303 Climatology

Nazmun Nahar
Professor
Department of Geography & Environment
Introduction to Climatology:
Principles and Scope
Introduction
The study of the Earth falls into four broad categories:
 The solid lithosphere
 The liquid hydrosphere
 The gaseous atmosphere
 The life biosphere

 Climatology studies the gaseous atmosphere

 Climatology is the science of climate which study the
Physical state of the atmosphere:
 over a specific region
 during a specific period
 on the basis of climatic data
Introduction …
 Climatology is compounded of two Greek words,
 Klima - inclination that is latitude
 Logos - science of study

 So, climatology is a science that seeks to describe

and explain:
 the nature of climate
 why it differs from place to place
 how it is related to other elements of the natural
environment and human activities
 It is the study of the verities of climates found on the Earth
and their distribution over the surface of the Earth
Introduction …
Introduction …
Climatology & Meteorology
 Climatology is closely related to meteorology
 Meteorology deals with the day to day atmospheric conditions
and their causes
 Meteorology is defined as the Physics of the atmosphere
 Meteorology uses the methods of Physical science to interpret
and explain the atmospheric processes
 Climatology collects and interpret the data observed by
meteorology to investigate the spatial patterns of climate and
its interaction
 Meteorologically it deals with the meteorological techniques
and geographically it deals with the spatial aspects of climatic
phenomena
Climatology & Geography
 Since geography studies the Earth as the habitat of Man it is
closely related with climatology;
 Climatology studies the atmospheric conditions
 Geography studies the spatial distribution of these climatic
condition
 Through the study of climate, it serves the ends of
geography, while the means employed by it are those of
meteorology
 Climatology is a science whose methods are strictly
meteorological and whose aims and results are geographical.
Definitions of Climatology
Climatology is the science of climate which study the Physical
and spatial state of the atmospheric conditions
 According to Critichfield
‘climatology is the science that seeks to describe and
explain the nature of climate, how it differs from place to
place and how it is related to man’s activities.’
 According to Austin Miller:
‘Climatology is that branch of science which discusses the
average conditions of weather.’
 According to Koppen and De Lang:
‘Climatology is a summery, a composition of weather
conditions over a long period of time.’
Definitions of Climatology …
 According to Thornthwaite
Thornthwaite broadens the scope of climatology and suggest
that it is the study of the atmosphere as well as the Earth’s
surface.’

 Climatology is applied to five fields:

 Climatological records
 Theory of climate
 Energy and moisture balance
 Study of climate as the environment of living organisms
 Study of climate as the direct environment of Man
Branches of Climatology
1. Physical climatology:
 Physical climatology seeks to explain the factors responsible
for bringing out the temporal and spatial variations in heat
exchange, moisture exchange and air movement
 Physical climatology is closely related to meteorology
 Physical climatology is closely related to meteorology
 Physical climatology is a main aspect meteorology from which
most of its basic principles are drawn the focus is on:
 The study of solar energy-its transformation at a location and its
transfer through the atmosphere
 The complicated patterns and exchange of energy from one
phase to another-from solid state to liquid state and from liquid
state to vapor and vice versa
Branches of Climatology …
2. Dynamic climatology:
 Dynamic climatology is global in scope
 it studies the thermodynamic processes in the atmosphere and
the resultant atmospheric motions
 it investigate the impact of changes in various physical
 parameters on climate
 this branch of climatology includes:
 The effect of the increase of greenhouse gases in global
temperature
 the role of mountains in determining the dynamics of the
atmosphere
 An investigation into sea-surface temperature
Branches of Climatology …
3. Synoptic climatology:
 Synoptic climatology deals with local or hemispheric climate
from the view point of atmospheric circulation
 different circulation patterns lead to differences in climates
 it studies the relationship between circulation features and
severe weather conditions e.g. the effect of El Nino and La
Nina in creating severe weather conditions
 Synoptic climatology is a new approach to regional
climatology.
Branches of Climatology …
4. Regional climatology:
 This branch of climatology seeks to determine and describe
the various types of world climates
 it is also known as descriptive climatology because it is
concerned with the identification of important climatic
characteristics and the interaction of weather and climatic
elements upon the life, health and economic conditions of the
people and areas
Branches of Climatology …
5. Applied climatology:
 This branch of climatology is concerned with the application
of the climatological knowledge to practical problems
 It analyses the relationship of climatology to other sciences
 The main purpose is to find out the ways and means to make
use of our knowledge of climatic elements for the betterment
of human life on the Earth
6. Historical climatology:
 Historical climatology studies the development of climate through
time
Aims and objectives
 Climatology seeks to explain:
 The causes of different types of climates
 The reasons for their variations
 Their effects on natural vegetation
 The processes that produce different climates
 Climatology makes a detail analysis of the interaction of
weather and climatic elements upon human societies
 Climatology discusses the various climatic elements, the
factors that control the distribution of climate over the Earth
Lesson Summary
 The activities of man are influenced by the weather;
 Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given time and
place;
 Climate is the average weather situation of a place over a
period of 30-35 years;
 Climatology is the scientific study of climate;
 Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and its
phenomena;
 Climatology has a wide scope and can be subdivided into
regional, synoptic, physical, dynamic, applied and historical
climatology.
Assignment (Optional)

Discuss the following statement (200-250 words):

‘Without the atmosphere there cannot be climatology’

Or
‘The activities of man are influenced by the weather’
 The Atmosphere:
Structure and Present Composition
Atmosphere of Earth
 The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the
planet Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity.
 The atmosphere is an important part of what makes Earth
livable.
 It blocks some of the Sun's dangerous rays from reaching
Earth.
 It traps heat, making Earth a comfortable temperature.
 The oxygen within our atmosphere is essential for life.
 The common name given to the atmospheric gases used in
breathing and photosynthesis is air.
Composition of Atmosphere
 Dry air contains roughly (by volume)
 78.09% nitrogen,
 20.95% oxygen,
 0.93% argon,
 0.039% carbon dioxide, and
 small amounts of other gases.
 Air also contains a variable amount of
water vapor, on average around 1%.
 A small amount of dust of mineral and
organic composition, pollen and
spores, sea spray, and volcanic ash.
Structure of Atmosphere
 The atmosphere has a mass of about
5×1018 kg, three quarters of which is
within about 11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft)
of the surface.
 The atmosphere becomes thinner and
thinner with increasing altitude, with no
definite boundary between the
atmosphere and outer space.
 Several layers can be distinguished in
the atmosphere, based on
characteristics such as temperature
and composition.
Layers of the Atmosphere
 n
Troposphere
 The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to
between 9 km (30,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft)
at the equator with some variation due to weather.
 The troposphere is mostly heated by transfer of energy from
the surface, so on average the lowest part of the
troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with
altitude.
 This promotes vertical mixing (hence the origin of its name in
the Greek word "τροπή", trope, meaning turn or overturn).
 The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of the
atmosphere.
 The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere
and stratosphere.
Stratosphere
 The stratosphere extends from the tropopause at about 12
km (7.5 mi; 39,000 ft) to about 51 km (32 mi; 170,000 ft).
 Temperature increases with height due to increased
absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, which
restricts turbulence and mixing.
 While the temperature may be −60 °C (−76 °F; 210 K) at
the tropopause, the top of the stratosphere is much
warmer, and may be near freezing.
 The stratopause, which is the boundary between the
stratosphere and mesosphere, typically is at 50 to 55 km
(31 to 34 mi; 160,000 to 180,000 ft). The pressure here is
1/1000 sea level.
Mesosphere
 The mesosphere extends from the stratopause at about 50
km (31 mi; 160,000 ft) to 80–85 km (50–53 mi; 260,000–
280,000 ft).
 It is the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering
the atmosphere.
 Temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere.
 The mesopause, the temperature minimum that marks the
top of the mesosphere, is the coldest place on Earth and
has an average temperature around −85 °C (−120 °F; 190
K).
 At the mesopause, temperatures may drop to −100 °C
(−150 °F; 170 K) and aid forming ice clouds.
Thermosphere
 Temperature increases with height in the thermosphere from
the mesopause up to the thermopause, then is constant with
height.
 The temperature of this layer can rise to 1,500 °C (2,700 °F),
though the gas molecules are so far apart that temperature
in the usual sense is not well defined.
 The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between
320 and 380 km (200 and 240 mi). Because of the relative
infrequency of molecular collisions, air above the
mesopause is poorly mixed compared with air below.
 While the composition from the troposphere to the
mesosphere is fairly constant, above a certain point, air is
poorly mixed and becomes compositionally stratified.
Exosphere
 The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's
atmosphere, extending beyond the exobase at an altitude
of about 600 km.
 It is mainly composed of hydrogen, helium and some
heavier molecules such as nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
dioxide closer to the exobase.
 The atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can
travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one
another, so the atmosphere no longer behaves like a gas.
 These free-moving particles follow ballistic trajectories and
may migrate in and out of the magnetosphere or the solar
wind.
Lesson Summary
 The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the
planet Earth and makes the planet livable.
 The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing
altitude, with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and
outer space.
 The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of the
atmosphere.
 Temperature increases with height in Stratosphere due to
increased absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer.
 Exosphere is mainly composed of hydrogen, helium in the upper
level and nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide closer to the
exobase.
 The Atmosphere:
Characteristics of Atmospheric Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a naturally occurring chemical
compound composed of two oxygen atoms bonded to a single
carbon atom.
 It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure and exists in
Earth's atmosphere in this state, as a trace gas at a
concentration of 0.039 per cent by volume.
 Plants photosynthesize carbohydrate from atmospheric CO2 and
water (H2O) and release oxygen (O2 ) in the air.
 CO2 is a major source of ocean acidification since it dissolves in
water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3).
 CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, warming the Earth's
surface to a higher temperature by reducing outward radiation.
Ozone (O3)
 Ozone (O3) is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen
atoms.
 O3 is much less stable than dioxygen (O2) which breaks down in
the lower atmosphere to
 Ozone is formed from O2 by the action of ultraviolet light and also
atmospheric electrical discharges.
 The highest levels of ozone in the atmosphere are in the
stratosphere, also known as the ozone layer between about 10
km and 50 km above the surface
 Ozone in the ozone layer filters out sunlight wavelengths from
about 200 nm UV rays to 315 nm
 Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas, absorbing some of the infrared
energy emitted by the earth.
Global Temperature Change
 According to the National Academy of Sciences, the Earth's
surface temperature has risen by about 1 degree Fahrenheit
in the past century, with accelerated warming during the past
two decades.
 There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming
over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities.
 Human activities have altered the chemical composition of
the atmosphere through the buildup of greenhouse gases –
primarily carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
 The heat-trapping property of these gases is undisputed
although uncertainties exist about exactly how earth's climate
responds to them.
Global Temperature trend
Causes for Temperature Change

 There are many possible mechanisms that can cause the

warming of the global atmosphere, for example:
 Natural variation – the climate becomes warmer by internal
chaotic dynamics of the earth-atmosphere system (that is, no
external influence).
 Solar activity – either direct increase of solar energy output or
indirect “trigger” mechanisms due to solar activity (though nobody
knows how) may cause the surface temperature to go up.
 Greenhouse effect – increasing “greenhouse” gases such as
CO2, CH4, NO, CFC,…etc. (actually H2O is very efficient, too, but
at present it is assumed to be in steady state).
Greenhouse Effect
Earth’s Atmospheric Gases

Nitrogen (N2) Non-

Greenhouse
Gases
Oxygen (O2)
99%

Water (H2O)

Greenhouse
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Gases
1%
Methane (CH4)
Selected Greenhouse Gases
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
– Source: Fossil fuel burning, deforestation
 Anthropogenic increase: 30%
 Average atmospheric residence time: 500 years
 Methane (CH4)
– Source: Rice cultivation, cattle & sheep ranching, decay from
landfills, mining
 Anthropogenic increase: 145%
 Average atmospheric residence time: 7-10 years
 Nitrous oxide (N2O)
– Source: Industry and agriculture (fertilizers)
 Anthropogenic increase: 15%
 Average atmospheric residence time: 140-190 years
Potential climate change Impact

 Humanity’s greenhouse gas emissions are expected to lead

to climatic changes in the 21st century and beyond. These
changes will potentially have wide-ranging effects on the
natural environment as well as on human societies and
economies.
 Scientists have made estimates of the potential direct
impacts on various socio-economic sectors, but in reality the
full consequences would be more complicated because
impacts on one sector can also affect other sectors indirectly.
 To assess potential impacts, it is necessary to estimate the
extent and magnitude of climate change, especially at the
national and local levels.
Potential Impact …

 Although much progress has been made in understanding

the climate system and climate change, projections of climate
change and its impacts still contain many uncertainties,
particularly at the regional and local levels.
Lesson Summary
 CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, warming the Earth's
surface to a higher temperature by reducing outward
radiation.
 Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas, absorbing some of the
infrared energy emitted by the earth.
 Human activities have altered the chemical composition of
the atmosphere through the buildup of greenhouse gases –
primarily carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
 Greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation and prevent it
from escaping to space.
The Energy of the
Atmosphere
Insolation & Global Variation
 INSOLATION is the energy which drives the atmospheric
weather system. All winds, humidity and weather systems are
driven by variations in temperature.
 Climate (long term variations in the state of the atmosphere) is
related to global and continental location.
 Weather (short term variation) is related to small scale
changes in time and space.
 The amount of insolation emitted by the sun varies with sun
spot activity. This causes fluctuations of up to 2% on a time
scale of decades, or more.
 The amount of insolation reaching the earth’s outer
atmosphere varies with distance and variations of the earth’s
orbit. This causes fluctuations of up to 4% on a time scale of
centuries or more.
Insolation & Global Variation …
 Insolation received at the earth’s surface varies with latitude.
The higher angle of the sun in the sky at the equator conveys
more energy per unit area than at higher latitudes.
 Radiation passes through a greater length of atmosphere when
at a low angle in the sky than when overhead. Atmospheric
gases, dust and vapour absorb more energy before it reaches
the earth’s surface.
Insolation & Global Variation …
Insolation & Global Variation …

The atmosphere is heated primarily from below… from the surface

Insolation & Global Variation …
Earth’s Heat Balance
Earth’s Heat Balance …
Incoming energy
 The total rate at which the energy enters the Earth's
atmosphere is estimated at 174 petawatts (100%).
 Solar radiation (99.97%, or nearly 173 petawatts). This is equal to
the product of the solar constant and the area of the Earth's disc
as seen from the Sun.
 Geothermal energy (0.025%; or about 44 to 47 terawatts).
This is produced by stored heat and heat produced by radioactive
decay leaking out of the Earth's interior.
 Tidal energy (0.002%, or about 3 terawatts). This is produced by
the interaction of the Earth's mass with the gravitational fields of
other bodies such as the Moon and Sun.
 Waste heat from fossil fuel consumption (about 0.007%, or about
13 terawatts).
Earth’s Heat Balance …
Outgoing energy
 The average albedo (reflectivity) of the Earth is about 0.3,
which means that 30% of the incident solar energy is reflected
into space, while 70% is absorbed by the Earth and reradiated
as infrared.
 30% of the incident energy is reflected, consisting of:
 6% reflected from the atmosphere
 20% reflected from clouds
 4% reflected from the ground (including land, water and ice)

 The remaining 70% of the incident energy is absorbed:

 51% is absorbed by land and water, and then emerges in the
following ways:
 23% is transferred back into the atmosphere as latent heat by the
evaporation of water, called latent heat flux
Earth’s Heat Balance …
Outgoing energy …

 7% is transferred back into the atmosphere by heated rising air,

called Sensible heat flux
 15% is transferred into the atmosphere by radiation
 6% is radiated directly into space
 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere (16% by the air, 3% by
clouds).
 When the Earth is at thermal equilibrium, the absorbed and
radiated energy are equal: 70% of the incident solar energy =
64% radiates by the atmosphere and cloud + 6% radiates
directly from earth’s surface.
Lesson Summary
 All materials contain energy, which can radiate through
space as electromagnetic waves.
 The wavelengths of energy that come from the Sun include
visible light, which appears white but can be broken up into
many colors.
 Ultraviolet waves are very high energy. The highest energy
UV, UVC and some UVB, gets filtered out of incoming
sunlight by ozone.
 More solar energy reaches the low latitudes and the
redistribution of heat by convection drives the planet's air
currents.
 Incoming Solar Energy = Outgoing Radiation
Air Pressure and
the Wind
Air Pressure
 Air pressure or Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit
area exerted on a surface by the weight of air above that
surface in the atmosphere of Earth.
 On a given plane, low-pressure areas have less atmospheric
mass above their location, whereas high-pressure areas
have more atmospheric mass above their location.
 A column of air, one square centimeter measured from sea
level to the top of the atmosphere, has a mass of about 1 kg
 Things that effect Air Pressure
 Altitude (Elevation)
 Temperature
 Humidity (moisture in the air)
Air Pressure and Density
Altitude / Temp. / Humidity
 The higher the altitude, the lower the air pressure.
 The lower the altitude, the higher the air pressure.

 As the temperature goes up, the air pressure goes down.

(hot molecules are further apart- less pressure).
 As the temperature goes down, the air pressure goes up.
(cold air is more dense than warm air).

 As the air becomes more humid, the air pressure goes down
(moist air weighs less than dry air).
 Drier air has higher pressure because dry air weighs more
than moist air, therefore it has greater pressure.
Pressure Gradient
 The pressure gradient force initiates movement of
atmospheric mass, wind, from areas of higher to areas of
lower pressure
 Horizontal wind speeds are a function of the strength of the
pressure gradient
Pressure Gradient …
Air pressure and Air density

The relationship between air

pressure and air density
in the NORTHERN Hemisphere
Low vs High Pressure

In a high pressure area, air will rise because the

air is less dense. This is because the air is
warm and rises. Therefore, clouds are
LIKELY to form.

In a high pressure area, air will sink because

the air is more dense. This is because the air is
Cold and sinks. Therefore, clouds
CANNOT form.
Low vs High Pressure …
low pressure high pressure

warm or cold air

air rising or sinking

clouds or no clouds
clockwise or
counterclockwise wind
direction
winds toward or
away from the center
Sea and Land Breezes
 Caused by temperature
differences between
land and sea. Strongest
in spring/summer.
 During the day (night)
land is hotter (colder)
than water.
 A thermal low develops
over the warmer region.
 Air converges into the
low, ascends, and
produces clouds and
possibly precipitation.
Sea and Land Breezes …
Valley and Mountain Breezes
 Diurnal variation similar to a
land/sea breeze occur in
mountainous areas and are called
valley and mountain breezes.
 Mountains facing the sun heat more
intensely than shaded valley areas.
This develops a thermal low during
the day which produces a valley
breeze.
 At night the situation reverses
producing a mountain breeze.
The Wind
Speed and Direction
 Horizontal pressure gradients are responsible for wind
generation
 Three factors affect wind speed and/or direction (velocity):
 Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
 Coriolis Effect (CE)
 Friction Force (FF)

1. Pressure Gradient Force:

 High pressure  low pressure
 Pressure differences exits due to unequal heating of
Earth’s surface
 Spacing between isobars indicates intensity of gradient
 Flow is perpendicular to isobars
Speed and Direction …
2. The Coriolis Effect:
 Objects in the atmosphere are influenced by the Earth’s rotation
 Rotation of Earth is counter-clockwise looking down from N. Pole.
 Results in an ‘apparent’ deflection (relative to surface)
 Deflection to the right in Northern Hemisphere (left in S. H.)
 Greatest at the poles, 0 at the equator
 Increases with
speed of moving
object and distance
 CE changes
direction not speed
Speed and Direction …
3. Friction:
 Friction slows down wind speed and reduces Coriolis
deflection
 Friction is important for air within ~1.5 km of the surface (the
so-called planetary boundary layer).
 It varies with surface texture, wind speed, time of day/year
and atmospheric conditions.
 Friction above 1.5 km is often small (often called the free
atmosphere), except over regions with storms and gravity
waves
Global Circulation
Lesson Summary
 Sea and land breezes. Caused by temperature difference
between land and sea.
 The pressure gradient force initiates movement of
atmospheric mass, wind, from areas of higher to areas of
lower pressure
 Horizontal pressure gradients are responsible for wind
generation
 Things that effect Air Pressure: 1. Altitude (Elevation)
2. Temperature, 3. Humidity (moisture in the air)
 Three factors affect wind speed and/or direction (velocity):
1. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF), 2. Coriolis Effect (CE),
3. Friction Force (FF)
Atmospheric Moisture
The Hydrological Cycle
 Hydrological cycle is a continuous transfer of water among
terrestrial, oceanic, and atmospheric reservoirs.
 Within the atmosphere, water exists in all three forms:
I. water vapor,

Hydrological cycle
II.
III.
liquid (i.e. cloud droplets, raindrops), and
solid (i.e. ice crystals).
 Within the usual range of temperature and pressure, all three
phases of water coexist (equilibrium).
 Water molecules continuously change their phases.
 On the average, the residence time of a water molecule is
about 10 days.
The Hydrological Cycle…
 The total amount of water within the atmosphere is very
small.
 In fact, if all water were removed from the atmosphere as rain
and distributed over the globe, the water would have only
about 2.5 cm (1 in.) depth on the Earth's surface.
Hydrological cycle
The Hydrological Cycle…
UNITS
Storage: 1000 km3
Exchange: 1000 km3/year
Humidity-Moisture Terminology

 Evaporation: a process by which water changes phase from

a liquid to a vapor.
 Condensation: a process by which water changes phase
from a vapor to a liquid.

Hydrological cycle
Transpiration: a process by which water absorbed by plant
roots eventually escapes as vapor though the surface of
green leaves. On land, transpiration is often more important
than direct evaporation from the surfaces of lakes, streams,
and the soil.
 Evaportranspiration: direct evaporation + transpiration
 Precipitation: rain, snow, and hail; a process by which major
portion of atmospheric water returns to the Earth's surface.
Humidity-Moisture Terminology…

 Sublimation: a process by which water changes phase from

a solid to a vapor .
 Deposition: a process by which water changes phase from a
vapor to a solid.
Hydrological cycle
 Humidity: the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
Two ways to measure humidity
 Absolute: the actual amount of water vapor in a given parcel of air
 Relative: the actual amount of water vapor in a given parcel of air
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

the amount of water vapor a parcel of air can absorb

Humidity-Moisture Terminology…

 Sublimation: a process by which water changes phase from

a solid to a vapor .
 Deposition: a process by which water changes phase from a
vapor to a solid.
Hydrological cycle
 Humidity: the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
Two ways to measure humidity
 Absolute: the actual amount of water vapor in a given parcel of air
 Relative: the actual amount of water vapor in a given parcel of air
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

the amount of water vapor a parcel of air can absorb

 Dew point: is the temperature at which a parcel of air must
be cooled in order for condensation to begin
Relative Humidity
 The amount of water vapor present in air relative to the
maximum amount that the air can contain at a given
temperature (%)
e.g. if relative humidity is 50%, then it contains 1/2 the amount of
water vapor it could hold at a given temperature
Relative Humidity…
Condensation
 Water vapour is changed into either a liquid or solid, due to
air being cooled to its saturation point.
The cooling can occur in one of four ways:
 Adiabatic or convective cooling: When air that has been warmed in
the day rises as 'thermals'. The air expands as it rises which uses
Hydrological cycle
energy. This process is known as adiabatic cooling because it is the
loss of pressure with height that leads to cooling.
 Orographic cooling and frontal uplift: When moist air rises due to
crossing a mountain barrier or meeting a mass of air that is colder and
denser than itself.
 Advection cooling: When warm, moist air is cooled as it crosses over
a cooler sea or land surface.
 Radiation cooling: When skies are clear at night, the ground loses
heat very quickly. As a result, the air directly above the ground also
cools quickly. Fog and dew may form.
Condensation Process
1. Cooling occurs.
2. Relative humidity rises.
3. Air becomes saturated (R.H. 100%)
4. Hydrological cycle
Condensation occurs at dew point as excessive water
vapour becomes water droplets.
5. Clouds form at condensation level at high level and
dew forms at ground level.
6. Water droplets and ice crystals fall down if they are
too heavy
Humidity-Moisture Terminology…

Environmental lapse rate (ELR):

 It refers to the decrease in temperature usually expected with
an increase in height through the troposphere.
 The surrounding air cools at the environmental lapse rate.

Hydrological cycle
 It is approximately 6.5oC per 1000 m.

Atmospheric lapse rate

with cool layer near the
ground, trapping fog
blanket
Humidity-Moisture Terminology…

Adiabatic lapse rate (ALR):

 Adiabatic means no heat exchange between the bubble and
its surroundings.
 Adiabatic cooling occurs:

Hydrological

surrounding air.
cycle
When an air bubble rises, it comes into contact with less dense

 The pressure confining the bubble is reduced and it expands.

 As it does so, heat is extracted from the bubble and it becomes
cooler. Its relative humidity increases.
Humidity-Moisture Terminology…

 Adiabatic warming occurs

 When an air bubble sinks, it comes into contact with denser
surrounding air.
 The pressure confining the bubble is increased and it contracts.
 When it is compressed, heat is released and it becomes hotter.
Hydrological cycle
Its relative humidity decreases.
Convective Cooling
Convective Cooling…
Orographic Cooling
Orographic Cooling…
Condensation: Clouds

 Clouds are the source of

precipitation
 Water vapor condenses
around particles, water
droplets collide forming
larger droplets until they are
to large to stay in the air and
fall to the ground as
precipitation
 In Cold clouds water freezes
forming ice crystals that are
too heavy and fall to the
ground
Clouds: Families and Forms
 Classified into four families: high,
medium and low clouds and clouds with
vertical development
 Two major classes:
 Stratiform (layered): blanket like
covering large areas
 Cumuliform (convective or piled up):
globular masses associated with
parcels of rising air.

Latin Root Translation Example Cloud Height determines

NAMING

cumulus heap cumulus cloud Prefix.

stratus layer altostratus Example:
cirrus curl of hair cirrus “cirr”=high level
nimbus rain cumulonimbus “alto”= mid-level
Clouds: Families and Forms…
Clouds: Families and Forms…
 There are three main
cloud types that are
based on shape
 Stratus
 Cumulus
 Cirrus
 Stratus clouds form a
smooth, even sheet.
 They usually form at low
altitudes
Clouds: Families and Forms…
 Cumulus Clouds are
masses of puffy, white
clouds, often with flat
bases
 They form when air
currents rise
 They can be associated
with both fair weather
and thunderstorm when
they get really tall !
Clouds: Families and Forms…
 Cirrus clouds are high,
thin, white, feathery
clouds containing ice
crystals
 Cirrus clouds are
usually associated with
fair weather, but they
may indicate
approaching storms
Clouds: Families and Forms…
Cloud types by Height
 The prefix of cloud
names can describe
6,000 m
the height of cloud
bases
 Cirro: High clouds
above 6000m
 Alto: Middle elevation
clouds between 2000 2,000 m

to 6000m
 Strato: Low level
clouds below 2000m
Clouds: Families and Forms…
Cloud types by Rain
Capacity
 Nimbus clouds are dark
clouds associated with
precipitation
 When a nimbus cloud is
also a towering cumulus
cloud, it’s called a
cumulonimbus cloud
Clouds: Families and Forms…
 Water vapor begins to
condense in tiny drops
around nuclei.
 Nuclei are small
particles of dust, salt,
and smoke in the
atmosphere
Condensation: Fogs

 Cloud layer at or close to the

Earth’s surface
 Radiation fog forms at night
when air near the ground
falls below the dew point
temperature
 Advection fog forms when
warm moist air moves over
a cool surface
 Sea fog forms when cool
marine air comes in contact
with cold ocean currents
Forms of Precipitation

 Precipitation is any form of water that falls to the Earth's

surface.
 The type of precipitation that falls to the ground depends
upon the formation process and the temperatures of the
environment between the cloud and the surface
 Rain
 Snow
 Hail
 Sleet
 Freezing Rain
Precipitation: Rain

Rain develops when growing cloud droplets become

too heavy to remain in the cloud and as a result, fall
toward the surface as rain

 Rain can also begin as ice  As the falling snow passes

crystals that collect each through the freezing level
other to form large into warmer air, the flakes
snowflakes melt
…Rain from Snow…
Precipitation: Snow

 Snow is formed when ice crystals form from water vapor

that is in the clouds
 This process is called sublimation
Hail
• Hail is formed
when updrafts
carry raindrops
upwards into
extremely cold
areas of the
atmosphere
Hail
• There the
raindrops
merge and
freeze. When
the frozen
clumps get to
heavy they fall
to earth
Hail
• Hail can vary
in size, from
the size of a
small stone to
that of a
baseball! So
be careful
Sleet
• Sleet is frozen raindrops.
Sleet begins as rain or
snow and falls through a
deep layer of cold air that
contains temperatures
below freezing that exist
near the surface.
Sleet
• Rain that falls
through this
extremely cold
layer has time
to freeze into
small pieces of
ice
Freezing Rain
• Freezing rain is falling rain
that cools below 0°C, but does
not turn to ice in the air
• The water is “supercooled”
Mechanism of Precipitation
 Frontal lifting
 Orographic lifting
 Convective lifting

Terminology…
 Air mass: A large body of air with similar temperature and
moisture characteristics over its horizontal extent.
 Front: Boundary between contrasting air masses.
 Cold front: Leading edge of the cold air when it is advancing
towards warm air.
 Warm front: leading edge of the warm air when advancing
towards cold air.
Precipitation by Frontal lifting
 Boundary between air masses with different properties is
called a front
 Cold front occurs when cold air advances towards warm air
 Warm front occurs when warm air overrides cold air

Cold front (produces cumulus cloud) Cold front (produces stratus cloud)
Precipitation by Orographic lifting
 Orographic uplift occurs when air is forced to rise because of
the physical presence of elevated land.
Precipitation by Convective lifting
 Convective precipitation occurs when the air near the ground
is heated by the earth’s warm surface. This warm air rises,
cools and creates precipitation.

Hot earth surface

Precipitation

Atmospheric Motions
Atmospheric Motion
Atmospheric Motion…
Forces Controlling Motions
 Horizontal pressure gradients are responsible for wind
generation

 Three factors affect wind speed and/or direction (velocity):

 Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
 Coriolis Effect (CE) V
 PGF  CE  FF
 Friction Force (FF) t
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
 pressure gradient: high pressure  low pressure
 pressure differences exits due to unequal heating of Earth’s
surface
 spacing between isobars indicates intensity of gradient
 flow is perpendicular to isobars

V
 PGF  CE  FF
t
High vs. Low Pressure
Low Pressure Cell
 Cyclonic rotation (counter clockwise in N
hemisphere)
 Upward vertical motion
 Air expands and cools as it rises
 Wet weather
High vs. Low Pressure…
High Pressure Cell
 Anticyclonic rotation (clockwise) in N
hemisphere
 Downward vertical motion
 Air is compressed and warmed
 Dry weather
High vs. Low Pressure…
 The change in pressure measured across a given distance is
called a "pressure gradient".
 PG = change in pressure / distance
 The pressure gradient results in a net force that is directed
from high to low pressure and this force is called the
"pressure gradient force".
The Coriolis Effect (CE)
 Coriolis Force is an artifact
of the earth's rotation.
 Once air has been set in
motion by the pressure
gradient force, it
undergoes an apparent
deflection from its path, as
seen by an observer on
the earth.
 This apparent deflection is
called the "Coriolis force"
and is a result of the
earth's rotation.
The Coriolis Effect…
 objects in the atmosphere are
influenced by the Earth’s rotation
 Rotation of Earth is counter-
clockwise looking down from N.
Pole.
 results in an ‘apparent’ deflection
(relative to surface)
 deflection to the right in Northern
Hemisphere (left in S.
Hemisphere)
V
 PGF  CE  FF
t
The Coriolis Effect…
The Coriolis Effect…

 Greatest at the poles, 0 at the equator

 Increases with speed of moving object and distance
 CE changes direction not speed
The Friction Force (FF)
 The surface of the Earth exerts a frictional drag on the air
blowing just above it.
 This friction can act to change the wind's direction and slow
it down -- keeping it from blowing as fast as the wind aloft.
 The difference in terrain conditions directly affects how
much friction is exerted.
 For example, a calm ocean surface is pretty smooth, so the
wind blowing over it does not move up, down, and around
any features.
 By contrast, hills and forests force the wind to slow down
and/or change direction much more.
The Friction Force…
 Friction slows down wind speed and reduces Coriolis
deflection
 Friction is important for air within ~1.5 km of the surface (the
so-called planetary boundary layer).
 It varies with surface texture, wind speed, time of day/year
and atmospheric conditions.
 Friction above 1.5 km is often small (often called the free
atmosphere), except over regions with storms and gravity
waves.
V
 PGF  CE  FF
t
PGF + CE + FF @ Northern Hemisphere

Without CF & Friction Without Friction With Friction

PGF + CE + FF @ Southern Hemisphere

Without CF & Friction Without Friction With Friction

PGF + CE + FF…
 Net result is that surface winds blow across isobars!
 This cross-isobar flow allows the surface wind to spiral into
low pressure and out of high pressure.
Geostrophic Balance
Friction is very small in the upper V
air:  PGF  CE  FF
t
 Now the wind speed/direction is
simply a balance between the
PGF and CE. This is called
GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE.
 Upper air moving from areas of
higher to areas of lower pressure
undergo Coriolis deflection
 Air will eventually flow parallel to
height contours as the pressure
gradient force balances with the
Coriolis force
Summary:
 Wind is simply a balance of forces acting on air parcels

Geostrophic wind: case where At the surface, friction force

pressure gradient force is
equally and oppositely balanced
by coriolis force. Resulting wind
blows parallel to isobars /
height contours
induces a drag and creates
imbalance between PGF & CF.
Resulting wind crosses isobars,
diverging from high and
converging into low pressure
Temperature and
Air Motions
What is Air Temperature?

 Temperature is a measure of the kinetic (motion) energy of

air molecules
– K.E. = ½ mv2 m = mass, v = velocity
– So…temperature is a measure of air molecule speed

 The sensation of warmth is created by air molecules striking

and bouncing off your skin surface
– The warmer it is, the faster molecules move in a random fashion
and the more collisions with your skin per unit time
Temperature Scales

• In the US, we use

Fahrenheit most
often
• Celsius (centigrade)
is a scale based on
freezing/boiling of
water
• Kelvin is the
“absolute”
temperature scale
Helium-filled weather balloons
are released from over 1000
locations around the world
every 12 hours
(some places more often)

These document
temperature, pressure,
humidity, and winds aloft
Pressure
 Pressure is defined as a
force applied per unit area

 The weight of air is a force, equal to the mass m

times the acceleration due to gravity g

 Molecules bumping into an object also create a
force on that object, or on one another

 Air pressure results from the weight of the entire

overlying column of air!
Density (mass/volume)
Sample 1
• Same number of
molecules and mass

• Sample 1 takes up more

space
Sample 2

• Sample 2 takes up less

space

• Sample 2 is more dense

than sample 1
Density is the Key to Buoyancy!

Changes in density drive vertical motion

in the atmosphere and ocean.

• Lower density air rises when it is

surrounded by denser air.
-Think of a hollow plastic ball submerged under
water. What happens when you release it?
Stability & Instability

A rock, like a parcel of air, that is in stable equilibrium will return to its original
position when pushed.

If the rock instead accelerates in the direction of the push, it was in unstable
equilibrium.
Stability in the atmosphere

Unstable Neutral
An Initial Stable
Perturbation

If an air parcel is displaced from its original height it can:

Return to its original height - Stable
Accelerate upward because it is buoyant - Unstable
Stay at the place to which it was displaced - Neutral
Why is stability important?

Vertical motions in the atmosphere are a critical part of

energy transport and strongly influence the hydrologic
cycle
• Without vertical motion, there would be no precipitation, no
mixing of pollutants away from ground level - weather as
we know it would simply not exist!
• There are two types of vertical motion:
– forced motion such as forcing air up over a hill, over
colder air, or from horizontal convergence
– buoyant motion in which the air rises because it is less
dense than its surroundings
Atmospheric Stability
• Air parcels are subject to buoyant forces caused by
density differences between the surrounding air
and the parcel itself
• Atmospheric stability is the property of ambient air
that either enhances (unstable) or suppresses
(stable) vertical motion of air parcels
– In stable air, an ascending parcel becomes cooler and
more dense than the surrounding air
• This causes the parcel to sink back to its original altitude
– In unstable air, an ascending parcel becomes warmer
and less dense than the surrounding air
• This causes the parcel to continue rising
154
Atmospheric Stability…

• Air is in stable equilibrium when after

being lifted or lowered, it tends to return to
its original position – resists upward and
downward air motions.
• Air Parcel- balloon like blob of air
• As air rises its pressure decreases and it
expands and cools
• As air sinks pressure increases and it is
compressed and warms
Vertical Motion and Temp.
Rising air expands,
using energy to
push outward
against its
environment,
adiabatically
cooling the air

A parcel of air may

be forced to rise or
sink, and change
temperature
relative to
environmental air
Atmosphere Circulation
Atmospheric Circulation
 Atmospheric circulation is the mechanism through which
the energy surpluses and deficits are balanced, and the
balance involves air movement of different scales.
 Air movement is powered by uneven solar heating
 Energy absorption varies depending on the angle of
approach, the sea state and the presence of ice or other
covering (e.g., foam)
 Uneven solar heating of earth
– Atmosphere and oceans move heat pole ward
– Air moves from high pressure to low pressure
– Pole ward movement of warm air (less dense)
– Equator ward movement of cold air (more dense)
Atmospheric Circulation…
The Solar Heating of Earth Varies with Latitude  The atmosphere
reflects, scatters and
absorbs solar radiation.
 At high latitudes solar
radiation travels a
longer path through
atmosphere.
 Equal amounts of
sunlight are spread
over a greater surface
area near the poles
than in the tropics.
 Ice near the poles
reflects much of the
energy that reaches the
surface there.
Scales of Wind Patterns
 The largest planetary-scale wind patterns, called
macroscale winds, include the westerlies and trade
winds. A somewhat smaller macroscale circulation is
called synoptic scale, or weather-map scale.
 Mesoscale winds, such as thunderstorms, tornadoes,
and land and sea breezes, influence smaller areas and
exhibit intensive vertical flow.
 The smallest scale of air motion is the microscale.
Examples of these very local, often chaotic winds, include
gusts and dust devils.
Scales of Wind Patterns…
Mesoscale Winds

 All winds have the same cause: pressure differences

that arise because of temperature differences that are
caused by unequal heating of Earth's surface.
 In addition to land and sea breezes brought about by
the daily temperature contrast between land and water,
other mesoscale winds include:
 mountain and valley breezes,
 chinook (foehn) winds,
 katabatic (fall) winds, and
 country breezes.
Mesoscale: land and sea breezes
Mesoscale Winds…
 Mountain and valley breezes develop as air along
mountain slopes is heated more intensely than air at the
same elevation over the valley floor.
 Chinooks are warm, dry winds that sometimes move down
the east slopes of the Rockies. In the Alps, winds similar to
chinooks are called foehns.
 Katabatic (fall) winds originate when cold air, situated over
a highland area such as the ice sheets of Greenland or
Antarctica, is set in motion under the influence of gravity.
 Country breezes are associated with large urban areas
where the circulation pattern is characterized by a light
wind blowing into the city from the surrounding
countryside.
Mesoscale Winds…
Global Circulation Models
 Single-Cell Model
 British physicist George Hadley in 1735, proposed a simple
circulation pattern called the Single-cell model to describe the
general movement of the atmosphere.
 Three-Cell Model
 US meteorologist William Ferrel in 1865 proposed a more
elaborate model which devides the circulation of each hemisphere
into three distinct cells;
 The heat driven Hadley cell that circulates air between the tropics
and subtropics, a Ferrel cell in the mid latitude and a Polar cell;
 Each cell consists of one belt of rising air with low surface air
pressure, a zone of sinking air with surface high pressure, a
surface wind zone with air flowing generally from high pressure belt
to low pressure belt
Global Circulation Dynamics
 According to the three-cell circulation model, in each
hemisphere, atmospheric circulation cells are located
between the equator and 30° latitude, 30° and 60° latitude,
and 60° latitude and the pole.
 The areas of general subsidence in the zone between 20
and 35° are called the horse latitudes.
 In each hemisphere, the flow from the horse latitudes
towards the equator forms the reliable trade winds.
 Convergence of the trade winds from both hemispheres
near the equator produces a region of light winds called
the doldrums.
Global Circulation Dynamics
Global Circulation Dynamics
intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
Easterlies and Westerlies
 The circulation between 30 and 60° latitude (north and
south) results in the prevailing westerlies.
 Air that moves from the poles to the equatorial regions
produces the polar easterlies of both hemispheres.
 The area where the cold polar easterlies clash with the
warm westerly flow of the midlatitudes is referred to as
the polar front, an important meteorological region.
Jet Streams
 The temperature contrast between the poles and
equator drives the westerly winds (westerlies)
located in the middle latitudes.
 Imbedded within the westerly flow aloft are narrow
ribbons of high-speed winds, called jet streams, that
meander for thousands of kilometers.
 The key to the origin of midlatitude jet streams is
found in great temperature contrasts at the surface.
 In the midlatitudes between 30 and 70°, a polar jet
stream occurs in association with the polar front.
Jet Streams and Weather
 Because the paths of cyclonic systems are guided by the
flow aloft, the position of the polar jet stream has a strong
influence on weather, particularly temperatures, at the
surface.
 Because winds are the primary driving force of ocean
currents, a relationship exists between the oceanic
circulation and the general atmospheric circulation.
 In general, in response to the circulation associated with
the subtropical highs, ocean currents form clockwise
spirals in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise
spirals in the Southern Hemisphere.