ET 7 Pneumatics and Hydraulics Applications

FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev.
0 10-July-2020
Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1
STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 1
Basic Concepts of Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuation Systems

MODULE OVERVIEW
The primary function of an actuation system is to influence the controlled system so as to obtain the desired
movement or action. This objective is made possible by the actuation system, which converts the primary energy
with which the actuator operates into the final mechanical energy.
There are three main types of power with which actuation systems work: electric power, hydraulic power, and
pneumatic power. The three systems are said to be the industrial prime movers. The first prime mover, electrical
devices use of electric actuators such as motors, solenoids, and electromagnets. The remaining two prime
movers use of cylinders and rotary motors where the motion of which is respectively governed by a fluid such
as mineral oil or a liquid with lower viscosity and by a compressible fluid such as compressed air.The two,
pneumatic and hydraulic systems are said to be fluid actuation systems.
MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Module, you should be able to

1. state and differentiate the three industrial prime movers
2. identify the main components of fluid actuation systems and their symbols
3. understand the physical fundamentals or laws governing fluid actuation system
4. state the units of of measurements used in fluid actuation system
1.1 INDUSTRIAL PRIME MOVERS
Most industrial processes require objects to be moved from one place to another, or applied a force to hold,
shape or compress a product. Such activities are performed by prime movers which are the workforce of
manufacturing industries.
In most applications, all prime movers are electrical. Rotary motions can be provided by simple motors, and
linear motion can be obtained from rotary motion by devices such as screw jacks or rack and pinions. Where a
pure force or a short linear stroke is required a solenoid may be used although there are limits to the force that
can be obtained by this means.
Electrical devices are not the only means of providing prime movers. Enclosed fluids can also be used to
transport energy from one location to another and, consequently, to produce rotary or linear motion or even
apply force. These are called fluid actuation systems. Fluid-based actuation systems using liquids as
transmission media are called hydraulic systems. Hydraulic came from the Greek words hydra for water and
aulos for a pipe, descriptions which imply fluids are water. Gas-based systems are called pneumatic systems
which from the Greek pneumn for wind. The most common gas is simply compressed air, although nitrogen is
occasionally used.
1.1.1 System Comparison
The task considered is how to lift a load by a distance of about 500 mm. Such tasks are common in
manufacturing industries.
An Electrical System
With an electrical system we have three basic actuators:

1. a solenoid,
2. a DC motor
3. AC induction motor
Of these, the solenoid produces a linear stroke directly but its stroke is normally limited to a maximum distance
of around 100 mm. Both DC and AC motors are rotary devices and their outputs need to be converted to linear
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 1

FM-AA-CIA-15 Rev. 0 10-July-2020

motion by mechanical devices such as wormscrews or rack and pinions. This presents no real problems;
commercial devices are available comprising motor and screw.
An example electrical system shown in Figure 1.1.1 comprising a mechanical jack driven by an AC motor
controlled by a reversing starter maybe used for the application given above. Auxiliary equipment comprises
two limit switches, and a motor overload protection device. There is no practical load limitation provided
screw/gearbox ratio, motor size and contactor rating are correctly calculated.
Figure 1.1.1. Electrical system solution based on a three-phase AC motor
A Hydraulic System
A solution along hydraulic lines is shown in Figure 1.1.2. A hydraulic linear actuator suitable for this application
is the ram, shown schematically in Figure 1.1.2a. This consists of a movable piston connected directly to the
output shaft. The maximum force available from the cylinder depends on fluid pressure and cross-sectional area
of the piston.
A suitable hydraulic system is shown in Figure 1.1.2b. The system requires a liquid fluid to operate; this is
expensive and the piping must act as a closed loop, with fluid transferred from a storage tank to one side of the
piston, and returned from the other side of the piston to the tank.
There are a few auxiliary points worthy of comment.

1. Speed control is easily achieved by regulating the volume flow rate to the cylinder. Precise control at low
speeds is one of the main advantages of hydraulic systems.
2. Travel limits are determined by the cylinder stroke and cylinders, generally, can be allowed to stall at the
ends of travel so no overtravel protection is required.
3. The pump needs to be turned by an external power source, almost certainly an AC induction motor which,
in turn, requires a motor starter and overload protection.

4. Hydraulic fluid needs to be very clean, hence a filter is needed (shown in Figure 1.1.2b) to remove dirt
particles before the fluid passes from the tank to the pump.
5. Leaks of fluid from the system are unsightly, slippery hence hazardous and environmentally very
undesirable. A major failure can be catastrophic.
Figure 1.1.2. Hydraulic solution.
At first sight Figure 1.1.2b appears inordinately complicated compared with the electrical system of Figure 1.1.1,
but it should be remembered that all parts enclosed in the broken-lined box in Figure 1.1.2 are common to an
area of plant and not usually devoted to just one motion as we have drawn.
A Pneumatic System
Figure 1.1.3 shows the components of a pneumatic system. The basic actuator is again a cylinder, with
maximum force on the shaft being determined by air pressure and piston cross-sectional area. The valve
delivering air to the cylinder operates in a similar way to its hydraulic equivalent. One notable difference arises
out of the simple fact that air is free. Return air is simply vented to the atmosphere.
Air is drawn from the atmosphere via an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air compressor. The air
compressor must be followed by a cooler and air treatment unit. Compressibility of a gas makes it necessary to
store a volume of pressurized gas in a reservoir, to be drawn on by the load. Without this reservoir, a slow
exponential rise in pressure results in a similar slow cylinder movement when the valve is first opened. The air
treatment unit is thus followed by an air reservoir. A pressure switch, fitted to the air reservoir, starts the
compressor motor when pressure falls and stops it again when pressure reaches the required level.

The general impression is again one of complexity, but units in the broken-lined box are again common to one
plant. Many factories produce compressed air at one central station and distribute an air ring main to all places
on the site in a similar way to other services such as electricity, water or gas.
Figure 1.1.3. Pneumatic solution.
A Comparison
Table 1.1.1 gives superficial comparisons of the various systems.
Table 1.1.1. Comparison of Electrical, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

1.2 FLUID ACTUATION SYSTEMS
An actuation system, which is part of an automatic machine, consists of two main parts as shown in Figure
1.2.1.
Figure 1.2.1. Actuation System.
1. A Power Part. The power part comprises all the devices for effecting the movements or actions. This
part of the system is sometimes called Actuation Part.
2. A Control Part. The control part provides for the processing of the information and generates the
automated cycle and the laws of variation of the reference signals, in accordance with the governing
procedures implemented and with the enabling and feedback signals arriving from the sensors
deployed on the operative part.
The order signals coming from the control part are sent to the operative part by means of the interface devices
which convert and amplify the signals, where necessary, so that they can be used directly by the actuators.
These interfaces can be the speed drives or the contactors of the electric motors, the distributor valves in
hydraulic and pneumatic actuators.
Figure 1.2.2 illustrates a fluid actuation system. The power part consists of the actuator, the front and rear
chambers of which are fed by a 4/2 distributor valve, which constitutes the fluid power adjustment interface. The
valve switching command is the order from the control part. This order is sent in accordance with the movement
strategy, determined by the desired operating cycle of the cylinder in the control part, on the basis of the
feedback signals from the sensors in the cylinder, represented in the figure by the limit switches.
Figure 1.2.2. Fluid Actuation System
Then there are discontinuous actuation systems and continuous actuation systems, depending on the type of
automation realized, while retaining the control part and the power part.
1. Discontinuous actuation systems are effective when used in discontinuous automation, typical of
assembly lines and lines for the alternating handling of machine parts or components;
2. Continuous actuation systems are found in continuous process plants and as continuous or analog
control devices for the desired magnitudes, and constitute fluid servosystems.

Figure 1.2.3. Block Diagram of a Fluid Servosystem
Fluid servosystems are devices for controlling a generically mechanical output power, either by controlling
position or speed or by controlling an action such as force, torque, or pressure. The actuation system therefore
becomes a fluid servosystem, such as the one outlined in Figure 1.2.3, for example. A practical construction of
a hydraulic linear servoactuator having the same working scheme of Figure 1.2.3 is shown in Figure 1.2.4. It
consists of a cylinder, a valve, and a position transducer integrated in a single device.
Figure 1.2.4. Hydraulic servocylinder (Hanchen).
A controlled, fluid-actuated system is a classical mechatronic system, as it combines mechanical and fluid
components, and control and sensing devices, and normally requires a simulation period for defining the size
and characteristics of the various elements so as to comply with the desired specifications.
The standardized symbols for the different components of hydraulic and pneumatic fluid systems, and the
definitions of the associated circuits, are defined in the standard, ISO 1219 “Fluid power systems and
components—Graphic symbols and circuit diagrams; Part 1: Graphics symbols, Part 2: Circuit diagrams.”

1.2.1. Pneumatic Actuation Systems
The components of a pneumatic actuation system are:
• The compressed air generation system, consisting of the compressor, the cooler, possibly a dryer, the
storage tank, and the intake and output filters
• The compressed air treatment unit, usually consisting of the FRL assembly (filter, pressure regulator,
and possibly a lubrifier), which permits filtration and local regulation of the supply pressure to the
actuator valve
• The valve - the regulator of the pneumatic power
• The actuator, which converts the pneumatic power into mechanical power
• The pipes for connecting the various components of the actuation system
• The sensors and transducers
• The system display, physical magnitude measurement, and control devices
*These components of the pneumatic system are explained in detail on the next modules.
Applications of Pneumatic System
The main applications of pneumatic system can be classified in four categories:
1. Consumer Applications: Used of air compressor for cleaning, gas stations, exercise equipment, pipe
organs, air guns, vacuum pumps, pneumatic delivery tubes, LEGO pneumatics, etc.
2. Industrial: Used in air brakes on buses and trucks, jackhammers, compressed air engines, automation
system, robotics, material handling equipments, pressure switches, pressure regulators and sensors,
etc.
3. Agriculture: Used mainly on diary farms.
4. Medical: Used in dentals drills and in barostat system such as barostatic balloons.
Advantages and Disadvatages of Pneumatic System
The following are the advantages of pneumatic system.
• High effectiveness – unlimited supply of air, easy to transport, easily released

• High durability and reliability – pneumatic components extremely durable and can’t be damage easily
• Simple design
• High adaptability to harsh environment – compressed air is less affected by high temperature, dust
and corrosion.
• Safety – safer than electrical system and can be used in a flammable environment. Overloading only
leads to sliding or termination of operation.
• Easy selection of speed and pressure – pressure and volume can be controlled by pressure regulator
• Environmental friendly and does not produce pollutants
• Economical – aren’t expensive, durable, and repair cost is significantly low compared to other
systems
The following are its disadvatages:
• Relatively low accuracy – volume of air may change when compressed or heated
• Low loading – due to its size which it can’t drive loads that are too heavy
• Requires processing before use – compressed air requires processing beforehand to ensure the
absence of dust, vapor, or water.
• Uneven moving speed – air can easily compressed, the moving speeds of pistons are relatively
uneven
• Noise – produces noise when compressed air is released

1.2.2. Hydraulic Actuation System
Just as described for the pneumatic system, the components of a hydraulic actuation system are:
• The pump - the hydraulic power generation system

• The actuator - the element which converts hydraulic power into mechanical power
• The valve - the hydraulic power regulator
• The pipes for connecting the various components of the actuation system
• The filters, accumulators, and reservoirs
• The fluid, which transfers the power between the various circuit elements
• The sensors and transducers
• The system display, measurement, and control devices
*These components of the hydraulic system are explained in detail on the next modules.
Applications of Hydraulic System
The hydraulic systems are mainly used for precise control of larger forces. The main applications of hydraulic
system can be classified in five categories:
1. Industrial: Plastic processing machineries, steel making and primary metal extraction applications,
automated production lines, machine tool industries, paper industries, loaders, crushes, textile
machineries, R & D equipment and robotic systems etc.
2. Mobile hydraulics: Tractors, irrigation system, earthmoving equipment, material handling equipment,
commercial vehicles, tunnel boring equipment, rail equipment, building and construction machineries
and drilling rigs etc.
3. Automobiles: It is used in the systems like breaks, shock absorbers, steering system, wind shield, lift
and cleaning etc.
4. Marine applications: It mostly covers ocean going vessels, fishing boats and navel equipment.
5. Aerospace equipment: There are equipment and systems used for rudder control, landing gear, breaks,
flight control and transmission etc. which are used in airplanes, rockets and spaceships.
Advantages and Disadvatages of Hydraulic System
The following are the advantages of hydraulic system.
• The hydraulic system uses incompressible fluid which results in higher efficiency.
• It delivers consistent power output which is difficult in pneumatic or mechanical drive systems.
• Hydraulic systems employ high density incompressible fluid. Possibility of leakage is less in hydraulic
system as compared to that in pneumatic system. The maintenance cost is less.
• These systems perform well in hot environment conditions.
The following are its disadvatages:
• The material of storage tank, piping, cylinder and piston can be corroded with the hydraulic fluid.
Therefore one must be careful while selecting materials and hydraulic fluid.
• The structural weight and size of the system is more which makes it unsuitable for the smaller
instruments.
• The small impurities in the hydraulic fluid can permanently damage the complete system, therefore
one should be careful and suitable filter must be installed.
• The leakage of hydraulic fluid is also a critical issue and suitable prevention method and seals must
be adopted.
• The hydraulic fluids, if not disposed properly, can be harmful to the environment.

1.2.3. Pneumatic and Hydraulic Symbols
The hydraulic and pneumatic elements such as cylinders and valves are connected through pipelines to form a
hydraulic or a pneumatic circuit. It is difficult to represent the complex functioning of these elements using
sketches. Therefore graphical symbols are used to indicate these elements . Like electrical circuit diagrams,
graphical representations of hydraulic and pneumatic systems are a shorthand way of representing the
operation of a circuit by using standard graphical symbols. Although the diagrams show the relationship
between components they are not a piping diagram.
Hydraulics and pneumatics use the same general symbols, the difference being that energy triangles, found on
pumps and motors for example, are filled black on hydraulic diagrams and left clear on pneumatic diagrams.The
symbols only specify the function of the element without indicating the design of the element. Symbols also
indicate the actuation method, direction of flow of air and designation of the ports. Symbols are described in
various documents like DIN24300, BS2917, ISO1219 and the new ISO5599, CETOP RP3 and the original
American JIC and ANSI symbols.
The symbol used to represent an individual element display the following characteristics:
• Function
• Actuation and return actuation methods
• Number of connections
• Number of switching positions
• General operating principle
• Simplified representation of the flow path
The symbol does not represent the following characteristics:

• Size or dimensions of the component
• Particular manufacturer, methods of construction or costs
• Operation of the ports
• Any physical details of the elements
• Any unions or connections other than junctions
The symbols listed below are generally in accordance with ISO 1219, although manufacturers do tend to use
variations on this theme.




1.3 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
Fluid power systems are designed using all the principles learned in fluid mechanics. It is appropriate to briefly
review these principles before proceeding with our study of the applications. One of underlying postulates of
fluid mechanics is that, for a particular position within a fluid at rest, the pressure is the same in all directions.
This follows directly from Pascal’s Law. A second postulate states that fluids can support shear forces only
when in motion. These two postulates define the characteristics of fluid media used to transmit power and
control motion. This lesson deals with fundamental laws and equations which govern the fluid flow which is
essential for the rational design of fluid power components and systems.
1.3.1. Energy
Energy is defined as the ability to perform work. If a force acts on a body and moves the body through a specified
distance in the direction of its application, a work has been done on the body. The amount of this work equals
the product of the force and distance where both the force and distance are measured in the same direction.
Mathematically we can write

W D = Fd
where is the force (N), d is the distance (m) and W D is the work done (J or Nm). In the SI system, a joule (J) is
the work done when a force of 1 N acts through a distance of 1 m. Since work equals force times distance, we
have
1 J = 1 N 1 m = 1 Nm
Thus, we have
Energy (J) = F (N) × d (m)
The transfer of energy is an important consideration in the operation of fluid power systems. Energy from a
prime mover is transferred to a pump via a rotating motor shaft and couplings. The pump converts this
mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by increasing the fluid pressure. The pressurized fluid does work on
hydraulic actuators. An actuator converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and moves the external
load. Not all the input mechanical energy is converted into useful work. There are frictional losses through
valves, fittings and other system control components .
1.3.2. Power
It is defined as the rate of doing work. Thus, the power input to the hydraulic system is the rate at which an
actuator delivers energy to the external load. Similarly, the rate at which an actuator delivers energy to the
external load is equal to the power output of a hydraulic system. The power output is determined by the
requirements of the external load.
A hydraulic system is used because of its versatility in transferring power. The versatility includes the
advantages of variable speed, reversibility, overload protection, high power-to-weight ratio and immunity to
damage under a stalled condition:
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑃𝑃 =
𝑡𝑡
or
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
where F is the force (N), v is the velocity (m/s) and P is the power (N m/s or W). In the SI system, 1 watt (W)
of power is the rate at which 1 J of work is done per second:
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
In SI units we have
1 𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽𝐽
1 𝑊𝑊 = = 1 𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠
Thus, we have
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚)

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (𝑊𝑊) =
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑠𝑠)
1.3.3. Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s law states that the pressure exerted on a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished in all directions
and acts with equal force on equal areas and at right angles to the containing surfaces. In Fig. 1.3.1, a force is
being applied to a piston, which in turn exerts a pressure on the confined fluid. The pressure is equal everywhere
and acts at right angles to the containing surfaces. Pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area and is
expressed as
𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑝𝑝 =
𝐴𝐴

where F is the force acting on the piston, A is the area of the piston and p is the pressure on the fluid.
Figure 1.3.1. illustration of Pascal’s law.
The most useful feature of fluid power is the ease with which it is able to multiply force. This is accomplished by
using an output piston that is larger than the input piston. Such a system is shown in Fig. 1.3.2.
Figure 1.3.2. Multiplication of Force.
This system consists of an input cylinder on the left and an output cylinder on the right that is filled with oil.
When the input force is Fin on the input piston, the pressure in the system is given by
Here to obtain the output force, the input force is multiplied by a factor that is equal to the ratio of the output
piston area to the input piston area. If the output piston area is x times the input piston area, then the output
force is x times the input force. Generally, the cross-sectional area of the piston is circular. The area is given by
Hence, the above equation can be written as

The conservation of energy is very fundamental principle. Itstates that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. At first sight, multiplication of force as depicted in Fig.1.2 may give the impression that something
small is turned into something big. But this is wrong, since the large piston on the right is only moved by the
fluid displaced by the small piston on left. Therefore, what has been gained in force must be sacrificed in piston
travel displacement. Now we shall mathematically derive force displacement relation and force power relation.
1. Force displacement relation:
A hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence, the volume displaced by the piston is equal to the
volume displaced at the output piston:
Since the volume of a cylinder equals the product of its cross-sectional area and its height, we have
where Sin is the downward displacement of the input piston and S out is the upward displacement of the output
piston:
Comparing
(1.1)
2. Force power relation:
A hydraulic oil is assumed to be incompressible; hence, the quantity of oil displaced by the input piston is equal
to the quantity of oil gained and displaced at the output piston:
Flow rate is the product of area and volume of fluid displaced in a specified time
(1.2)
Comparing Equations. (1.1) and (1.2) we get
From the above equation, we get


or
1.3.4. The Combined Gas Law
The combined gas law combines the three gas laws: Boyle's Law, Charles' Law, and Gay-Lussac's Law. It
states that the ratio of the product of pressure and volume and the absolute temperature of a gas is equal to a
constant. Unlike the named gas laws, the combined gas law doesn't have an official discoverer. It is simply a
combination of the other gas laws that works when everything except temperature, pressure, and volume are
held constant.
There are a couple of common equations for writing the combined gas law. The classic law relates Boyle's
law and Charles' law to state:
PV / T = k
where P = pressure, V = volume, T = absolute temperature (Kelvin), and k = constant. The constant k is a true
constant if the number of moles of the gas doesn't change. Otherwise, it varies. Another common formula for
the combined gas law relates "before and after" conditions of a gas:
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
Read each statement carefully and list down what are asked in each of the following.
1. What is pneumatics?
2. What are the main components of pneumatic system?
3. What are the advantages of pneumatic system?
4. Site some disadvantages of pneumatic system?
5. What is a hydraulic?
6. Give some sample applications of hydraulic system.
7. What are the advantages of hydraulic system?
8. What are the disadvantages of hydraulic system?
REFERENCES
Parr, A. (2011). Hydraulics and Pneumatics: A Technician’s and Engineer’s Guide. Third Edition.Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier Ltd
Bishop, R. H. (2008). The Mechatronics Handbook . Second Edition. Boca Raton, London and New York:
CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
https://www.hafner-pneumatik.com/

General Design of Pneumatic System, Generation and Compressed Air

Preparation
MODULE OVERVIEW
Pneumatic technology deals with the study of behavior and applications of compressed air in our daily life in
general and manufacturing automation in particular. Pneumatic systems use air as the medium which is
abundantly available and can be exhausted into the atmosphere after completion of the assigned task.

1. understand the physical overview of the pneumatic system
2. explain the various stages of generation of compressed air and its preparations
3. describe the various compressors and list their advatages and disadvantages
4. compare various types of compressors
5. identify the parts, types of components of every stage of air treatments
2.1 GENERAL DESIGN OF PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
2.1.1 The Path of Compressed Air from its Generation to the Consumer
In pneumatic system, compressed air is utilized to perform mechanical work and for control. In order to do so, the
system needs different equipment to generate, treat and handle compressed air. The graph displays the path of the
environmental air from the compressor to the consumer of compressed air:
When designing a pneumatic system, typically the individual elements are distributed spatially depending on their task.
Although they are spatially separated, they are still connected systematically.

2.1.2. Generation and Transportation of Compressed Air
We will have a brief look at the following componentss of pneumatic systems.
1. Air filter
The air filter is integrated into the intake of the compressor. It prevents large, polluting particles on the outside from
entering the air system. Through filtration, a major portion of unwanted particles can be kept out of the system.
2. Compressor
The task of the compressor is to compress the air to the required pressure and in the required volume. The engine
consumes energy. The compressor transforms this energy and stores it as compressed air. Unfortunately, losses are
severe. The screw compressor is the most common type. Piston compressors are used as well.
3. Air Dryer and Pre-Filters
When air is compressed it loses its ability to hold water. Therefore, water remains when air is compressed. As this
water, the condensate, would be disturbing the following processes, it needs to be removed from the pneumatic
system. In a so called, refrigeration dryer the water condensates and can be removed. There are also absorption
dryers in which the water is absorbed by special materials. The compressed air is also regularly polluted by oil from
the compressor or particles that have not been caught by its intake filter. Those can cause problems in the pneumatic
system, e.g. in the valves. Often times they are separated from the compressed air by using a central filter unit.
4. Tanks
Tanks are used for storing compressed air temporarily. The storage guarantees that the demand can be covered
securely. Often times you can find a condensate drain at the tank. The condensate can then drain off through a valve.
The drain is actuated manually or automatically.
5. Compressed Air Network
The task of the network is to distribute the compressed air from the compressor to the user(s). The size of its tubes is
important because it has a significant influence on the security of supply.In general, the longer the tubes the bigger
the loss of pressure due to friction and the more users are connected the bigger the orifice of the tubes needs to be.
*These components will be discussed in great details as you continued to the next lessons.
2.1.3. The Quality of Compressed Air
The operational safety of an air system is directly linked to the quality of the compressed air. In general, a “better“ =
cleaner air increases the operational safety of the system as the risk of blockage and wear is reduced. Please take
into consideration that the manufacturers of the components and devices communicate the quality requirements for
the air in use. Air quality is standardized by ISO 8573-1:2010.
Purity classes in accordance to standard ISO 8573-1

For example: ISO 8573-1:2010 [4:3:3]
Particles = class 4, water = class 3, oil = class 3
High quality compressed air is 100% oil free = class 0. Air of this quality is required in medical applications, the food-
industry and electronic industry. When designing a compressed air system, take environmental factors into
consideration. Air pollution is concentrated when the air is compressed. Industries with high emissions in the
neighborhood can be of severe impact. Other factors such as a high concentration of ozone can influence your system
and eventually harm seal materials as well. Never ignore climatic conditions. The dryer has to be more capable in a
hot and humid environment.
Therefore it is important to know what kind of air is sucked into our compressor, and make sure that after compressing
the air is dried, cleaned and potential oil is separated from it. Try to consider the influence of the environmental factors


such as climate and pollution. Components with very high loads are lubricated where necessary in order to guarantee
a safe operation.
2.1.4. The Components at the machine-level
The sketch exemplifies a pneumatic system at the machine-level:
The individual elements are represented by ISO-symbols, which are connected with lines. They display the path of the
compressed air. In order to get a better overview, we position the air preparation on the bottom and the actuators on
the top of the drawing.
We can form logic groups of the elements – as you can see in the drawing above:
Air preparation
• Filter
• Pressure regulator
• Lubricator
• Switch-on valve
• Soft start
Control valves
• Directional control valves
• Other types of control valves
• Logic elements
Flow control valves, check-valves

• Flow control valves, uni- or bidirectional
• Exhaust flow-regulators
• Non-return valves = check valves
Actuators, cylinders
• Cylinders
• Rodless cylinders
• Rotary cylinders, etc
Tubes and fittings

• To distribute compressed air and to connect different components
https://www.hafner-pneumatik.com/general_design_of_a_pneumatic_system_and_its_compo

2.2 GENERATION AND COMPRESSED AIR PREPARATION
Pneumatic control systems operate on a supply of compressed air, which must be made available in sufficient
quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system. Impurities in the compressed air such as scale,
rust and dust as well as the liquid elements in the air which deposit as condensate can cause a great deal of
damage in pneumatic systems. These contaminants accelerate wear on sliding surfaces and sealing elements,
adversely affecting the functioning and service life of pneumatic components. In order to eliminate these effects,
compressed air preparation should be given utmost importance. There are four distinct stages of compressed
air preparation. Figure 2.2.1 shows all four stages of compressed air generation and preparation. Figure 2.2.2
illustrates a typical compressed air system.
2.2.1. Stage 1: Air Intake System
An Intake filter removes larger particles which can damage the air compressor. The following should be consider
in this stage of pneumatic system
1. Location
The intake for a compressor will located either outdoors or indoors, whichever provides the better air quality.
Elevation of the compressor relative to sea level is required to determine the atmospheric pressure and density
of intake air. Air quality is judged by its temperature, humidity and cleanliness. We must ensure that air intage
is free of moisture or pollution.
2. Intak e Temperature
The density of air varies inversely with its temperature : an increase in delivery of approximately 1 percent is
gained for -20 reduction of intake temperature.
3. Intak e pipe material
The inside of intake piping must be smooth and not subject to rusting or oxidation. Rust that flakes off will enter
and damage the compressor.. Acceptable intake air piping materials include plastic, cooper, stainless steel,
aluminium or galvanized steel. On metallic piping, mechanical couplings will be used. Welded joint must be
avoided since weld beads can break free, enter and damage the compressor.
4. Critical pipe length
Resonance of intake piping will reciprocating air compressor is prevented by avoiding certain pipe lengths.
These are called critical pipe lengths, and are a function of the air temperature and the speed of the compressor
in revolutions per minute. Critical pipe lengths must be verified with equipment manufacturers.
5. Intak e air filter
The selection of filter type is based on whether air compressor to be used is lubricated or non lubricated, and
on the quality of ambient air.
• Viscous impingement filters have an efficiency of 85 to 90 percent of particle size larger than 10 microns.
This type of filter is acceptable for lubricated reciprocating compressor operating under normal conditions
• Oil bath filters have an efficiency of 96 to 98 percent of particle sized larger than 10 microns. This type of
filter is more expensive, and for the most part no longer recommended by compressor manufacturers, but
may be considered for lubricated reciprocating compressor operating under heavy duty conditions.
• Dry filters have an efficiency of 99 percent of particles larger than 10 microns. Because of their high filtration
efficiency, these filters are the best selection for rotary and reciprocating compressors. They must be used
for non-lubricated compressors and whenever air must be kept oil free.
• Two stage dry filters , to provide 99 percent efficiency of particles larger than 0.3 micron, will be used for
centrifugal units
• With all types of filters, a means of monitoring the air pressure drop through the element must be provided,
which indicates element contaminations.

Figure 2.2.1. The four stages of compressed air generation and preparation

Figure 2.2.2. An industrial compressed air system.
2.2.2. Stage 2: Compressors
In this stage, air is compressed using compressor.
*This lesson is not meant to be a comprehensive analysis of all types of air compression system that can be
designed. Instead, it will concentrate on those most often found in industry.
Compressor is a mechanical device which converts mechanical energy into fluid energy. The compressor
increases the air pressure by reducing its volume which also increases the temperature of the compressed air.
The compressor is selected based on the pressure it needs to operate and the delivery volume. Compressors
can be classified in the following different ways.
a. Based on principle of operation: Based on the principle of operation compressors can be classified as.
• Positive displacement compressor.
• Dynamic displacement compressor
In positive displacement compressors the compression is realized by displacement of solid boundary and
preventing fluid by solid boundary from flowing back in the direction of pressure gradient. Due to solid wall
displacement these are capable of providing quite large pressure ratios. Positive displacement compressors
can be further classified based on the type of mechanism used for compression. These can be
• Reciprocating type positive displacement compressors
• Rotary type positive displacement compressors.
Reciprocating compressors generally, employ piston-cylinder arrangement where displacement of piston in

cylinder causes rise in pressure. Reciprocating compressors are capable of giving large pressure ratios but the
mass handling capacity is limited or small. Reciprocating compressors may also be single acting compressor
or double acting compressor. Single acting compressor has one delivery stroke per revolution while in double
acting there are two delivery strokes per revolution of crank shaft. Rotary compressors employing positive
displacement have a rotary part whose boundary causes positive displacement of fluid and thereby
compression. Rotary compressors of this type are available in the names as given below;
• Roots blower
• Vane type compressors

Rotary compressors of above type are capable of running at higher speed and can handle large mass flow rate
than reciprocating compressors of positive displacement type.
Dynamic displacement compressors, also called as non-positive displacement compressor or steady flow
compressors, use dynamic action of solid boundary for realizing pressure rise. Here fluid is not contained in
definite volume and subsequent volume reduction does not occur as in case of positive displacement
compressors. Dynamic displacement compressor may be of “axial flow type‟ or “centrifugal type‟ depending
upon type of flow in compressor.
b. Based on number of stages: Compressors may also be classified on the basis of number of stages. Generally,
the number of stages depends upon the maximum delivery pressure. Compressors can be single stage or
multistage. Normally maximum compression ratio of 5 is realized in single stage compressors. For compression
ratio more than 5 the multistage compressors are used. Type values of maximum delivery pressures generally
available from different type of compressor are,
• Single stage Compressor, for delivery pressure upto 5 bar.
• Two stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 5 to 35 bar
• Three stage Compressor, for delivery pressure between 35 to 85 bar.
• Four stage compressor, for delivery pressure more than 85 bar
c.Based on Capacity of compressors: Compressors can also be classified depending upon the capacity of
Compressor or air delivered per unit time. Typical values of capacity for different compressors are given as;
• Low capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity of 0.15 m3/s or less
• Medium capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity between 0.15 to 5 m3/s.
• High capacity compressors, having air delivery capacity more than 5 m3/s
d. Based on highest pressure developed: Depending upon the maximum pressure available from compressor
they can be classified as low pressure, medium pressure, high pressure and super high pressure compressors.
Typical values of maximum pressure developed for different compressors are as under:
• Low pressure compressor, having maximum pressure upto 1 bar
• Medium pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 1 bar to 8 bar
• High pressure compressor, having maximum pressure from 8 to 10 bar
• Super high pressure compressor, having maximum pressure more than 10 bar.
Detailed classification is given in the Figure 2.2.3. Air compressors are generally positive displacement units
and either of reciprocating piston type or the rotary screw or rotary vane types. These three types are explained
in detail.
Figure 2.2.3. Classification of Pneumatic Compressors

2.2.2.1 Piston Compressors
Piston type compressors are the oldest and most commonly used compressor in the pneumatic industry
because of its flexibility, high pressure capability, ability to rapidly dissipate heat of compression and oil free.
They are built for either stationary or portable services.
Single Cylinder Compressor
The simplest form is single cylinder compressor (Figure 2.2.4). It produces one pulse of air per piston stroke.
As the piston moves down during the inlet stroke the inlet valve opens and air is drawn into the cylinder. As the
piston moves up the inlet valve closes and the exhaust valve opens which allows the air to be expelled. The
valves are spring loaded. The single cylinder compressor gives significant amount of pressure pulses at the
outlet port. The pressure developed is about 3-40 bar.
Figure 2.2.4. Single acting piston compressor
Double Acting Compressor
The pulsation of air can be reduced by using double acting compressor as shown in Figure 2.2.5. It has two
sets of valves and a crosshead. As the piston moves, the air is compressed on one side whilst on the other side
of the piston, the air is sucked in. Due to the reciprocating action of the piston, the air is compressed and
delivered twice in one piston stroke. Pressure higher than 30 bar can be produced.
Figure 2.2.5. Double acting piston compressor
Multistage Piston Compressor
As the pressure of the air increases, its temperature rises. It is essential to reduce the air temperature to avoid
damage of compressor and other mechanical elements. The multistage compressor with intercooler in-between
is shown in Figure 2.2.6. It is used to reduce the temperature of compressed air during the compression stages.

The inter-cooling reduces the volume of air which used to increase due to heat. The compressed air from the
first stage enters the intercooler where it is cooled. This air is given as input to the second stage where it is
compressed again. The multistage compressor can develop a pressure of around 50bar.
Figure 2.2.6. Multistage piston compressor
Combined Two Stage Piston Compressors
In this type, two-stage compression is carried out by using the same piston (Figure 2.2.7). Initially when
the piston moves down, air is sucked in through the inlet valve. During the compression process, the air
moves out of the exhaust valve into the intercooler. As the piston moves further the stepped head provided
on the piston moves into the cavity thus causing the compression of air. Then, this is let out by the exhaust
port.
Figure 2.2.7. Combined two stage piston compressor
Advantages of piston type compressor
1. Piston type compressors are available in wide range of capacity and pressure
2. Very high air pressure and air volume flow rate is possible with multi-staging.
3. Better mechanical balancing is possible by multistage compressor by proper cylinder arrangement.
4. High overall efficiency compared to other compressor

Disadvantages of piston type compressor
1. Reciprocating piston compressors generate inertia forces that shake the machine. Therefore, a rigid
frame, fixed to solid foundation is often required.
2. Reciprocating piston machines deliver a pulsating flow of air. Properly sized pulsation damping
chambers or receiver tanks are required.
3. They are suited for small volumes of air at high pressures.
2.2.2.2 Screw Compressor
Piston compressors are used when high pressures and relatively low volume of air is needed. The system is
complex as it has many moving parts. For medium flow and pressure applications, screw compressor can be
used. It is simple in construction with less number of moving parts as shown in Figure 2.2.8. The air delivered
is steady with no pressure pulsation. It has two meshing screws. The air from the inlet is trapped between the
meshing screws and is compressed. The contact between the two meshing surface is minimum, hence no
cooling is required. These systems are quite in operation compared to piston type. The screws are synchronized
by using external timing gears.
Figure 2.2.8. Screw compressor
2.2.2.3. Rotary vane compressors
The principle of operation of vane compressor is similar to the hydraulic vane pump. Figure 2.2.9 shows the
working principle of Rotary vane compressor. The unbalanced vane compressor consists of spring loaded vanes
seating in the slots of the rotor. The pumping action occurs due to movement of the vanes along a cam ring.
The rotor is eccentric to the cam ring. As the rotor rotates, the vanes follow the inner surface of the cam ring.
The space between the vanes decreases near the outlet due to the eccentricity. This causes compression of
the air. These compressors are free from pulsation. If the eccentricity is zero no flow takes place.
Figure 2.2.9. Rotary vane compressor

Liquid ring vane compressor is a variation of vane compressors. Figure 2.2.10 shows the construction of Liquid
ring compressor. The casing is filled with liquid up to rotor center. The air enters the compressor through the
distributor fixed to the compressor. During the impeller rotation, the liquid will be centrifuged along the inner ring
of the casing to form the liquid ring. There are two suction and discharge ports provided in the distributor. During
the first quarter of cycle, the air is sucked in both suction chambers of the casing and during the second quarter
of the cycle, the air is compressed and pushed out through the two discharge ports. During the third and fourt h
quarters of the cycle, the process is repeated. This type of compressor has no leakage and has minimal friction.
For smooth operation, the rotation speed should be about 3000 rpm. The delivery pressure is low (about 5 bar).
Figure 2.2.10. Liquid ring compressor
2.2.2.4. Dynamic Compressors
When very large volume of compressed air is required in applications such as ventilators, combustion system
and pneumatic powder blower conveyors, the dynamic compressor can be used. The pressure needed is very
low in such applications. Figure 2.2.11 shows a typical Centrifugal type blower. The impeller rotates at a high
speed. Large volume of low pressure air can be provided by blowers. The blowers draw the air in and the
impeller flings it out due to centrifugal force. Positive displacement compressors need oil to lubricate the moving
parts, whereas the dynamic compressors have no such need. The efficiency of these compressors is better
than that of reciprocating types.
Figure 2.2.11. Blower (Centrifugal type)

2.2.2.5. Comparison Of Different Compressors
Flow rate, efficiency and the pressure rise within the compressor are the three most parameters used in defining
the performance of a compressor and in its selection. Positive displacement compressors are generally suitable
for small flow rates while centrifugal and axial compressors are more commonly applied for medium and large
flow applications respectively. The advantages of centrifugal compressors are that they are reliable, compact
and robust , have better resistance to foreign object damage and are less affected by performance degradation
due to fouling. Positive displacement machines have wider operating domain when compared to other
compressor types. Centrifugal compressors are most commonly applied in petrochemical or process industries
in the flow rates ranging from 30 m3/min to 3000 m3/min. Typical comparison is given in the Table 2.2.1.
Table 2.2.1 Comparison of Different Compressors
2.2.3. Stage 3: Primary Air Treatment and Air Receiver
For satisfactory operation of the pneumatic system the compressed air needs to be cleaned and dried.
Atmospheric air is contaminated with dust, smoke and is humid. These particles can cause wear of the system
components and presence of moisture may cause corrosion. Hence it is essential to treat the air to get rid of
these impurities. The air treatment can be divided into three segment.
In the first segment which is the first stage of compressed air preparation, the large sized particles are prevent ed
from entering the compressor by an intake filter. The air leaving the compressor may be humid and may be at
high temperature. The air from the compressor is treated in the second segment. In this segment, temperature
of the compressed air is lowered using a cooler and the air is dried using a dryer. Also an inline filter is provided
to remove any contaminant particles present. This treatment is called primary air treatment. After the
compressed air passes through the primary air treatment, it stays at the air receiver or tank for storage until it
is needed to be used. In the third segement which is the secondary air treatment process, further filtering is
carried out. A lubricator introduces a fine mist of oil into the compressed air. This will help in lubrication of the
moving components of the system to which the compressed air will be applied.

2.2.3.1 After Cooler
Air compression process may be designed to either to be adiabatic or to involve heat transfer, depending on
the purpose for which the gas is compressed. If the compressed air is to be used promptly in engine, adiabatic
compression may be required. In much application, however, air is stored in a tank for use as needed. The air
in the tank loses heat to the surroundings and reaches room temperature when finally used. In this case the
overall effect of compression and storage is to increase pressure of gas without change of temperature. In can
be shown that if the gas is cooled during compression, instead of after the process, the work required will be
less than for adiabatic compression. A further advantage of cooling is the reduction of volume and the
consequent reduction of pipe line losses. For this reason, since cooling during compression is not very effective,
after coolers are often used to cool the gas leaving the compressor.
After coolers control the amount of water vapour in a compressed air system by condensing the water vapour
into liquid form. In a distribution or process manufacturing system, liquid water can cause significant damage
to the equipment that uses compressed air. An after cooler is necessary to ensure the proper functionality of
pneumatic or air handling devices that are a part of process manufacturing systems.
Function of Compressed Air After Coolers
• Cool air discharged from air compressors via the heat exchanger
• Reduce risk of fire (Hot compressed air pipes can be a source of ignition)
• Reduce compressed air moisture level
• Increase system capacity
• Protect downstream equipment from excessive heat
Coolers are usually sized with a CTD (Cold Temperature Difference) of 2.7°C, 5.5°C, 8.3°C, or 11°C. This
means that the compressed air temperature at the outlet of the after cooler will be equal to the cooling medium
temperature plus the CTD when sized at the specified inlet air temperature and flow.
Types of After Cooler
Ther are two basic types of After Cooler
1. Air-Cooled After Cooler
Air-Cooled After coolers provide economical cooling by using ambient air to cool the hot compressed air from
an air compressor. They cool the hot compressed air leaving the compressor at a temperature of approximately
100°C to 150°c to the desired inlet temperature of an air dryer which is approximately 35°c to 50°c. As the
compressed air cools, about 75% of the water vapour present condenses into liquid water which should be
immediately removed from the system with a separator. Air-Cooled After coolers can be sized to cool the hot
compressed air to within -15°c to -5°F of the ambient air temperature.
2. Water-Cooled Pipeline After Cooler
The most common style for compressed air service is a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger. The pipeline after
cooler consists of a shell with a bundle of tubes fitted inside. Typically the compressed air flows through the
tubes in one direction as water flows on the shell side in the opposite direction. Heat from the compressed air
is transferred to the water. Water vapor forms as the compressed air cools. The moisture is removed by the
moisture separator and drain valve. The tube bundles can be fixed or removable. Fixed tube bundles cost less
but are more difficult to maintain than bundles that can be removed for cleaning or service.
2.2.3.2. Main Line Filter
These filters are used to remove the water vapors or solid contaminants present in the pneumatic systems main
lines. Air filter and water trap is used to prevent any solid contaminants from entering in the system. they are
also used to condense and remove water vapor that is present in the compressed air.

The filter cartridge is made of sintered brass. The schematic of the filter is shown in Figure 2.2.12. The thickness
of sintered cartridge provides random zigzag passage for the air to flow-in which helps in arresting the solid
particles. The air entering the filter swirls around due to the deflector cone. The centrifugal action causes the
large contaminants and water vapor to be flung out, which hit the glass bowl and get collected at the bottom. A
baffle plate is provided to prevent the turbulent air from splashing the water into the filter cartridge. At the bottom
of the filter bowl there is a drain plug which can be opened manually to drain off the settled water and solid
particles.
Figure 2.2.12. Air filter and water trap
2.2.3.3. Air Dryers
Air dryer’s main function is to lower the dew point of the compressed air by removing the moisture from it. For
simple applications, to remove excess humidity, we need simple after cooler, an air receiver, and a filter with
condensate traps. However, to get high quality compressed air additional means of dehydration must be
provided using dryer.
Types of Air Dryer
Generally four basic types of air dryers are used in Industries.
1. Absorption type dryer
Figure 2.2.13. Absoption Dryer
Absorption drying is a purely chemical process. The moisture in the compressed air forms a compound with
drying agent like phosphoric pentaoxide in the tank. This causes the drying agent to break down. It is then


discharged in the form of a fluid at the base of the tank. Schematic diagram of absorption dryer is shown in
Figure 2.2.13.
Oil vapour and oil particles are also separated in the absorption dryer. Large quantities of oil have an effect on
the efficiency of the dryer. Therefore it is advisable to include a fine filter in front of the dryer.
The advantages of absorption dryer are the following:

• Simple to install
• Low mechanical wear because there is no moving parts
• No external energy requirement
The disadvantages of absorption dryer are

• Maintenance cost is high
• Low efficiency
• Consumable cost is high
2. Adsorption type dryer
Adsorption is a physical process of moisture removal on the porous surface of certain granular materials.
Gaseous molecules are attracted to certain solid surfaces by van der walls forces and this causes the
adsorption. The degree of attraction or adsorption depends on properties of gaseous molecules and desiccant.
Most commonly used desiccants are activated alumina, molecular sieves and silica gel.
Figure 2.2.14. Adsoption type dryer
Figure 2.2.14 shows the various parts of adsorption dryer. Wet incoming compressed air after passing through
a pre-filter is directed to the adsorption chamber containing the desiccant. Water vapour in the compressed air
is absorbed by the desiccant. Thereafter dry air is allowed to pass to the application through the after filter.
3. Refrigeration dryer
The layout of a typical refrigerated air dryer is shown in Figure 2.2.15. It is composed of a heat exchanger (stage
1) and a refrigerating unit (stage 2) to reduce the temperature of the compressed air. The incoming warm and
humid air is first passed through the air-to-air heat exchanger, and then through the refrigerating unit to reduce
the temperature of the compressed to as low as +2 oC . This drying method is based on the principle that if the
compressed air is cooled to a temperature below the dew point, condensation talks place and water is
precipitated. Almost all the water and oil particles get condensed, and collected in the water traps provided at
appropriate points. The cooled compressed air is then filtered to remove from it the suspended solid particles
and most of the oil mist. The pressure dew point of 2 oC is possible with this type, which is sufficient enough for
the smooth operation of the most of the industrial and process applications.

Figure 2.2.15. Refrigerated dryer
4. Membrane dryer
Membrane dryers are yet another type of dryer to remove moisture from compressed air. It consists of three
stages.
Stage 1: Contains a filter which removes the water and contaminants down to 5 micron.
Stage 2: High efficiency coalescing filter removes oil and sub micron particles down to 0.01 micron
Stage 3: membrane module removes the remaining moisture in the vapour form
In this type of dryer, pre-cleaned compressed air is passed through a bundle of hollow fibers in the membrane
module. The hollow fibers constitute a membrane layer specially designed to attract the water vapour inside.
This water vapour diffuses through the very thin selective layer until it reaches the outside of the membrane due
to partial pressure difference between inside and outside of the membrane. The permeated water vapour is
then swept away by a small amount of dry air fed back along the length of the membrane fibre through a purging
valve.
The advantages of membrane dryer are the following:

• Membrane dryers typically maintain a pressure dew point of 0
• Membrane dryers are simple and compact
• Dryers run almost noiseless
• There is no need for regeneration because membranes never gets saturated
• They do not require electric supply
• Low operating cost
2.2.3.3. Air Receiver or Receiver Tank
The air is compressed slowly in the compressor. But since the pneumatic system needs continuous supply of
air, this compressed air has to be stored. The compressed air is stored in an air receiver as shown in Figure
2.2.16. The air receiver smoothens the pulsating flow from the compressor. It also helps the air to cool and
condense the moisture present. The air receiver should be large enough to hold all the air delivered by the
compressor. The pressure in the receiver is held higher than the system operating pressure to compensate
pressure loss in the pipes. Also the large surface area of the receiver helps in dissipating the heat from the
compressed air. Generally the size of receiver depends on,
• Delivery volume of compressor.
• Air consumption.
• Pipeline network
• Type and nature of on-off regulation
• Permissible pressure difference in the pipelines

Figure 2.2.15. Air Receiver
2.2.4. Stage 4: Secondary Air Treatment
In this stage moisture and fine dirt particles are removed. Pressure is regulated to suit individual machine‟s
requirement and introduces the fine mist of oil to the compressed air to aid lubrication. The units used in
secondary air treatment are filter, regulator and lubricator (called FRL or service units)
Operating instructions issued for pneumatic components almost always contain a note recommending the
installation of an air filter, pressure regulator and lubricator upstream of the component. This is to ensure that
only air which has been suitably conditioned will reach the consumer.
Provided that air main filter has been properly installed in the primary air treatment, the major part of these
impurities will collect in the condensate drain tanks. Tiny particles remain suspended in the air stream and would
damage the working parts of pneumatic components by their abrasive action. Furthermore, the air flow in the
main pulsated, due to intermittently running compressor as controlled by pressure in air receiver. The
consumer, on the other hand, need to work with a uniform air pressure. Finally, lubrication is required for the
moving parts of the pneumatic equipment. The following secondary air treatment components are used in the
pneumatic systems.
2.2.4.1. Air Filters
The purpose of the air filter is to clean the compressed air of all impurities and any condensate it contains.
Function of air filters

• To remove all foreign matter and allow dry and clean air flow without restriction to regulator and then
to the lubricator
• To condensate and remove water from the air
• To arrest fine particles and all solid contaminants from air
Sometimes several filters are necessary in a system because of different requirements:
• Pollution from the pipeline or condensate released during transportation has to be removed before reaching
individual equipment.
• Different pieces of control or regulating equipment require different air quality.
• For specific applications (e.g. the packaging of food) standard filtration is insufficient. Activated-carbon filters
are required. The air used in these filters has to be pre-filtered by fine-filters.

An automated drain valve works as a floating exhaust valve. As soon as the condensate reaches a certain level, the
valve opens and drains the bowl.

Depending on the requirements inside the pneumatic system there are different filter elements offering different
degrees of fineness and materials. In pneumatics we typically use filter elements with a finesses of 5 to 50 µm. In order
to reach an air quality according to ISO 8573-1:2010 [7:4:4], the following is required:
• Concentration of particles: 5-10 mg/m3
• Filter fineness: 20-50 µm
In case of higher requirements, we recommend standard ISO 8573-1:2010 [6:4:4] which is still common in
pneumatics:
• Concentration of particles: Maximum 5 mg/m3
• Filter fineness: 5 µm
Based on make and fineness of the filter element, we differentiate between filters:
1. Classic filter unit

• Filter fineness: 5 µm, 20 µm, 50 µm
• Material: sintered PE, sintered bronze on request
2. Pre-filter unit
• Filter fineness: 0,3 µm
• Material: cellulose-acetate
3. Fine-filter unit
• Filter fineness: 0,01 µm
• Material: glass fibre with acetate
4. Activated-carbon filter
• Material: activated-carbon

2.2.4.2. Pressure Regulators
The function of the air pressure regulator is to maintain working pressure virtually constant regardless of
fluctuations of the line pressure and air consumption. When the pressure is too low, it results in poor efficiencies
and when the pressure is too high, energy is wasted and equipment’s performance decay faster. In pneumatic
system, pressure fluctuations occur due to variation in supply pressure or load pressure. It is therefore essential
to regulate the pressure to match the requirement of load regardless of variation in supply pressure or load
pressure.
Normally the network supplies pressure between 6 and 10 bar, which can vary depending on the rate of air
consumption. In order to use compressed air efficiently, the required pressure should be set for each piece of
equipment with an individual pressure regulator. The individual pressure can only be lower than the pressure supplied
by the network. It is the task of the pressure regulating valve to hold the level of the output pressure on a constant
level, regardless of input pressure or fluctuations in air consumption.
There are two types of Pressure regulators

• Diaphragm type regulator
• Piston type regulator
Diaphragm type regulator is commonly used in Industrial pneumatic system. There are two types of
diaphragm type regulator
• Non- reliving or regulator without secondary venting
• Relieving or regulator with secondary venting
Relieving or regulator with secondary venting is commonly used and is explained below.

Regulators with secondary venting can let out excess pressure on the secondary side, e.g. when the pressure P2 is
reduced by the operator or when the pressure is increased by the equipment (high load on a large
cylinder). Regulators without secondary venting are usually used when the medium is not supposed to be released
into the atmosphere.
CAUTION! Pressure regulation in pneumatics is a regulation of volume. The amount of compressed air behind the
regulator needs to be large enough to build up an air pressure that is the same as set at the regulator (off-setting the
force of the spring in the regulator). If the pressure drops, more air is fed into the system behind the regulator. There
must be a balance between the force of the air-pressure and the force of the spring.
2.2.4.3. Air Lubricator
The function of air lubricator is to add a controlled amount of oil with air to ensure proper lubrication of internal
moving parts of pneumatic components. Lubricants are used to
• To reduce the wear of the moving parts
• Reduce the frictional losses
• Protect the equipment form corrosion
The same washing-out effect is true when lubricators are used. Therefore, if lubricators are in use, they must not run
dry.
→ The eternal question: "Should lubricators be used or not?"

Answer: It always depends on the application!
In certain industries such as food industry, lubrication is not allowed at all. In other industries with very big cylinders
and strong forces, lubrication can be really beneficial, especially for the durability of the actuators. The lubricators in
pneumatic systems use the Venturi principle.

2.2.4.4. Filter Regulator Lubricator Unit (FRL Unit or Service Unit)
Figure 2.2.16. Installation of FRL unit
In most pneumatic systems, the compressed air is first filtered and then regulated to the specific pressure
and made to pass through a lubricator for lubricating the oil. Thus usually a filter, regulator and lubricator
are placed in the inlet line to each air circuit. They may be installed as separate units, but more often they
are used in the form of a combined unit. Figure 2.2.16 shows the schematic arrangement of installation of
Filter, Regulator and Lubricator unit.
The combination of filter, regulator and lubricator is called FRL unit or service unit. Figure 2.2.17(a) gives the
three dimensional view of FRL unit. Figure 2.2.17(b) gives detailed symbol of FRL unit. Figure 2.2.17(c) gives
simplified symbol of FRL unit.
Figure 2.2.17 a) Three dimensional view of FRL unit b) detained symbol c) simplified symbol of FRL.


2.2.4.5. Air Distribution System
The main objective of air distribution system is to provide a distribution channel for compressed air without any
leak and keep the pressure drop within permissible limits. The air distribution system consists of pipings/ tubings
and fittings which interconnect various components of a pneumatic system. Figure 2.2.18 shows a typical air
distribution system.
Figure 2.2.18. Typical Air distribution system (Ring type)
The air distribution should take into account the following parameters
• Choice of fluid pipings or tubings
• Flow resistance
• Correct sizing of pipes
• Correct sizing of fittings.
• Pipe layout
LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
1. State the importance of the generation and preparation compressed air in pneumatic system.
2. Explain the different stages of preparation of compressed air.
3. Differentiate between positive and displacement compressors.
4. State the adverse effects of moisture content of compressed air to pneumatic components.
5. What is the function of an After Cooler?
6. What are the different methods of drying compressed air?
7. State the importance of secondary air treatment.
8. List five important considerations in pipe layout in pneumatic network.
REFERENCES
Esposito, A. (1997). Fluid Power with Applications. Fourth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Pneumatic Control Valves and Actuators

MODULE OVERVIEW
Pneumatics is the technology of compressed air, but in some circles, it is more smart to refer to it as a type of
automation control. Compressed air that may be either of the dry or lubricated type—is used to actuate a
pneumatic actuator and do work. But to do that, some components and circuits for air route are needed to
perform such necessary functions.

1. Classify the valves
2. Identify the DCVs as per ISO designation
3. Classify the various types of Pneumatic actuators
4. Explain the working of various pneumatic actuators and understand the importance of cushioning
5. State basic rules used in design of pneumatic circuits
6. Explain the memory, delay, OR , AND and NOT functions
3.1 PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVES
Valve are defined as devices to control or regulate the commencement, termination and direction and also the
pressure or rate of flow of a fluid under pressure which is delivered by a compressor or vacuum pump or is
stored in a vessel. Valves perform three main function in pneumatic installation
• They control the supply of air to power units, example cylinders
• They provide signal which govern the sequence of operation
• They act as interlock and safety devices
The type of valve used is of little importance in a pneumatic control for most part. What is important is the
function that can be initiated with the valves, its mode of actuation and line connection size, the last named
characteristics also determining the flow size of the valve. Valves used in pneumatics mainly have a control
function that is when they act on some process, operation or quantity to be stopped. A control function requires
control energy, it being desirable to achieve the greatest possible effect with the least effort. The form of control
energy will be dictated by the valve’s mode of actuation and may be manual, mechanical, electrical hydraulic or
pneumatic.
Valve available for pneumatic control can be classified into four principal groups according to their function:
• Direction control valve
• Non return valves
• Flow control valves
• Pressure control valves
3.1.1. Directional Control Valves (DCVs)
Pneumatic systems like hydraulic system also require control valves to direct and regulate the flow of fluid from
the compressor to the various devices like air actuators and air motors. In order to control the movement of air
actuators, compressed air has to be regulated, controlled and reversed with a predetermined sequence.
Pressure and flow rates of the compressed air to be controlled to obtain the desired level of force and speed of
air actuators.
The function of directional control valve is to control the direction of flow in the pneumatic circuit. DCVs are used
to start, stop and regulate the direction of air flow and to help in the distribution of air in the required line.
Directional valves control the way the air passes and are used principally for controlling commencement,
termination and direction of air flow. The different classification scheme of the pneumatic control valves are

1. Based on construction or design
i) Poppet or seat valves

• Ball seat valve
• Disc seat valve
ii) Sliding spool valves

• Longitudinal slide valve
• Suspended spool valves
• Rotary spool valves
2. Based on the Number of ports/positions
• 2/2-way (2 ports, 2 positions)

• 4/2-way (4 ports, 2 positions - only one exhaustport)
• 4/3-way (4 ports, 3 positions - only one exhaustport)
3. Based on methods of actuation
• Mechanically actuated
• Manually actuated
• Electrically actuated
• Pneumatically actuated
4. Based on the number of stable positions
• One stable position: single solenoid / single pilot valve or spring return valve.
• Two stable positions: double solenoid / pilot valve, lever valve indexed.
• 3-positions valves.
5. Based on the flow of basic positions
i) For 2/2-way and 3/2-way valves with spring return

• Normally open
• Normally closed
ii) For 3/3, 4/3- and 5/3-way valves

• Centre closed
• Centre exhausted
• Centre pressurized
6. Based on Size of the port
Size refers to a valve’s port size. The port sizes are designated as M5, G1/8, and G1/4 etc. M refer to Metric
thread, G refer to British standard pipe (BSP) thread.
5. Based on mounting styles

• Sub base
• Manifold
• In-line
• Valve island
ISO Designation of Direction Control Valves

Valves are represented by symbols because actual construction is quite complex. A symbol specifies function
of the valve, method of actuation, no of ports and ways. Pneumatic symbols have been standardised in ISO
1219-1:2006. (Fluid power systems and components – Graphic symbols and circuit diagram). Another standard
ISO 1219-2:1995 establishes the rules for drawing diagrams of fluid power systems using symbols from ISO
1219-1. Port designations are described in ISO 5599.
Port mark ings: As per the ISO 5599, ports are designated using a number system. Earlier, a letter system was
used to designate a port. Table 3.1.1 gives port markings.
Table 3.1.1. Port Markings of Direction Control Valve
Ports and position: DCVs are described by the number of port connections or ways they control. Table 3.1
shows the Port markings of DCVs and Table 3.1.2 shows commonly used DCVs with old and new designations.
Table 3.1.2. Port designation of DCV
The directional valves are described by the numbers of ports in the main valve (excluding pilot ports) and the number


of positions the valve can take, [number of ports] / [number of positons]

Apart from the squares showing the valve's function, the symbols for its actuation elements and elements to
reset/return it are shown on the left, respectively right side of them.

Numbering of ports: All the ports in the valve are counted through. The numbers indicate the function of the port. The
numbers always appear on the square for the valve's basic/normal position. In case we talk about a valve with 2 stable
positions, the numbers are shown for the “implicit standard position“.
Basic position = normal position is the position the valve is in without actuation.
Examples:
The following lever- and pneumatically actuated valves allow airflow in both directions (double arrows).

Example 1: Development of symbol for 3/2 way directional control valve

3.1.1.1 Poppet Direction Control Valves
There are two different types of poppet valves, namely ball seat valve and disc seat valve.
Ball Seat Valve
In a poppet valve, discs, cones or balls are used to control flow. Figure 3.1.1 shows the construction of a simple
2/2 normally closed valve. If the push button is pressed, ball will lift off from its seat and allows the air to flow
from port P to port B. When the push button is released, spring force and air pressure keeps the ball back and
closes air flow from port P to port B.
Figure 3.1.1 Two/Two Ball seat Poppet valve
Disc Seat Poppet Valve
Figure 3.1.2 shows the construction of a disc type 3/2 way DCV. When push button is released, ports 1 and 3
are connected via hollow pushbutton stem. If the push button is pressed, port 3 is first blocked by the moving
valve stem and then valve disc is pushed down so as to open the valve thus connecting port 1 and 3. When the
push button is released, spring and air pressure from port 1 closes the valve.. Comparison between Ball seat
and disc seat valve is given in Table 3.1.3
Table 1.3 Comparison of Ball seat and Disc seat valves

Figure 3.1.2. Disc seat poppet valve
Advantages of poppet valves are as follows

• Response of poppet valve is very fast- short stroke to provide maximum flow opening
• They give larger opening (larger flow) of valves for a small stroke
• The valve seats are usually simple elastic seals so wear is minimum
• They are insensitive to dust and dirt and they are robust, seats are self cleaning
• Maintenance is easy and economical.
• They are inexpensive
• They give longer service life: short stroke and few wearing parts give minimum wear and maximum
life capabilities
Disadvantages of poppet valves are as follows

• The actuating force is relatively high, as it is necessary to overcome the force of the built in reset
spring and the air pressure.
• They are noisy if flow fluctuation is large.
3.1.1.2 Spool Direction Control Valves
There are three main types of spool directional control valves, namely longitudinal slide valve, suspended
spool valves and rotary spool valves.
Longitudinal Slide Valve
An example of a longitudinal slide valve is a pilot operated valves spool valves which consist of 2 parts. The
graphic below shows the cross section of a 5/2-way single solenoid valve.

The pilot valve is a poppet valve and the main valve is a 5/2-way spool valve. The characteristics of the main
valve with regards to design is a spool valve where the axial movement of the spool opens and closes the route
between distinct ports in the valve. This movement is provided by the energy of the compressed air.
Spool valves can combine a high flow large orifice size at a significant maximum pressure in which the standard
is around 10 bar and can be larger, with a low power consumption. In order to function correctly, the valves
require a minimum pressure. If there is less pressure applied to the valve, the spool might not move. In this
case the friction is too high.
Suspended Disc Direction Control Valves
This valve is quite similar to spool valve. Schematic diagram is shown in Figure 3.1.3. In this design disc is used
instead of a spool. This suspended disc can be moved by pilot pressure or by solenoid or by mechanical means.
In this design, main disc connects port 1 to either port 4 or 2. The secondary seat discs seal the exhaust port 3
whichever is not functional. These values are generally provided with manual override to manually move the
cylinder.
Figure 3.1.3. 4/2 Directional control valve (suspended disc type)
Advantages of Suspended Disc DCVs are as follows

• They have short actuation movement
• They are quick to operate because of small switching movement
• If signals are applied at both ports, first signal will be dominant
Disadvantages of Suspended Disc DCVs are as follows

• Construction of the valve is complex
• Expensive
Rotary Spool Valves
Figure 3.1.4. Parts of a rotary spool directional control valve.

The rotary spool directional control valve (Figure 3.1.4) has a round core with one or more passages or recesses
in it. The core is mounted within a stationary sleeve. As the core is rotated within the stationary sleeve, the
passages or recesses connect or block the ports in the sleeve. The ports in the sleeve are connected to the
appropriate lines of the fluid system. Figure 3.1.5 shows three different position of the core when the handle is
rotated. Left most envelope of DCV connects P to B and A to T. Middle envelope of DCV blocks all ports. Right
most envelope of DCV connects P to A and T to B.
Figure 3.1.5. Three different positions of 4/3 way rotary spool directional control valve.
Figure 3.1.6 shows schematically the different position of core and sleeve for various middle position of 4/3 way
Direction control valve.
Figure 3.1.6 Different position of core and sleeve for various mid position of 4/3 DCV

3.1.2. Non Return Valves
Non return valves permit flow of air in one direction only, the other direction through the valve being at all times
blocked to the air flow. Mostly the valves are designed so that the check is additionally loaded by the
downstream air pressure, thus supporting the non-return action.
Among the various types of non-return valves available, those preferentially employed in pneumatic controls
are as follows
• Check valve
• Shuttle valve
• Restrictor check valve
• Quick exhaust valve
• Two pressure valve
3.1.2.1 Check valve
The simplest type of non-return valve is the check valve (Figure 3.1.7) , which completely blocks air flow in one
direction while permitting flow in the opposite direction with minimum pressure loss across the valve. As soon
as the inlet pressure in the direction of free flow develops a force greater than that of the internal spring, the
check is lifted clear of the valve seat. The check in such valve may be plug, ball, plate or diaphragm.
Figure 3.1.7. Check valve
3.1.2.2. Shuttle Valve
It is also known as a double control valve or double check valve. A shuttle valve has two inlets and one outlet.
At any one time, flow is shut off in the direction of whichever inlet is unloaded and is open from the loaded inlet
to the outlet (Figure 3.1.8). A shuttle valve may be installed, for example, when a power unit (cylinder) or control
unit (valve) is to be actuated from two points, which may be remote from one other.
Figure 3.1.8. Shuttle valve

3.1.2.3. Restrictor check valve
It also termed speed control valve for pneumatic applications are actually hybrid type of unit. By reason of their
throttling function they are flow control valves and they are indeed used as flow control valves in pneumatics.
Incorporation of check function also makes them non –return valves and it is as such that they are generally
classified.
Usually the throttle of a restrictor check valve is adjustable so as to permit regulations of air flow through the
valve. Throttling function is effective only in one direction of flow, while in the other direction free flow is provided
through the check a shown in Figure 3.1.9. When restrictor check valves are used to control the speed of
pneumatic cylinders, differentiation is made between supply-air and exhaust air-throttling.
Figure 3.1.9. Functional diagram of restrictor check valve.
3.1.2.4. Quick Exhaust Valves
A quick exhaust valve is a typical shuttle valve. The quick exhaust valve is used to exhaust the cylinder air
quickly to atmosphere. Schematic diagram of quick exhaust valve is shown in Figure 3.1.10. In many
applications especially with single acting cylinders, it is a common practice to increase the piston speed during
retraction of the cylinder to save the cycle time. The higher speed of the piston is possible by reducing the
resistance to flow of the exhausting air during the motion of cylinder. The resistance can be reduced by expelling
the exhausting air to the atmosphere quickly by using Quick exhaust valve.
Figure 3.1.10 Functional diagram of quick exhaust valve.

The construction and operation of a quick exhaust valve is shown in Figure 1.38. It consist of a movable disc
(also called flexible ring) and three ports namely, Supply port 1, which is connected to the output of the final
control element (Directional control valve). The Output port, 2 of this valve is directly fitted on to the working
port of cylinder. The exhaust port, 3 is left open to the atmosphere.
Forward Motion: During forward movement of piston, compressed air is directly admitted behind the piston
through ports 1 and 2 Port 3 is closed due to the supply pressure acting on the diaphragm. Port 3 is usually
provided with a silencer to minimise the noise due to exhaust.
Return Motion: During return movement of piston, exhaust air from cylinder is directly exhausted to atmosphere
through opening 3 (usually larger and fitted with silencer) .Port 2 is sealed by the diaphragm. Thus exhaust air
is not required to pass through long and narrow passages in the working line and final control valve
Typical applications of quick exhaust valves for single acting and double acting cylinders are shown in Figure
3.1.11.
Figure 3.1.11. Application of quick exhaust valve.
3.1.2.5. Two Pressure Valve
This valve is the pneumatic AND valve. It is also derivate of Non Return Valve. A two pressure valve requires
two pressurised inputs to allow an output from itself. The cross sectional views of two pressure valve in two
positions are given in Figure 3.1.12. As shown in the figure, this valve has two inputs 12 and 14 and one output
2. If the compressed air is applied to either 12 or input 14, the spool moves to block the flow, and no signal
appears at output 2. If signals are applied to both the inputs 12 and 14, the compressed air flows through the
valve, and the signal appears at output 2.
Figure 3.1.12. Two pressure valve.

3.1.3. Flow Control Valves
Function of a flow control valve is self –evident from its name. A flow control valve regulates the rate of air flow.
The control action is limited to the air flow passing through the valve when it is open, maintaining a set volume
per unit of time. Figure 3.1.13(a) shows a variable restrictor type flow control valve (manifold type). Figure
3.1.13(b) shows a variable restriction type flow control valve (inline type). Figure 3.1.14 shows another design
of Flow control valve, in which flow can be set by turning the knob.
Figure 3.1.13. Flow control valve a) manifold b) inline
Figure 3.1.14. Flow control valve (adjustable)
3.1.4. Pressure Control Valves
Compared with hydraulic systems, few pressure control valves are brought into use in pneumatics. Pressure
control valves control the pressure of the air flowing through the valve or confined in the system controlled by
the valve.
There are three types of pressure control valves

• Pressure limiting valve
• Pressure sequence valve
• Pressure regulator or pressure reducing valve
3.1.4.1. Pressure Limiting Valve
Prevents the pressure in a system from rising above a permissible maximum. Construction feature of pressure
limiting valve is shown in Figure 3.1.15. It is a standard feature of compressed air production plant but is hardly
ever used in pneumatic controls. These valves perform a safety relief function by opening to the atmosphere if


a predetermined pressure is exceeded in the system, thus releasing the excess pressure. As soon as the
pressure is thus relieved to the desired figure, the valve closed again by spring force.
Figure 3.1.15. Pressure limiting valve
3.1.4.2. Pressure Sequence Valve
Function of the sequence valve is very similar to that of a pressure limiting valve. It is however used for a
different purpose. Outlet of the pressure sequence valve remains closed until pressure upstream of it builds up
to a predetermined value. Only then the valve opens to permit the air from inlet to outlet. Sequence valve must
be incorporated into a pneumatic control where a certain minimum pressure must be available for a given
function and operation is not be initiated at any pressure lower than that. There are also used in systems
containing priority air consumers, when other consumers are not to be supplied with air until ample pressure is
assured.
3.1.4.3. Pressure Reducing Valve or Regulator
Pressure regulators, commonly called pressure-reducing valves, maintain constant output pressure in
compressed-air systems regardless of variations in input pressure or output flow. Regulators are a special class
of valve containing integral loading, sensing, actuating, and control components. Available in many
configurations, they can be broadly classified as general purpose, special purpose, or precision. Three
dimensional view of pressure reducing valve is shown in Figure 3.1.16.
General-purpose or utility regulators have flow and regulation characteristics that meet the requirements of most
industrial compressed-air applications. Such regulators provide long service life and relative ease of
maintenance at competitive prices. Precision regulators are for applications where regulated pressure must be
controlled with close tolerances. Such regulators are used when the outcome of a process or the results of a
test depend on accurate pressure control.
Special-purpose regulators often have a unique configuration or special materials for use with fluids other than
compressed air. Regulator construction can range from simple to complex, depending on the intended
application and the performance requirements.
However, the principle of operation and the loading, actuating, and control components are basic to all designs.
Most regulators use simple wire coil springs to control the downstream pressure. Various size springs are used
to permit regulation of the secondary pressure within specific ranges. Ideally, the required pressure should be
in the center one-third of the rated outlet pressure range. At the lower end of the pressure range, the spring
loses some sensitivity; at the high end, the spring nears its maximum capacity.


Regulators can use either a piston or diaphragm to sense downstream pressure. Diaphragms are generally
more sensitive to pressure changes and react more quickly. They should be used where sensitive pressure
settings are required (less than 0.0025 bar). Pistons, on the other hand, are generally more rugged and provide
a larger effective sensing area in a given size regulator. The functional difference between precision and
general-purpose regulators is the degree of control accuracy of the output pressure. Output pressure accuracy
is determined by the droop due to flow changes (regulator characteristics).
Pressure droop is most pronounced when the valve first opens. Factors contributing to droop are: load change
with spring extension, effective area change with diaphragm displacement, and unbalance of area forces on the
valve. The amount that output pressure changes with variations in supply pressure is called the regulation
characteristic and is influenced by the ratio of diaphragm area to valve area and the degree of valve unbalance.
Figure 3.1.16. Three dimensional figure of pressure regulating valve.
When selecting a pressure regulator, the important factors to consider are:

1. Normal line pressure.
2. Minimum and maximum regulated pressure required: Regulators can have a broad adjustment range
and may require a specific spring or accessory to match the requirements. Also, minimum and
maximum pressure should be within the middle third of the regulator range.
3. Maximum flow required at regulated pressure.
4. Pipe size: Not all regulators are available in all pipe sizes; note where adapters are required. Also, pipe
size should be consistent with flow requirements.
5. Regulator adjustment frequency: A number of different adjusting methods are possible. When selecting
a regulator, consider the location, application, adjusting method, and user.
6. Degree of pressure precision required.
7. Accessories or options include gages and panel mounting.
8. Environmental or fluid conditions that could be incompatible with materials used in the regulator.
9. Special features such as high relief or remote control.
10. The consequences of a regulator malfunction or failure: A damper or relief valve might be needed to
protect personnel or equipment. Also, dead-end service or intermittent actuation may require positive
valve shutoff, bleed units, or close control of pressure-relief points. Filters, lubricators, relief devices,
and other system options should be considered in the selection process.

3.2 PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS
Pneumatic actuators are the devices used for converting pressure energy of compressed air into the mechanical
energy to perform useful work. In other words, Actuators are used to perform the task of exerting the required
force at the end of the stroke or used to create displacement by the movement of the piston. The pressurised
air from the compressor is supplied to reservoir. The pressurised air from storage is supplied to pneumatic
actuator to do work. The air cylinder is a simple and efficient device for providing linear thrust or straight line
motions with a rapid speed of response.
There are two main types of pneumatic actuator: they are
• Linear Actuator or Pneumatic Cylinders

• Rotary Actuator or Air motors
3.2.1. Pneumatic Cylinders
Pneumatic cylinders are devices for converting the air pressure into linear mechanical force and motion. The
pneumatic cylinders are basically used for single purpose application such as clamping, stamping, transferring,
branching, allocating, ejecting, metering, tilting, bending, turning and many other applications. Cylinders are
the most important means of actuation in pneumatics. The cylinder transfers the energy that is stored in the
compressed air into movement.
The different classification scheme of the pneumatic cylinders are given below
1. Based on application for which air cylinders are used

• Light duty air cylinders
• Medium duty air cylinders
• Heavy duty air cylinders
2. Based on the cylinder action

i) Single acting cylinder
ii) Double acting cylinder
• Single rod type double acting cylinder
• Double rod type double acting cylinder
3. Based on cylinder’s movement

• Rotating type air cylinder
• Non rotating type air cylinder
4. Based on the cylinder’s design

i) Telescopic cylinder
ii) Tandem cylinder
iii) Rod less cylinder
• Cable cylinder,
• Sealing band Cylinder with slotted cylinder barrel
• Cylinder with Magnetically Coupled Slide
iv) Impact cylinder
v) Duplex cylinders
vi) Cylinders with sensors
*There is a very wide variety of pneumatic cylinders. In this lesson, we will only focus the most common ones.
3.2.1.1. Cylinders with Piston Rods
Cylinders are available in different types and follow different international standards. Besides the ones that
follow standards there are also “non-standardized cylinders”. Especially before the standardization into DIN/
ISO norms 6431 and 6432, there were numerous cylinder-types offered by different manufacturers.


Common standard cylinders are:
• Mini cartridge cylinders
• Round cylinders | DIN ISO 6432
• Profile cylinders | ISO 15552 | VDMA 24562 | (old norm: DIN ISO 6431)
• Compact cylinders | ISO 21287 | UNITOP
• Short stroke cylinders
• Tie rod cylinders | ISO 15552
The following are the characteristics of pneumatic cylinders.

1. Design
2. Diameter and stroke
3. Movement
4. Number of positions
5. ISO symbols
6. Cushioning
7. Detection of cylinder position (magnetic)
8. Speed control
9. International Standards
Design of a Cylinder
Most of the cylinders with a piston rod contain the following parts: a tube that is closed on both ends with a cap and
head. Inside the tube seen below a piston rod moves with a drive piston.
The movement of the piston is triggered by compressed air, controlled by a directional valve. The direction is defined
by the chamber into which compressed air is allowed to flow inside the cylinder. The force is transferred by the piston
rod.


Diameter and Stroke
Diameter and stroke are the most important attributes of a cylinder. e.g. HAFNER Cylinder DIP: DIP 40/320
Type numbering system:
DIP – type of cylinder / design

(DIP = ISO 15552 standard – double-acting cylinder – adjustable cushioning – magnetic piston)
40 – diameter of the piston [mm]
320 – stroke of the cylinder [mm]
The diameter is actually the diameter of the piston. The diameter of the cylinder defines its force relative to the air-
pressure. While ,the stroke tells us how many millimeters the piston and therefore the piston rod can travel.
If the stroke is long, the forces on the bearing between head and piston rod are high. In order to avoid a defect, we
recommend to select a larger diameter (cylinders with larger piston diameters also offer larger piston rod diameters).
In case of very long strokes or radial forces we recommend the use of a guide unit.
The available diameters depend on, and are limited by, the type / standard. The availability of strokes on the other
hand is less limited.


The maximum force generated by a cylinder depends on:
• Operating pressure
• Diameter of the piston
• Friction of the inner parts
As an example we calculate the force of a cylinder DIL 40/320 at 6 bar.
CAUTION! We can only hold the weight with this force, we cannot move it yet! If we want to move a weight we have
to (again) take gravity into consideration. Only then our cylinder is not only able to hold a weight but to perform work.
The Movement of a Cylinder
We call the two end-positions of a cylinder positive / plus and negative / minus positions. Therefore, we also call the
two chambers inside the cylinder the plus and the minus chamber.

The position where the piston rod is out of the cylinder the furthest possible is called the plus end-position. In order to
reach it, the plus chamber needs to be inflated.
The minus end-position is positioned on the opposite side; the minus chamber needs to be inflated. The cylinder
cannot reach an end-position if the opposite chamber is not fully exhausted!
Stable Positions of a Cylinder
We distinguish between single-acting and double-acting cylinders.
In single-acting cylinders only one chamber is inflated with compressed air. Therefore, work is performed only in one
direction by compressed air. For the movement into the opposite direction a mechanic spring is the source of
energy. The stroke is limited by the length of the spring. In general single-acting cylinders offer a relatively short
stroke.
Two different types of single-acting cylinders are available:
Double-acting cylinders are driven in both directions by compressed air. They are always used when work has to be
performed in both directions or when the required stroke is longer than the available springs.
There are different designs for different applications:

ISO Symbols
In order to distinguish between cylinders, there are also well-defined ISO symbols and schemes indicating their
different functions. These do not however indicate their size, diameter, stroke, ISO-standard etc.

https://www.hafner-pneumatik.com/the_pneumatic_cylinder_part_1
Cushioning
Compressed air can enter the cylinder at a very high speed. If the piston hits the cap or head at high speed, it can lead
to damage. In order to avoid that, most cylinders are equipped with end-of-stroke absorbers / cushioning’s, which
reduce the piston’s speed shortly before it reaches the cap and thus reduce shock.
There are two ways to reduce the shock:

• flexible shock absorbers
• adjustable cushioning
1. Flexible Shock Absorbers:
The easiest way to avoid a hard shock is to assemble some kind of soft material between the piston and the cap/head.
It comes in form of a ring which is usually made from polyurethane and thus offers very good shock-absorption. This
design is often times used for cylinders with rather small diameters where the strain is not that high. The same kind is
used for compact cylinders where the small dimensions do not allow any larger devices. The flexible shock absorbers
are highlighted with red arrows in the graph below.
2. Adjustable (pneumatic) Cushioning
The adjustable pneumatic cushioning is used if it comes to stronger forces due to higher speeds or bigger sizes.
This way of reducing shock is efficient as well as wear-free. During the last 10 to 50 mm of its travel (depending on the


size of the cylinder), the piston builds an air cushion inside the cylinder. The degree of cushioning (= speed reduction)
can be adjusted at both ends of the cylinder for both sides respectively. The mechanism is a flow-regulating valve.
Both tie-rod and profile cylinders offer that feature, according to ISO 15552. Rodless cylinders often offer it, too. Round
cylinders (ISO 6432) of larger diameters, as well as special cylinders, can be equipped accordingly.
The components of the cushioning are marked with red in the graph below.
Below you can learn more about the function of the adjustable pneumatic cushioning:
During the movement of the piston, the compressed air exhausts through the port (8) (graph 1).
Before the piston reaches the head, the brake piston (4) – which is part of the cylinder piston (5) – prevents the air
within the braking chamber (7) from exhausting through the port (8) (graph 2). The air trapped there can only exhaust
through a much smaller orifice. The orifice can be adjusted with the throttle screw.
Inside the braking chamber (7) pressure goes up and generates a temporary air spring. Its resistance remains there
until the air has completely exhausted through the throttle screw (2).
Note that the throttle screw can only adjust the degree of cushioning / speed of the cylinder piston for the last 10 to 50
mm of its movement.
Detection of Cylinder Position (magnetic)
Sensors are absolutely necessary elements when it comes to industrial automation. Sensors generate information
and control entire processes.
In order to detect the position of the piston, sensors which are triggered by a magnetic field are assembled onto the
pneumatic cylinder. The cylinder piston is equipped with a magnet so that the sensor can receive a signal.

There are two different types of sensors / switches:

• REED switch
• Inductive, PNP switch
1. REED switch
REED switches consist of two ferromagnetic nickel-iron wires. They are packed together in a glass tube filled with a
noble gas and are made from a magnetic material.

2. Inductive, PNP switch
The function of the inductive PNP switch is based on the principles of a bipolar junction transistor. When the magnet
that is built into the piston gets close to the switch, it gives a well-defined signal. The switch can be used ‘normally
open’ as well as ‘normally closed’. An LED displays the condition of the switch. PNP switches have generally 3 wires.
They work within a voltage range of 5 to 30 V DC.
Advantages of the PNP switch in comparison to the REED switch:

• No movable parts inside
• Higher frequency
• Higher durability
Speed Control of Cylinders
To control the speed of a pneumatic cylinder (actuator) over the entire stroke, flow regulators or flow-regulating
silencers can be used.
To control the speed, we regulate the exhaust air flowing out of the cylinder chamber. We thereby avoid an immediate
exhaust. The air is in both chambers available as long as the piston has reached the end position. The movement is
therefore very smooth.
Note that in order to set the speed of the cylinder and to get a smooth movement, it is always the exhaust air that has
to be controlled.
To do this there are different products available for speed regulation:
• Uni-directional flow regulator – block form flow regulator

• Uni-directional flow regulator – function fitting to be assembled in the cylinder
• Uni-directional flow regulator – function fitting to be assembled in the valve
• Exhaust flow regulator – to be assembled into the valve
1. Uni-directional flow regulator = one-way flow control valve
In order to allow compressed air to flow into the cylinder at full speed, while allowing it to exhaust slowly, we use a one-
way flow control valve.

There are many different designs of flow-regulators available and their sizes differ depending on the manufacturer.
Function fittings are screwed either directly into the cylinder or into the valve. Therefore, there are two different types,
one for each area of application.
• A flow regulator for a cylinder reduces the flow that streams from the thread to the push-in fitting (out of the
cylinder).
• A flow regulator for a valve regulates the flow from the push-in fitting to the threaded port (into the valve).

Below you see three different ways of speed control for a double-acting cylinder, with air supply via a joint FRL.
Circuit 1 (Cylinder C1):
The double-acting cylinder C1 is controlled by the single solenoid 5/2-way valve S1. As soon as the valve is actuated,
air flows into the Plus chamber of the cylinder via F1.1. The air flow is not restricted by F 1.1. Simultaneously, air needs
to exhaust from the Minus chamber of the cylinder via F1.2. This flow is restricted by F1.2. Via the directional valve S1
(port 3), the air is finally exhausted. As soon as the electric actuation of the directional valve S1 is taken away, the
valve switches back to normal position. Air flows at full speed via F1.2 into the Minus chamber of cylinder C1, while
the air in the Plus chamber exits via F1.1 and S1, exhausting at port 5 of S1. This flow is restricted by / adjusted at
F1.1. The positive movement of the cylinder is regulated at F1.2, the negative movement is restricted at F1.1. F1.1.
and F1.2. can be screwed either into the cylinder or the valve, but the correct version has to be selected either way!
The double-acting cylinder C2 is controlled by the single solenoid 5/2-way valve S2. The speed of the cylinder is
adjusted at flow control silencers F2.1 and F2.2. , which are screwed into the valve. For positive movement, the
directional valve S2 needs to be actuated. Air streams at full speed from port 1 to port 4 of the valve and into the Plus
chamber of cylinder C2. At the same time air needs to exhaust from the Minus chamber of the cylinder. The air streams
into port 2 of the valve S2. Its flow is restricted by F2.2 before leaving the valve S2 at port 3. For negative movement,
the valve switches back into standard position. The Minus chamber is supplied via port 2 of valve S2. The exhaust
from the Plus chamber is restricted by F2.1 in port 5 of the valve S2.
The double-acting cylinder C3 is controlled by the single solenoid 5/2-way valve S3. For an extremely quick positive
movement after actuating the valve, the Minus chamber is exhausted by the quick exhaust valve F3.2.; the exhaust


air does not pass the directional control valve S3. For negative movement, the valve S3 needs to switch back into
normal position. The exhaust air of the Plus chamber has to go through the one-way flow regulator F3.1
International Standards
The most common cylinders in pneumatics have been standardized, the target being maximum compatibility between
products of different manufacturers.
The most common cylinder standards are:


Due to high speeds, long strokes and high frequencies the seals can wear out faster than other parts. Therefore, we
offer spare-part kits for the cylinders. The spare-part kits contain all potentially worn-out parts.
Repair kits for cylinders types DIL, DIP, DBL and DBP have the order code DIR.

https://www.hafner-pneumatik.com/the_pneumatic_cylinder_part_2
3.2.2. Rotary Actuator
Rotary Actuators are used to achieve angular motion. Rotary actuators are devices which produce high torque
output and have a limited rotary movement. Standard rotations are 90 , 180 , and 270 . Rotary actuators are
mainly available in three designs.
• Vane type limited rotation motors
• Rotary Actuator of Rack and Pinion Type
• Helix spine rotary actuator
3.2.2.1. Vane Type Limited Rotation Motors
Where the torque and motion is all produced in a rotary sense, the construction limits the rotation to less than
one rotation. Piston type actuators are essentially linear actuators mechanically connected to translate the
linear force to produce an output torque and rotational movement. These devices are capable of providing an
output motion of one revolution or more but not continuous rotation.
Both type give bi-directional output motion, and most produce the same torque in both senses. Also output
torque is generally constant throughout the stroke. There is no linkages and lost motion associated with cylinder-
crank rod arrangement.
While the most often used actuators for pneumatic drives are cylinders for translational movements, there are
many applications that require a turning or twisting movement of up to 360 degrees. Examples are turning
components over in a drilling jig, providing a wrist action on a pick-and-place device or operating process valves .
They are used in bench grinders, agitators, mixers, feeders, hoists, vibrators, pipe threaders etc.
Single Vane Limited Rotation Actuators
The single vane actuator consists of a cylindrical housing, through which passes a central shaft to which the
vane is rigidly attached. The housing has shoe or a stopper fixed to internal diameter of housing as shown in
the Figure 3.2.1(a), thus dividing the interior space into two chambers. Pressurised air enters through port A
and rotates the vane in the clockwise direction and air in the other chamber moves out of the port B. Similarly,
when the air pressure is applied to the port B, the vane rotates in anti-clockwise direction and air in the other


chamber moves out of the port A. Design geometry normally limits the rotary movement of a single vane actuator
to about 280 maximum
Double Vane Limited Rotation Actuators
It is possible to modify the design to have two vanes fixed to the output shaft 180 apart and two fixed stoppers
in the casing providing two separate operating halves each with two chambers as shown in Figure 3.2.1(b). This
gives twice the maximum torque output of a single vane device for the same supply pressure. Obviously the
maximum angle of rotation is reduced and because of second stopper only 100 is usually possible.
Figure 3.2.1 Vane actuators a) single vane b) double vane
3.2.2.2. Rotary Actuator of Rack and Pinion Type
Schematic diagram of rotary actuator of rack and pinion type is shown in Figure 3.2.2. They are special duty
rotary actuators. It has a high torque and small installation dimensions. The actuator has double pistons, which
transmit the turning moment to the output shaft. The toothed piston rods act on the output shaft in a rack-and-
pinion type arrangement. Each piston and toothed rod is of integral construction. The rack-and pinion type
arrangement gives an even turning moment throughout the rotation movement. The drive shaft is robustly
supported in bushings of self-lubricating type. There are key-ways on the output end of the shaft, while the
opposite end of the shaft has a stub that can be used to accommodate end-position indication, or to facilitate
hand operation of the actuator. The turning limits of the rotary actuator should be determined by external stop
lugs, in order to protect the unit from the effects of excessive load inertia. Compressed air is fed into the piston
chambers via a connection plate and drilled galleries in the central part and end covers. This rotary actuator
has a cylinder block of natural anodized aluminum, with end covers of black anodized aluminum. The unit is
available in 5 different sizes, covering a turning-moment range of 20 to 200 Nm. As standard, all sizes are
available with a turning angle of either 90° or 180°. Three dimensional view of Rack and pinion type is shown
in Figure 3.2.3.
Figure 3.2.2 Rotary Actuator of Rack and Pinion Type (single rack)

Figure 3.2.3 Three dimensional view of Rotary Actuator of Rack and Pinion Type
Torque can be doubled by adding another actuator as shown in the Figure 3.2.4
Figure 3.2.4. Rotary Actuator of Rack and Pinion Type (two rack)
3.2.2.3. Helix spine rotary actuator
Figure 3.2.5 shows a simplified cutaway view of a spiral-shaft rotary actuator. Thespiral-shaft rotary actuator
has a keyed, non-rotating piston with a hollow rod. The hollow rod has a set of internal spiral grooves that mesh
with the spiral shaft. The spiral-grooved shaft only has rotational movement and extends through the housing
as an output shaft. With fluid piped to the CW port, the output shaft turns clockwise. With fluid piped to the CCW
port, the output shaft turns counter clockwise.
Figure 3.2.5. Helix spine rotary actuator

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3
1. List the function of a pneumatic valve?

2. How can we classify Direction control valve (DCV)?
3. Explain the function of 3/2 Direction control valve with a neat sketch.
4. Mention few applications of Non return valves.
5. Explain the difference between pressure limiting valve and sequence valve.
6. What is the function of a pneumatic actuator?
7. What is the function of a pneumatic cylinder?
8. Mention few applications of pneumatic cylinders
REFERENCES
Esposito, A. (1997). Fluid Power with Applications. Fourth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Sullivan, J. A. (1989). Fluid Power: Theory and Application. Third Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1-3
EXAMINATION FOR MODULES NO. 1-3

Directions: For each question, encircle the best answer from the choices given.

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 1

Basic Concepts of Pneumatic and Hydraulic Actuation Systems

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module, you should be able to

1.1 INDUSTRIAL PRIME MOVERS

1.1.1 System Comparison

With an electrical system we have three basic actuators:

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

Figure 1.1.1. Electrical system solution based on a three-phase AC motor

There are a few auxiliary points worthy of comment.

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

Figure 1.1.2. Hydraulic solution.

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

Figure 1.1.3. Pneumatic solution.

Table 1.1.1 gives superficial comparisons of the various systems.

Table 1.1.1. Comparison of Electrical, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

1.2 FLUID ACTUATION SYSTEMS

Figure 1.2.1. Actuation System.

Figure 1.2.2. Fluid Actuation System

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

Figure 1.2.3. Block Diagram of a Fluid Servosystem

Figure 1.2.4. Hydraulic servocylinder (Hanchen).

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

1.2.1. Pneumatic Actuation Systems

The components of a pneumatic actuation system are:

Applications of Pneumatic System

The main applications of pneumatic system can be classified in four categories:

3. Agriculture: Used mainly on diary farms.

Advantages and Disadvatages of Pneumatic System

The following are the advantages of pneumatic system.

• High effectiveness – unlimited supply of air, easy to transport, easily released

The following are its disadvatages:

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

1.2.2. Hydraulic Actuation System

• The pump - the hydraulic power generation system

Applications of Hydraulic System

Advantages and Disadvatages of Hydraulic System

The following are the advantages of hydraulic system.

The following are its disadvatages:

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1.2.3. Pneumatic and Hydraulic Symbols

The symbol does not represent the following characteristics:

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

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Study Guide in ET 7 PNEUMATICS AND HYDRAULICS APPLICATIONS Module No. 1

1.3 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

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