these needs.

3. How is inequity determined by a person in an organization? How can inequity be

resolved if it exists?

Individuals in organizations calculate equity through a concept of social exchange. This intuitive
exchange compares the demands versus the contributions of individuals in an environment. A
person compares his/her input/outcome ratio to the same ratio for another person. The strategies
for remedying an inequitable situation include (1) altering one's outcomes, (2) altering one's
inputs, (3) alter the comparison other's outputs, (4) alter the comparison other's inputs, (5) change
who is used for comparison, (6) rationalize the inequity, and (7) leave the organizational
situation.

4. What are the Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about people at work? How do they
relate to the hierarchy of needs?

Theory X is a skeptical, negative view of individuals and their relationship to tasks and work.
Theory Y views individuals as highly motivated and responsible for their actions. Theory X
individuals would be concerned with the lower three levels of Maslow's needs, and Theory Y
individuals are concerned with the higher-order needs.

5. What are two new ideas in motivation that managers are using?

The first of two new ideas in motivation being used by managers focuses on eustress, strength,
and hope. This perspective focuses on individuals’ interpretations of events. The second centers
on positive energy and full engagement. In this view, the manager’s task is to help individuals
learn to manage their energy so that they can experience periodic renewal and recovery and thus
build positive energy and capacity for work.

6. What are the five categories of motivational needs described by Maslow? Give an
example of how each can be satisfied.

The needs hierarchy begins with fulfilling physiological needs, such as food and shelter. The
second level involves safety and security needs that are satisfied by a feeling of safe
surroundings, such as a well-lit environment in which to work. Family and friends can meet

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 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 105

third level needs for love and social relationships. Fourth is the esteem need, which can be
satisfied by titles and actions that earn respect from others. The final level is the self-actualizing
need, which is the need to achieve one's full potential.

7. How do hygiene and motivational factors differ? What are the implications of the two-factor
theory for managers?

Hygiene factors are factors such as supervision, work policies, and working conditions. Hygiene
factors can prevent dissatisfaction, but do not lead to satisfaction. Motivational factors include a
sense of achievement, recognition, and responsibility. Motivational factors may lead to
satisfaction. Managers need to realize that both contribute to workers' attitudes toward the job.

8. How can knowledge of motivation theories help managers?

The workforce is increasingly diverse. Knowledge of motivation theories can help managers use
a variety of techniques for motivating employees with a wide range of needs, interests, and
abilities.

DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

1. What important experiences have contributed to your moral and ethical development?
Are you working to further your own moral maturity at this time?

This is a difficult, but thought-provoking question, to answer in class. This question is better
for a homework review question, and is an excellent question for an essay exam. Students
can assess their own level of moral maturity.

2. Assume you are leaving your current job to look for employment elsewhere. What will
you look for that you do not have now? If you do not have a job, assume you will be
looking for one soon. What are the most important factors you will seek?

This should relate to where students are on their needs hierarchy. Encourage students to use the
terminology of motivational factors that they learned in this chapter. Students may also use
equity theory and expectancy theory concepts to explain what they seek in a job.

3. Do you believe you can do a better job of working or studying than you are currently
doing? Do you think you would get more pay and benefits or better grades if you did a
better job? Do you care about the rewards (or grades) in your organization (or
university)?

The first portion of the question relates to tangible, self-motivated goals. Most students will
answer yes to being able to do a better job. Occasionally students are so overloaded that they
have assessed the obligations in their lives (work, school, and family) and determined that they
will have to balance their efforts. The underlying theme is whether all of their current
motivation rests in predicable, tangible, outcomes.

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106 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

4. At what level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs are you living? Are you basically satisfied
at this level?

One of the difficulties with this question is that we typically move up and down the scale in
different phases of our lives, or different surroundings. Students may not grasp this readily.

5. If you were being inequitably paid in your job, which strategy do you think would be the
most helpful to you in resolving the inequity? What tactics would you consider using?

Adams's Theory of Inequity is a logical approach to this problem. The resolution of inequity
strategy could be to alter the input, to leave the organization, to alter the comparison other's
input, or any of the ways of restoring equity. Students can also compare themselves in terms of
equity sensitivity, benevolence, or entitlement.

6. What do you think are the most important motivational needs for the majority of people?
Do you think your needs differ from those of most people?

This is similar to the research question that asks what motivates supervisors versus what
motivates employees. Most of us think our motives are superior and deeper than the rest of the
organizational members. No one wants to be merely normal or average. Most of us may share
lower level needs, but there may be differences in the higher level needs.

7. Develop an oral presentation about the most current management practices in employee
motivation. Find out what at least four different companies are doing in this area. Be
prepared to compare these practices with the theory and research in the chapter.

This is an excellent opportunity for students to learn about motivational programs that are
actually being used by companies. During class discussion encourage students to evaluate the
effectiveness of these programs based on the theories and research from the chapter.

8. Interview a manager and prepare a memo summarizing the relative importance she or he
places on the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. Include (a) whether these
needs have changed over time and (b) what job aspects satisfy these needs.

In class, students can compare the perspectives of the different managers they interviewed.
Encourage the students to see if a pattern emerges among the managers regarding the importance
of these needs. Discuss why students think there is or is not a pattern.

9. Prepare a memo describing the two employees you work with who most closely operate
according to Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about human nature. Be as specific
and detailed in your description as you can, using quotes and/or observational examples.

Students who are not in a work setting could describe other students with whom they have
worked closely (e.g., in group projects). During discussion of these memos, it would be

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 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 107

interesting to also discuss how managers in each of the work settings dealt with each of these
employees.

ETHICAL DILEMMA

1. Did Acme mislead Mitch and the other managers?

Some people will argue that Acme did not mislead its employees because no one is making them
work the longer hours. Each employee is choosing to work the number of hours they are
working because they want to demonstrate their commitments to the job. Others will argue that
Acme did mislead because the demonstration of commitment is not leading to any of the
promised outcomes.

2. Does Acme have an obligation to its shareholders to maximize productivity and profitability?

Acme does have a responsibility to maximize productivity and profitability, but there are many
ways to accomplish that without using misleading tactics in its hiring practices.

3. Using rule, virtue, rights, and justice theories, evaluate Acme’s hiring practices.

Rule – A pure examination of the case may lead someone to say that the behaviors of Acme are
ethical in that it is providing the maximum benefit to the largest number of people because a few
managers are providing increased wealth for many more stockholders. However, rule-based
ethics does not ignore what is fair and just, and most would argue that working people 60–70
hours a week is not ethical.

Virtue – Virtue ethics does not apply to this situation in that we are not discussing individual
decision making.

Rights – Rights would not support this behavior, either. We would not want all companies using
such deceptive hiring practices to hire their employees.

Justice – While the process may be fair in that all of the managers are being treated equally, the
outcomes are not fair in that the managers do not truly have the advancement opportunities
promised by the company.

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108 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES

5.1 WHAT DO YOU NEED FROM WORK?

This exercise encourages students to think broadly about what they desire from a work
experience. During Step 2 of this exercise (sharing of group results with the class) encourage
discussion across groups regarding similarities and differences in ratings that might have
occurred. In particular, have students consider why differences in ratings exist (i.e., because of
differences in length of work experience, type of work experience, etc.). Discussion could also
center on organizations’ effectiveness at meeting these needs (and why they are or are not
effective).

5.2 WHAT TO DO?

This exercise presents students with a true-to-life illustration of equity theory. Discussion may
focus on attributions for the inequity stemming from factors such as gender or parental status.
Factors such as external labor market conditions, which also may contribute to pay inequity, may
be discussed.

ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE

MOTIVATION: THREE INCIDENTS

Instructor's Notes:

Students are provided three incidents with 5 choices of actions. For each of the following
incidents, students are asked to determine whether the individuals will be motivated to behave as
desired. This exercise takes approximately thirty minutes of class time, with groups of 4-6 in
each group. The first example is very quick, and students believe they have motivation theory
"wrapped up.” The second example gets more complicated, and by the third example, most of
them miss the issues. Expectancy theory, job characteristics model, and effort-performance
relationship are all relevant for these examples.

I. The key sentences in this example are, (1) He also knows that Walter needs a scholarship
to be able to go to college, and (2) However, an article in the Sunday Sports section
reports that two of the major state university coaches are recruiting him.

A. Has nothing additional for motivation. Walter already knows this.

B. This isn't Walter's valence; probably knows this as well.
C. This answer does not increase valence for THIS school.
D. Best answer; this approach would be unique to this school and deals with Walter's
needs.
E. Doesn't deal with the problem.

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 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 109

II. Joyce's sales are instrumental to incentive bonus; therefore, there is high valence for
Joyce.

A. This approach is useful only if you need to build effort to performance expectancy.
B. She knows this already.
C. Goal is high valence, not necessarily the answer.
D. Best answer. Use if problem-solving or ability is the issue. Looks like a "know-how"
problem.
E. Apparently, she doesn't know how to improve.

III. They are likely to begin cooperating now anyway.

Very few students select E because they believe we are always to DO SOMETHING.
Many students pick up on the issues of the U.S. in another country. The key to this
answer is that none of the previous choices, A-D provide anything in motivation theory
that has not already been provided. This is wasted effort to duplicate the same
approaches.

* SOURCE: Conrad Jackson, The University of Alabama, Huntsville.

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110 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

MOTIVATION: THREE INCIDENTS

For each of the following incidents, determine whether the individuals will be motivated to
behave as desired. Then select the appropriate managerial action from those listed.

I. Frank Edwards is head basketball coach at a small regional state university, a campus of the
state's main university system. He has just had a visit with Walter Johnson, a local high
school athlete who is clearly one of the state's blue chip basketball prospects. Frank
desperately needs a player of Walter's potential to turn his mediocre team around, but he
realizes that it won't be easy to sign him. He is confident that he made it clear to Walter that
there is a scholarship available for Walter if he wants it. He also knows that Walter needs a
scholarship to be able to go to college. However, an article in the Sunday Sports section
reports that two of the major state university coaches (larger schools upstate, with nationally
known basketball programs) intend to actively recruit Walter, also. Coach Edwards should
take which of the following actions?

A: Send Walter a written and notarized offer of the scholarship.

B: Write Walter's parents, stressing that the scholarship will cover all of his tuition, room and
board, and book expenses.

C: Write a letter to Walter stressing to him the value of a college education.

D: Talk to Walter again, stressing the likelihood that he would make the starting five in his
freshman year.

E: Do nothing. Walter will probably sign with him anyway.

II. Joyce, a recent College of Business graduate, has been working several months as a sales
person for a small manufacturer of computers and word processors. She is one of two sales
people working a large metropolitan area. Her sales manager, Eric Kurtz, is concerned about
her performance, however. He is aware that Joyce wants very much to have high sales in
order to participate in the company's generous incentive bonus plan. She has expressed her
satisfaction with the way the plan operates, and was clearly in agreement that there is a
booming demand for computers and word processors in the market area. He is puzzled,
therefore, by her poor performance. He should take which of the following actions?

A. Post sales performance figures in the office so that everyone can see how the sales
persons are doing.

B. Have a talk with Joyce, stressing the details of how she can benefit financially from
increased sales.

C. Tell Joyce that unless she begins to reach her quota within the next three months, she will
be terminated from employment.

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 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 111

D. Ask Joyce to accompany him on sales calls to several new customers.

E. Do nothing. Her performance should soon be improving.

III.Motumba is a small African nation with rich deposits of several rare metals. Tall, forbidding
mountains to the North and West make it impossible to ship out ore in these directions.
Kobutsu, the country bordering on their East has a modern deep-water port city, and an
extensive rail network, which make it a logical alternative route for shipping out the ore.
However, due to a long-running conflict between the heads of state of the two countries,
Kobutsu has not allowed Motumban ore to be transported to and through its port, and
Motumba has been forced to settle for sending out small quantities through the neighboring
country to the south via a long route of antiquated rail facilities. Recently, however, the
government of Kobutsu changed, with a new head of state coming to power who had a
reputation of being friendly toward the Motumbans and cognizant of the potential benefits to
Kobutsu of serving as a transportation route for their ore. As U.S. Department of State envoy
to that area, your action should be:

A. Meet with the Kobutsun head of State, stressing the potential benefits of being a
transportation link for Motumban ore.

B. Meet with the Kobutsun head of State and point out the opportunity present for a new
constructive relationship with Kobutsu.

C. Send a letter to the Kobutsun Minister of Commerce stressing the likelihood of being able
to work out a trade agreement with Motumba.

D. Invite both heads of State to the U.S., and tell both of them that the U.S. will cut off all
economic aid to them if they do not begin to cooperate.

E. Do nothing. They are likely to begin cooperating now anyway.

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112 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

MBTI® EXERCISE

Exercise Learning Objectives:

Highlight the different things that create a motivational environment for people.
Show that people want to be recognized for different things.

Exercise Overview:

1. Students should know their temperament types (SJ, SP, NF, or NT).
2. Students will be formed into like-temperament groups.
3. Students will develop a list of recent scientific breakthroughs.
4. After development, groups will be reformed into dissimilar types (dyads or triads) and
compare ideas.
5. The instructor should know what each temperament would find useful and fascinating about a
scientific breakthrough.

Exercise Description:

Form like-temperament groups. The instructor should have each group prepare a list of recent
scientific breakthroughs that have happened within the next 10 years. Have the students use a
blackboard or a large piece of flip chart paper to capture the list. Have each group pick the top 3
to 5 of these breakthroughs. Now have each group develop and be prepared to present the
rationale for their choices. After an appropriate time, have each group explain to the class why
they chose these breakthroughs and why they important. If time is short, have each group pick
the most important breakthrough. The instructor should ask each group, "If you were making
any of the breakthroughs, tell us how you would like to be recognized for your work—what
would really turn you on."

What the Instructor Should Expect:

Each temperament group will develop lists that have some overlap. The key is that each group
will view them differently. We would expect to see two of the temperaments to use "present"
orientation (SJ and SP) and two groups to be more "future" oriented (NF and NT).

In the second phase, each temperament would like to be rewarded differently. For example, SPs
like to be rewarded for their cunning and skill, SJs for doing the arduous and tedious work of
keeping things together and on track, NFs like to be rewarded for bring harmony and a sense of
self-worth to everyone, and NTs like to be rewarded for their intellectual prowess and
systematic, analytical thinking.

Instructor's Summary:

The SJ temperament reflects a strong desire for orderliness, dependability, and realistic
assessments. Additionally they admire service, belonging to and supporting organizations, and
organizational stability. Some of the pitfalls for one with an SJ preference are: unwillingness to

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or distributed without the prior consent of the publisher.
 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 113

change, deciding too quickly, making the rule all-important, and becoming too impatient when
schedules are not rigidly adhered to. Ways to motivate these people include: recognizing their
steadfastness and loyalty, giving them more responsibility, and appreciating (in front of their
peers) their tireless "small" contributions (doing the little things that keep the organization
functioning well).

The SP temperament reflects a strong desire for freedom, action, and risk-taking. Additionally
they admire quick thinking, negotiating skills, and open-mindedness. Some of the pitfalls for
someone who possesses an SP temperament include: becoming too restless with rules and
procedures, becoming bored with status quo, not listening to or trying to understand theory or a
philosophy, and doing any long range planning. Ways to motivate these people include:
recognizing them for their cleverness, appreciating their ability to recognize trouble and find a
quick way out, appreciating their willingness to take a risk and their ability to usually succeed.

The NF temperament reflects a strong desire to search for meaning and authenticity, to be
empathetic, and to establish and maintain close personal contact with others. Additionally, they
admire the search for possibilities (especially for people), appreciating people, and
organizational investment in people. Some of the pitfalls for a person whose preference is an NF
temperament include: spending too much time on the needs of others, putting off task
accomplishment out of a concern for people, giving objective feedback, and avoiding any
situation which may jeopardize harmony. Ways to motivate these people include: recognizing
them for their people orientation, thanking them for leading a harmonious team, and appreciating
their ability to help others manage their careers.

The NT temperament reflects a strong desire to search for change in organizational principles,
and to attain competency. Additionally, they admire competence, logic, critical analysis,
systems thinking, and those that "take on the system." Some of the pitfalls for a person whose
preference is an NT temperament include: becoming too critical of self and others, becoming too
impersonal, unwillingness to follow through once a project is designed, and becoming very terse
in conversation. Ways to motivate these people include: giving them the project design phase
without much guidance, appreciating their critical, systems thinking, and appreciating their
competency in whatever they tackle.

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114 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES

The following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained
from:

Marcic, Dorothy, Seltzer, Joseph, & Vaill, Peter. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and
Cases, 6th Ed. South-Western College Publishing Company, 2001.

Work vs. Play. p. 49-51. Time: Part A, 40-55 minutes; Part B, 30-55 minutes.
Purpose: To examine the concept of motivation.

Motivating the Simpsons. p. 45-47. Time: 20 minutes.

Purpose: To apply expectancy theory.

Fandt, Patricia M. Management Skills: Practice and Experience. West Publishing Company,
1994.

In-Basket Exercise: Initiating and Maintaining Action. p. 61-62.

In-Basket Exercise: Holding Others Accountable. p. 69-72.

CASE QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS

HIGH EXPECTATIONS FOR THE DISNEY-PIXAR MERGER

Linkage of Case to Chapter Material

This case focuses on the reasons behind the bright prospects for the future of animated
feature films and other animated venues as a result of the merger of Pixar Animation Studios
into The Walt Disney Company. Excitement about the future can be traced to the
motivational environment established at Pixar and which hopefully will be infused into the
Disney organization.

The case illustrates the application of three motivational theories: Maslow’s need hierarchy,
Herzberg’s two factor theory, and McClelland’s needs theory. The social, esteem, and self-
actualization levels of Maslow’s hierarchy are especially relevant to this case. Also, heavy
emphasis is placed on motivating factors from Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Finally, the
achievement and affiliation needs of McClelland’s theory can be examined within the context
of the case material.

The case also can be used to explore the concept of the social exchange relationship between
individuals and organizations, as depicted in Figure 5.4 of the chapter. The social-exchange
relationship can then be related to the equity theory of motivation by examining how the
demands and contributions of the individual balance against the demands and contributions
of the organization. Equity is determined on the basis of the extent to which individual

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 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 115

contributions satisfy organizational demands and organizational contributions satisfy

individual needs (i.e., demands).

Suggested Answers for Discussion Questions

1. What needs does Pixar appeal to through its commitment to creative innovation and
excellence?

A good way to approach this question is from the perspective of Maslow’s need hierarchy,
Herzberg’s two factor theory, or McClelland’s needs theory.

From the perspective of the need hierarchy, a strong emphasis is being placed on the social,
esteem, and self-actualization needs. Pixar’s employees enjoy working collaboratively with one
another on creative projects. Perhaps most importantly, however, is the emphasis that Pixar
places on creativity and creative freedom. This helps people fulfill their esteem needs and
strongly motivates them to self-actualize. Moreover, the rewards Pixar and its employees have
received appeal to the esteem needs and provide visible validation of their efforts to self-
actualize. If the social, esteem, and self-actualization needs are dominant motivators, one can
presume that the physiological and safety/security are being met reasonably well.

With respect to two factor theory, it may be argued that the emphasis in the case is on the
motivation factors. An emphasis on attracting and retaining quality, artistically oriented
employees can be classified as a motivating factor. Encouraging collaboration among talented
people is also a motivating factor. Emphasizing creativity and excellence, the establishment of a
“creative brain trust,” and the development of innovative animation technologies are also
elements that also can be construed as motivation factors. By addressing motivation factors,
Pixar promotes job satisfaction.

McClelland’s needs theory is also a viable explanation, particularly with respect to the
achievement and affiliation needs. The evidence indicates the need for achievement is addressed
through the company’s emphasis on creativity and creative freedom, and the push for ongoing
excellence as evidenced both by the “creative brain trust” and the numerous industry awards won
by the company and its employees. The need for affiliation is addressed through the emphasis on
developing employees’ collaborative capabilities. The fulfillment of the power needs might be
inferred from the obvious influence that Pixar has had within the film industry.

2. What is important to you in terms of your personal work motivation? How do the things that
motivate you fit with Pixar’s approach to motivating employees?

In responding to this question, students should first examine their own motivation in terms of
Maslow’s need hierarchy, Herzberg’s two factor theory, and/or McClelland’s needs theory.
Students should then compare their personal assessment to the answer for question (1). Class
discussion should also consider the implications of a match or a mismatch between people’s
needs and what the company offers in terms of motivational programs.

3. Using the model of the individual-organizational exchange relationship shown in Figure 5.4,
explain the relationship that Pixar seeks to develop with its employees. How might this

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116 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

exchange relationship influence the employees’ perceptions of equity?

The social exchange relationship depicted in Figure 5.4 is based on the demands and
contributions of the employees (i.e., individuals) and Pixar (i.e., the organization). Pixar
demands excellent performance from employees and expects them to respond with creative and
innovative ways of achieving and sustaining this level of performance. In turn, this facilitates the
company’s pursuit of ongoing box-office success with its animated films. The company provides
stimulating work and dignity and respect for all employees, which will satisfy the employees’
higher-order needs. The employees contribute their skills, knowledge, customer service, and
loyalty.

Most likely, the employees will perceive that a great deal of equity exists at Pixar. An argument
for the perception of equity can be based on the challenging work and the development
opportunities that are available to all employees.

TAKE 2

BIZ FLIX

FOR LOVE OF THE GAME (1999)

Billy Chapel (Kevin Costner) begins to feel the stress of his goal to pitch a perfect last game of
his career. Because of many personal and professional events that preceded this moment, he
reacts with low self-esteem and begins to question his playing ability. He says to catcher Gus
Sinski (John C. Reilly), “I don’t know if I have anything left.” Sinski, who knows him well, tells
Billy to throw whatever he has; everyone on the team supports him. Gus helps rebuild Billy’s
esteem needs and refocuses him on the single goal of pitching this last perfect game. “Just
throw,” Gus says. Billy’s reward if he succeeds is the honor and tribute of closing his career with
perfect pitches.

WORKPLACE VIDEO

MOTIVATION, FEATURING WASHBURN GUITAR

1. What motivates Washburn's employees to produce high quality guitars?

Washburn employees cite the following motivations for doing good work: a passion for music, a
deep appreciation for well-made instruments, and a personal involvement in guitar playing.

2. Do rock star endorsements of Washburn guitars constitute a motivation factor or a hygiene

factor, according to Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation?

Employees at Washburn feel a strong sense of achievement and recognition whenever rock stars
endorse and use their guitars. This constitutes a motivation factor in Herzberg's two-factor
theory.

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 Chapter 5: Motivation at Work 117

3. Should managers at Washburn adopt Theory X assumptions or Theory Y assumptions when

seeking new ways to motivate employees? Explain.

Managers at Washburn should adopt Theory Y assumptions, as the company's workforce is

motivated by the following higher-order needs: the esteem related to creating products for rock
musicians, the social connection that Washburn has with rock music culture, and the self-
actualization individuals can attain by becoming master craftsmen.

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