Topic 5.

1 Major Analytical Techniques

Introduction

 Explanations in geography to clarify general and empirical Laws are as follows:

 (i) Cognitive Description (ii) Morphometric Analysis (iii) Cause and Effect Analysis (iv) Temporal
Analysis (v) Functional and Ecological Analysis.

 In geography, where explanations have been attempted, these have tended to be ad hoc and
unscientific in form.

 This point has been carefully examined by Harvey, who has offered the following explanations.
Harvey recognized six forms of scientific explanations, covering methodological statements
and generalizations from empirical studies.

Regional Analysis

 Appropriate regional units are identified by areal differentiations. Connecting lines and flows
between individual regions may then be observed. The peculiarity of complex regional
analysis is that the inter-regional analysis of the distribution of phenomena, their positive and
feedback relationships are examined. Regional analysis combines the results of spatial and
ecological analysis.

 In his scheme, Haggett tried to arrange his themes under the primary headings of ecological
and complex regional analysis It may be seen from this figure that all the three types of
analysis, i.e., spatial, ecological, and complex regional have theoretical and applied aspects.
The theoretical aspect of spatial analysis deals with spatial interaction theory, diffusion
theory, and others; while its applied aspect covers watershed development, urban places, and
others.

 Ecological analysis also has theoretical and applied aspects. Under the theoretical aspect,
environmental structure, ecosystems, etc., are analyzed; while its applied side analyzes
natural resource geography, hazard appraisal and others.

 So far as regional complex analysis is concerned, its theoretical aspect deals with regional
growth theory, inter-regional flow theory, etc.; while the applied side looks into regional
forecasting, regional planning and other relevant matters). This analysis is involved with
functional regions.

 A functional region has been defined with reference to the contact of relationship between a
centre and its tributary surrounding regions . The boundary of this region is established at the

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 point where the influence of the centre is not stronger than that of another centre. Functional
regions are linked through complex hierarchical models. Such an analysis becomes possible
through the use of sophisticated quantitative techniques.

 In brief, modern geography focuses its attention on spatial analysis, a systematic geography
constructed with newer, expanded models; ecological analysis, a regional study based on
homogeneous regions; and regional complex analysis, a regional geography based on
functional regions. Thus, geography is a science of synthesis.

 It should be noted that geography is a science of synthesis, it has not been able to make much
advance in regional synthesis. The main reason for this shortcoming is that it deals with
physical and human components, biotic and abiotic factors which are governed by different
physical and social laws. There are some basic constraints which come in the way of making
geography a discipline of synthesis.

 The various schools of thought which are emerging and trying to answer the man-nature
relationship question may perhaps provide a temporary solution of the problem, but we
should continue to explore a more dependable and more precise objective approach to make
geography a discipline of regional synthesis. Undoubtedly, in the near future, geographer may
not be the master of his fate; his efforts will, however, led him into the unknown and
unforeseen where he learns new things.

 In recent years, geographers, confronted with many philosophical issues in the discipline, are
trying to find an answer to the geographical problems with the positivistic, idealism, realism
and dialectical materialism approaches.

Systems Analysis

 Geographers have been using forms of system concepts since the dawn of the subject.

 Geography deals with complex relationships of living and non-living organisms in an

ecosystem.

 System analysis provides a framework for describing the whole complex and structure of
activity. It is, therefore, peculiarly suited to geographic analysis since geography deals with
complex multivariate situations.

 It was because of this advantage that Berry and Chorley suggested system analysis and general
system theory as the basic tools for geographic understanding.

 In the opinion of Chorley (1962), there is great significance of system analysis in geographical
studies. The main advantages of system analysis are:

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 1. there is need to study systems rather than isolated phenomena;

2. there is need to identify the basic principles governing systems;

3. there is value in arguing from analogies with subject matter; and

4. there is need for general principles to cover various systems.

 Harvey describes a firm which functions within an economy on the basis of a particular set of
economic circumstances. When we analyze the internal relations and elements within the firm
as a closed system, we must regard these circumstances as unchangeable.

 To extend the boundaries of the system so as to include the changing social and political
relationship in the society of which the firm is a part may well alter the result of the analysis.
So, even in this simple case, the drawing of boundaries creates problems.

 By identifying the set of elements which we believe best describe the real system in order to
model a real situation. For example, in a large industrial company engaged in several branches
of activity, the head office and each of the branch offices form its constituent elements.

 The abstract construal of a system has a number of important advantages, which are given
below:

(i) Any geographical region (landscape) has a number of phenomena. System analysis attempts to
reduce this complexity to a simpler form, in which it may be more easily comprehended and which
models can be constructed.

(ii) It allows, for example, the development of an abstract theory systems which is not tied down to
any one particular system or set of systems.

(iii) This theory provides us with good deal of information about the possible structures, behaviours,
states, and soon, that might conceivably occur.

(iv) It provides us with the necessary technical apparatus for dealing with interactions within complex
structures.

(v) System theory is associated with an abstract mathematical language, which, rather like geometry
and probability theory, can be used to discuss empirical problems.

Spatial Analysis

 Spatial analysis is a type of geographical analysis which seeks to explain patterns of human

behavior and its spatial expression in terms of mathematics and geometry, that is,
locational analysis. Examples include nearest neighbor analysis.

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  It concerns itself with varieties in the localization and distribution of a significant phenomenon
or group of phenomena; the analysis of spatial distribution of rainfall, or the average yield of
wheat or rice in a given region.

 If a geographer tries to ascertain the factors which control the distribution of rainfall and yield
levels, in order to make the distribution more effective or just, he is doing a spatial analysis.

 “…the purpose of geographic inquiry is to examine relationships between geographic features

collectively and to use the relationships to describe the real-world phenomena.” (Clarke 2001).

Cognitive Description

 Under cognitive description are included collection, ordering, and classification of data. No
theory may be explicitly involved in such procedures, but it is important to note that a theory
of some kind is implied.

 Thus, classification involves some kind of a priori notions about structure and these notions
really amount to a primitive theory.

 In the early stages of a discipline’s development such theoretical assumptions may be

amorphous and ill-defined.

 Cognitive geography is the study of cognition, primarily human cognition, about space, place,
and environment. Cognition is knowledge and knowing by sentient entities, including humans,
nonhuman animals, and artificially intelligent machines. Cognitive structures and processes
include those of sensation, perception, thinking, learning, memory, attention, imagination,
conceptualization, language, and reasoning and problem solving. Some of these structures and
processes are consciously accessible, potentially available to awareness; others are
nonconscious, outside of awareness. Cognition is functionally and experientially intertwined
with affect, motivation, and behavior. Our beliefs and knowledge influence, and are
influenced by, what we feel and what we do. Cognitive geography emerged as an approach
within human geography and as an interdisciplinary link with psychology and other fields
during the 1960s.

Morphometric Analysis

 Morphometric analysis is a type of cognitive description. It involves a space-time language

rather than a property language. Morphometric analysis thus provides a framework within
which the geographer examines shapes and forms in space.

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  Morphometric analysis can lead to certain types of predictive and simulation models. In this
analysis, stress is on measurement whereas studies of landscape morphology usually take the
form of cognitive description.

 The locational theories and the central places are the results of this type of analysis.

 Geometrical predictions of this nature have had increasing significance in geography.

 For example, the morphometric analysis of the drainage basin and channel network play an
important role in understanding the geo-hydrological behavior of drainage basin and
expresses the prevailing climate, geology, geomorphology, structural antecedents of the
catchment.

 Morphometric analysis of a drainage basin expresses fully the state of dynamic balance that
has been attained due to dealings between matter and energy.

Causes and Effect Analysis

 The cause and effect analysis develops from the assumption that previous causes can explain
observed phenomena. We look for causal relationships which are, in their simplest form, of
the type “cause A leads to effect B”. This implies that cause B cannot lead to result A. Causal
laws may be discovered by hypothetic deductive method, or more simply, by comparing data
from different phenomena in a region.

 By comparing a map, showing the black-earth soil region of India (Maharashtra, Gujarat and
Western Madhya Pradesh), with a map showing cotton concentration and its yield pattern, we
may arrive at the result that there is close relationship between the black-earth soil and the
quantity of cotton output. From this example, it may be inferred that black-earth (soil)
influences the cotton yield; but that a high yield of cotton will make the soil or a region black
cannot be inferred. The causal relationship is not a simple device; it demands multiple
regression or factor analysis.

Temporal Mode of Analysis

 Temporal analysis may also be termed as historical analysis. This analysis is a type of cause
and effect analysis, which is established over a long period of time. The assumption is that a
particular set of circumstances may be explained by examining the origin and subsequent
development of phenomena by the operation of process laws.

 In the words of Darby, “the foundations of geographic study lie in geomorphology and
historical geography”—both of which were dominated by temporal modes of explanation.

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  Temporal analysis helps in understanding the spatial distribution of many of the phenomena,
but it cannot be taken as the only approach of geographic explanations. History can be seen as
a causal series which started at the vaguely defined ‘dawn of history’ and ends today. In
practice it will never be possible to understand such a comprehensive causal series; the
analysis, therefore, must be restricted to some determined period of time.

Ecological and Functional Analysis

 It concerns itself with the study of connections between human and environmental variables.
This type of analysis is done in a closed or partly closed ecosystem, i.e., it is an intra-regional
and not an inter-regional analysis of the spatial distribution of phenomena.

 The cause and effect analysis was rejected by the positivists to avoid the metaphysical and
normative trappings. To counter the cause and effect relationship functional analysis was
developed.

 Functional analysis attempts to analyze phenomena in terms of role they play within a
particular organisation. Towns may be analyzed in terms of function they perform within an
economy (thus functional classification of towns is developed), rivers may be analyzed in
terms of their role in denudation and so on.

 Ecological and functional thinking have been important in geography. At the present time
there are numerous geographers who regard ecological concepts as providing an important
basis for geographic explanation.

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Approaches in Geography

Qualitative Approaches

 A qualitative "approach" is a general way of thinking about conducting qualitative research. It

describes, either explicitly or implicitly, the purpose of the qualitative research, the role of the
researcher(s), the stages of research, and the method of data analysis. here, four of the major
qualitative approaches are introduced.

Ethnography

 Ethnography is an extremely broad area with a great variety of practitioners and methods.
However, the most common ethnographic approach is participant observation as a part of
field research. The ethnographer becomes immersed in the culture as an active participant
and records extensive field notes. As in grounded theory, there is no preset limiting of what
will be observed and no real ending point in an ethnographic study.

Phenomenology

 Phenomenology is sometimes considered a philosophical perspective as well as an approach

to qualitative methodology. It has a long history in several social research disciplines including
psychology, sociology and social work. Phenomenology is a school of thought that emphasizes

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a focus on people's subjective experiences and interpretations of the world. That is, the
phenomenologist wants to understand how the world appears to others.