FACTORS LEADING TO TEENAGE PREGNANCIES IN DENSILY POPULATED

AREAS OF LUSAKA: A CASE STUDY OF KANYAMA, CHIPATA AND

MTENDERE COMPOUNDS

BY

MISOZI ANGELA C. TEMBO

BDS

STUDENT ID 000265

Research dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award
of a Bachelor of Development Studies degree of Cavendish University Zambia July 2018
Abstract
In Zambia teenage Sexuality like in other developing countries is of concern. Zambia
Association of Child Care Workers (ZAACW) newsletter (2014) indicated that, over 30% of
15-19 year old girls have already been pregnant or have had a child, which is an alarming rate
among adolescents. This is due to many challenges they face which include access to Sexual
Reproductive Health information and services, unfriendly health services, and negative
influence from the media. Although studies indicate the factors leading to teenage
pregnancies in rural and residential areas, little is known about the specific circumstances and
consequences of teenage pregnancies in densely populated areas.

The aim of this study was to investigate existing situation, establish new phenomenon and
generate new knowledge of factors leading to teenage pregnancies in 3 densely populated
areas (Chipata, Mtendere and Kanyama) of Lusaka.

An exploratory approach was used to conduct the study. In depth interviews with teenage
girls, Focus group discussions involving men and women including boys and the semi
structured interviews with the MCH coordinators and guidance teachers were the main source
of data.The results showed that indecent dressing by boys and girls exposed their bodies and
promoted sexual relationships. The education re-entry policy for girls has made these girls as
bad examples to the young girls in school. Girls no longer have the shame or remorse feelings
when they get pregnant. Poor infrastructure in densely populated areas such as many taverns,
inadequate secondary schools and many extended houses built within already existing homes
leading to many homes. Poverty in densely populated areas is portrayed by a wide gap
between the rich and the poor. Social gatherings such as funerals, parties, church activities
including festival periods contribute to teenage girls engaging in sexual relationships.

Although sex education is now part of the Life Skills programme in schools, teenagers still
fall pregnant due to lack of parental guidance and the way residentialization process is being
implemented. It was found indecent dressing, re-entry policy for girls; social events; Culture;
poverty; poor infrastructure and teenage sexual behavior contributed to teenage pregnancies.
To resolve the situation, the re-entry policy for girls need to be revised, parental guidance and
supervision need to be regarded as fundamental in the life of teenagers, Youth friendly
services need to be introduced and strengthened in government clinics and sex education to
be initiated early in the life of teenagers.
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Acknowledgements
Above all, I would like to thank God Almighty for being with me throughout my period of
study.

Special thanks to my Supervisor, Dr Alvin Chibuno Nchemba for his immeasurable and
exceptional academic support and guidance to make me succeed.

Thank you very much to my beloved husband Paul Tichafa Msimuko for being by my side
through my period of study.

I would also like to give my sincere gratitude to all the MCH Coordinators in clinics,
guidance and counseling teachers in schools and the community at large for participating in
my study.

Lastly, special thanks to my children Kish, Keziah, Korah, Kemmuel for their understanding
and words of encouragement and of course my late brother Saulani Tembo, mum and dad
wish you were here to see how far I have reached, will always remember your words,
MYSRIEP. Miss you a lot. Thank you so much and may God richly bless you.

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Letter of Authenticity or Declaration

I, Misozi Angela C. Tembo, solemnly declare that the dissertation hereby submitted to
Cavendish University Zambia has never been submitted by me or any other person at this or
any other University, that this is my own work in design and execution, that I am aware of the
implications of plagiarism as academic dishonesty, and that all sources of reference used have
been duly acknowledged.

Signature Date

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List of Acronyms

CBU…………………………………………..Copperbelt University

CHH……………………………………….. Child Headed Homes

MCH…………………………………………. Maternal and Child Health

MOE …………………………………………. Ministry Of Education

SRH………………………………………….. Sexual Reproductive Health

STI………………………………………….. Sexual Transmitted Infections

TPB……………………………………………Theory of Planned Behaviour

TRA…………………………………………. Theory of Reasoned Action

ZAACW............................. ............................. Zambia Association of Child Care Workers

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Table of Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 1

Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... 2

Letter of Authenticity or Declaration .......................................................................................... 3

List of Acronyms ........................................................................................................................ 4

Table of Contents........................................................................................................................ 5

List of Table................................................................................................................................ 9

Appendices ................................................................................................................................. 9

1.0 CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 10

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 10

1.1 Background to the study ............................................................................................................. 10

1.2 Problem statement ....................................................................................................................... 11

1.3 Purpose of the study .................................................................................................................... 11

1.4 Objectives of study ..................................................................................................................... 12

1.4.1 General objective of study ....................................................................................................... 12

1.4.2 Specific Objectives of study .................................................................................................... 12

1.5 Research hypothesis or Research question ................................................................................. 12

1.6 Significance and justification of the study .................................................................................. 13

1.7 Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 13

1.8 Outline of the report .................................................................................................................... 14

2.0 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 15

LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................... 15

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 15

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 2.2 Theoretical framework ................................................................................................................ 15

2.3 Previous studies .......................................................................................................................... 16

POOR COMMUNICATION BETWEEN PARENTS AND YOUTH ............................................. 16

UNFRIENDLY YOUTH SERVICES ....................................................................................... 17

ACCESS TO SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH SERVICES ................................................ 17

NOT COMFORTABLE WITH HEALTH WORKERS OF OPPOSITE SEX................................. 17

YOUTH EXPOSURE TO MEDIA IS A DOUBLE EDGED SWORD ........................................... 18

PEER PRESSURE ............................................................................................................................ 18

TRANSACTIONAL SEX ................................................................................................................ 19

EARLY MARRIAGES ..................................................................................................................... 19

FAMILY NORMS ............................................................................................................................ 19

DEFILEMENT, RAPE AND INCEST ............................................................................................. 20

2.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 21

3.0 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................ 22

METHODOLGY AND DESIGN .............................................................................................. 22

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 22

3.2 Research Philosophy and approach............................................................................................. 22

3.3 Research design/strategy ............................................................................................................. 22

3.3.2 Research choice ....................................................................................................................... 23

3.3.3 Time Horizon ........................................................................................................................... 23

3.3 Conceptual model, and operationalisation of research variables ................................................ 23

3.4 Source of data ............................................................................................................................. 24

3.5 Sampling frame ........................................................................................................................... 24

3.6 Sample size ................................................................................................................................. 25

3.7 Sampling techniques ................................................................................................................... 26

3.8 Data collection techniques .......................................................................................................... 26

Semi-structured interviews ............................................................................................................... 26

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 Focus Group Discussion ................................................................................................................... 26

In depth Interview ............................................................................................................................. 27

Observation ....................................................................................................................................... 27

3.9 Reliability & Validity ................................................................................................................. 27

3.10 Ethical considerations ............................................................................................................... 27

3.11 Limitation of study .................................................................................................................... 28

4.0 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 29

DATA ANALYSIS .................................................................................................................... 29

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 29

4.2 Qualitative data analysis ............................................................................................................. 29

4.2.1 IN DEPTH INTERVIEWS WITH GIRLS .................................................................................... 30

CHART: TEENAGE PREGNANCIES AND SEXUALITY .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.2.1.1. AVAILABLE SRH SERVICES FOR TEENAGERS ......................................................... 30

CLINICS ........................................................................................................................................... 30

SCHOOLS ........................................................................................................................................ 31

4.2.2 NEW TRENDS LEADING TO TEENAGE PREGNANCIES .......................................... 31

4.2.2.1 INDESCENT DRESSING .................................................................................................... 31

4.2.2.2. OTHER SOCIAL EVENTS................................................................................................. 32

4.2.2.3. THE RE-ENTRY POLICY FOR GIRLS IN SCHOOLS ................................................. 33

4.2.2.4 TEENAGERS SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR .............................................................................. 33

4.2.3 UNIQUE FACTORS IN DENSELY POPULATED AREAS INFLUENCING TEENAGE

PREGNANCIES ....................................................................................................................... 34

4.2.3.1. POVERTY (WIDE GAP BETWEEN THE RICH AND POOR)........................................ 34

4.2.3.3 POOR INFRASTRUCTURE................................................................................................ 35

5.0 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................ 37

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS .................................................................................................. 37

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 37

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 5.2 Discussions ................................................................................................................................. 37

5.2.1. INDECENT DRESSING ........................................................................................................ 37

5.2.3. TEENAGE SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR ..................................................................................... 38

5.2.4. SOCIAL EVENTS .................................................................................................................. 38

5.2.5 POVERTY (WIDE GAP BETWEEN THE RICH AND POOR) ........................................... 39

5.2.6 CULTURE ............................................................................................................................... 40

5.2.10 POOR INFRASTRUCTURE................................................................................................. 40

6.0 CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................... 41

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................................... 41

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 41

6.2 Conclusions and Implication....................................................................................................... 41

6.3 Recommendation ........................................................................................................................ 42

7 .0 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................. 43

8.0 APPENDICES..................................................................................................................... 46

Appendix 1 ............................................................................................................................... 46

QUESTIONAIRE FOR IN DEPTH INTERVIEW FOR TEENAGE GIRLS (BOTH

PREGNANT, ALREADY DELIVERED AND NOT PREGNANT) .......................................... 46

Appendix 2 ............................................................................................................................... 50

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE FOR PARENTS (MEN AND WOMEN) AND BOYS 50

Appendix 3 ............................................................................................................................... 51

SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR HEALTH STAFF IN DENSELY

POPULATED CLINICS ........................................................................................................... 51

Appendix 4 ............................................................................................................................... 53

SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR TEACHERS IN DENSELY POPULATED

SCHOOLS ................................................................................................................................ 53

APPENDIX 5 ............................................................................................................................ 55

INTRODUCTORY DOCUMENT ............................................................................................ 55

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List of Table
CHART 1………………………………………………………TEENAGE SEXUALITY
AND PREGNANCIES

APPENDICES
Questionnaire

Focus group discussion guide

Semi structured interview guide

Introductory document

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 1.0 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

In Zambia teenage Sexuality like in other developing countries is of concern. Zambia
Association of Child Care Workers (ZAACW) newsletter (2014) indicated that, over 30% of
15-19 year old girls have already been pregnant or have had a child, which is an alarming rate
among adolescents. Teenagers give birth at a tender age when their bodies are not ready.
This is due to many challenges they face which include access to Sexual Reproductive Health
information and services, unfriendly health services, and negative influence from the media.
Other factors are transactional sex, early marriages, child abuse, peer pressure, negative
socio-cultural norms and practices and poverty

In Africa, particularly the Sub-Saharan Africa, the birth control practice is not as effective as
that of the U.S.A (Stanley, 2007). The Sub-Saharan region has the highest rate of pregnancies
with 143 pregnancies per 1000 teenagers. The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in Sub-
Saharan Africa can be attributed to a large number of women who tend to marry at an early
age. In West African region, Niger has the highest rate of teen pregnancies at 133 per 1000
teens. In Niger, for example, 53% of women give birth to a child before the age of 18. This is
higher than the average pregnancy rate for the sub region.

In Zambia, 42% of girls are married before age of 18, and adolescent pregnancy rate is as
high as 146 births/1,000 women (CSO 2010). The number of pregnancies among teenagers
has been rising in Zambia over the past years. In 2002 there were 3,663 teenage pregnancies
among school going teenagers; in 2004, the number rose to 6,528; in 2007 the figure had
risen further to 11,391 and to 13,634 in 2009 (Annual Education Statistical Bulletin, Lusaka,
2009).
By 2010, the Ministry of Education reported that there were over 15,000 teenage pregnancies
among school going teenagers in Zambia. The trend for 2011 remained high at 12,285 which
was still a high rate, (Annual School Census, 2011). Despite the trend revealed by these
statistics, discussion of subjects such as sexual health, sexuality and HIV are still regarded as

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inappropriate in many areas of the country, especially in rural and Densely populated
communities.

Government strategies and services for primary Sexual and Reproductive Health (SRH) are
also better defined and delivered in residential areas, while inadequate access and clinical
referral to youth-friendly health services is still characteristic of rural and peri residential
areas. The problem is further compounded by the fact that the capacity to provide these
services on a sustainable basis is low, especially in rural areas that make up 60.5% of
Zambia‟s population: (http://www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/03, accessed, 20th May 2012). This
leads to an increased risk of young people in rural communities not accessing relevant
information regarding their sexual and reproductive health: Central Statistical Office (2010).

According to the Post newspaper article on 14 August 2014, Isaac Zulu wrote that 26 girls at
Kakwelesa Primary School in chief Mukonchi‟s area in Kapiri Mposhi district withdrew from
school owing to pregnancies and early marriages. The girls who include one doing grade five,
12 grade sevens, and five grade eight and seven grade nine pupils withdrew from learning
after falling pregnant and they were married off by their parents.

1.2 Problem statement

Studies done on Teenage pregnancies in residential and rural areas in 7 countries of Southern
Africa (Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, South Africa, Namibia and Lesotho)
indicate that, teenage pregnancies are as a result of challenges in accessing Sexual
Reproductive Health information and services, unfriendly health services, and negative
influence from the media. Other factors exacerbating these pregnancies include transactional
sex, early marriages, child abuse, peer pressure, negative socio-cultural norms and practices
and poverty. Although studies indicate the factors leading to teenage pregnancies in rural and
residential areas, little is known about the specific circumstances and consequences of
teenage pregnancies in densely populated areas.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to investigate existing situation, establish new phenomenon and
generate new knowledge of factors leading to teenage pregnancies in 3 densely populated
areas of Chipata, Mtendere and Kanyama of Lusaka.

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1.4 Objectives of study

1.4.1 General objective of study

To investigate factors leading to teenage pregnancies in 3 densely populated areas of
Kanyama, Chipata and Mtendere in Lusaka district:

1.4.2 Specific Objectives of study

Specifically, the following objectives were pursued in this study:

1. Establish the levels of teenage pregnancies in Chipata, Mtendere and Kanyama

compounds

2. To find out if there are any Sexual reproductive Health services available and offered to
teenagers in Chipata, Mtendere and Kanyama compounds.

3. Establish unknown factors/new trends leading to teenage pregnancies in Chipata,

Mtendere and Kanyama Compounds.

4. To establish the unique factors influencing teenage pregnancies in 3 densely populated

areas.

1.5 Research hypothesis or Research question

The following specific research questions were addressed to answer the main question of the
study:

1. What are the levels of teenage pregnancies in Chipata, Mtendere and Kanyama
compounds?

2. What services on Sexual reproductive Health are available and offered to

teenagers in Chipata, Mtendere and Kanyama compounds?

3. Are there new trends leading to teenage pregnancies in Chipata, Mtendere and
Kanyama Compounds?

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 4. What are the unique factors influencing teenage pregnancies in 3 densely
populated areas?

1.6 Significance and justification of the study

The results of this study will to some large extent show the circumstances under which
teenagers get pregnant in densely populated area of Chipata, Mtendere and Kanyama
compounds. It will build on to the existing knowledge of factors leading to teenage
pregnancies.

Densely populated areas are areas which are in process of being upgraded into residential
areas, thus, they posses‟ rural and residential characteristics. As little has shown
circumstances under which teenagers get pregnant, this study will show result of unique
factors that influence teenage pregnancies in densely populated areas.

One of the known factors leading to teenage pregnancies is the low or lack of uptake of
Sexual Reproductive Health services by teenagers due to various reasons. Results of this
study will show whether these services are available and if teenagers are demanding them.

Despite the known causes of teenage pregnancies, this study will show new trends leading to
teenage pregnancies in densely populated areas. It is believed that things change as periods
change.

The overview of the results of the study will bring to the attention of implementers,
decision/opinion makers and policy makers to learn and consider these areas appropriately.

1.7 Methodology
This study used an inductive approach since it was a qualitative study. The purpose was
exploratory as it was aimed at investigating and developing new perspectives on factors
contributing to teenage pregnancy in peri residential settings. It emphasized objectivity and
used systematic procedures to measure human behaviour by using formal structured
instruments when collecting data from respondents (Brink 2006).

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1.8 Outline of the report
The report is divided into the following chapters:

Chapter 1: Orientation to the Study

This chapter covered the background to the study, statement of the problem, objectives to the
study, sub-research questions, and significance of the study, methodology and outline of the
report.

Chapter 2: Literature review

This chapter reviews literature under the following subheadings: poor communication
between parents and children, available SRH services, not comfortable with opposite sex
health workers, transactional sex, early marriages, exposure to media, defilement, rape and
incest and family norms.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

The research methodology in this chapter deals with design, sample, instrumentation,
procedure, data analysis, and ethical issues.

Chapter 4: Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion

This chapter outlines the presentation of data derived from primary sources of information
such as MCH Coordinators, guidance and counseling teachers and the communities.

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

This chapter will summaries all the findings and discussions made, give conclusions about
the effects of teenage pregnancy and the recommendations on how to deal with or to prevent
future occurrences of teenage pregnancy in densely populated areas.

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 2.0 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
The purpose of this study was to investigate existing situation, establish new phenomenon
and generate new knowledge of factors leading to teenage pregnancies in 3 densely populated
areas of Lusaka. This chapter outlines the review of literature. The literature is presented
under sub-headings derived from the study‟s specific-research questions. The sub-headings
are: teenage pregnancies in densely populated area, Sexual Reproductive Health services for
teenagers and unique factors influencing teenage pregnancies in densely populated areas.

2.2 Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework of this study draws upon social disorganization theory to identify
household and community characteristics that predict teenage pregnancy while controlling for
socio-demographic and reproductive factors. The social disorganization is a possible driving
factor of teenage pregnancy. Social disorganization was defined by Bursik (1988) as the
inability of community members to solve jointly experienced problems. The theory of social
disorganization is classically applied to explain geographical variations in violence and crime
(Elliot & Merrill, 1961; Kubrin, 2009). Therefore, it is important to test the applicability of
the social disorganization theory in explaining geographical variations in the levels of teenage
pregnancy.

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the associated Theory of Reasoned Action
(TRA) (Ajzen 1988) explore the relationship between behavior and beliefs, attitudes, and
intentions. Both the TPB and the TRA assume behavioral intention is the most important
determinant of behavior. According to these theories, behavioral intention is influenced by a
person‟s attitude toward performing a behavior, and by beliefs about whether individuals who
are important to the person approve or disapprove of the behavior (subjective norms). The
TPB differs from the TRA in that it includes one additional construct, perceived behavioral
control; this construct has to do with people‟s beliefs that they can control a particular
behavior. Azjen and Driver (1996) added this construct to account for situations in which
people‟s behavior, or behavioral intention, is influenced by factors beyond their control. They
argued that people might try harder to perform a behavior if they feel they have a high degree

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of control over it. People‟s perceptions about controllability may have an important influence
on behavior. Both theories will be applied in this study to explore the behavior of teenagers
towards preventing pregnancies.

2.3 Previous studies

POOR COMMUNICATION BETWEEN PARENTS AND YOUTH

Many parents are in crisis- holding on to values that were passed on to them during their teen
years and trying to live the reality of today which seem to be fast with shifting boundaries on
sexual and reproductive health issues. Traditional systems of control on teenagers have
shifted and parents have to play the role of aunties, uncles and grandparents. Such parental
care is flexible and teenagers take it for granted to take life issues told to them seriously.
Parents have closed up to the reality of teenage experimentations.
The formative research process conducted by (Micheal et al 2012) in 7 countries of Southern
Africa (Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, South Africa, Namibia and Lesotho), shows
that youths, especially adolescents, are faced with challenges of (dis)orientation and
discovery about sex and sexuality. This puts them at high risk of contracting sexually
transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV; and unplanned and early pregnancies with
negative consequences such as dropping out of school and unsafe abortion.
It came out prominently across the analyzed countries both from youth and parent
respondents that there is poor communication between parents and youths on sexuality issues.
The youths in most cases attributed this to cultural norms where it is almost taboo to discuss
sex issues with parents; that parents scold them and make them feel embarrassed when they
start talking about sex; and that when youths reach puberty they feel they can make
independent decisions and this brings conflict between them and their parents. The parent
respondents emphasized that youths are unruly and disrespect parents because they are
influenced by their peers and the media. Since parents hardly provide guidance on sexuality
issues, the youths reported that many young girls have ended up pregnant because they were
curious to discover what their parents were hiding (Michael et al 2012).

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UNFRIENDLY YOUTH SERVICES
Despite the youths citing health centres as (potential) sources of reproductive health
information and services such as condoms, other contraceptives and abortion, they
complained that reproductive health services are not youth friendly.
Stigma from health personnel was cited as one factor repelling youths from accessing sexual
and reproductive health services. For instance, in Malawi, youths complained that the health
personnel are often judgmental when youths visit the clinics and in Namibia, similar
discouraging remarks from health workers regarding youths trying to access contraceptives
were reported.
In Namibia, the branding of many STI and pregnancy prevention methods as “family
Planning methods” seem to be a deterrent to many youths as they perceived the family
planning methods as suitable for adults, especially parents, and those who are married.

ACCESS TO SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH SERVICES

The study further indicates that many public clinics in Zimbabwe were said to be hard to
access especially in rural areas due to long distances, and normally youths would need to
stand in long queues to get help. The alternative private clinics were said to be too expensive
for youths.

NOT COMFORTABLE WITH HEALTH WORKERS OF OPPOSITE SEX

Youths also reported that sometimes health workers of the opposite sex attend to them when
they are seeking help on sex related problems a situation that makes them uncomfortable in
South Africa.
Services in Zambia, point to the fact that physical services are not designed to serve,
accommodate and give a friendly services to teenagers. Barriers that inhibit teenagers from
accessing Sexual Reproductive Health services start from the family confines to religious
environment on morals up to the government level with absent service delivery. This
disadvantages teenagers in their struggle to attend to their Reproductive and Sexual health
(Micheal et al 2012).
The attitudes of the health care providers towards teenagers receiving sexual and reproductive
health and services are important. Their attitudes can influence teenagers‟ access to services
that allow them to safely manage their sexual and reproductive health and make informed
decisions concerning their reproductive health (Senderowitz, 1999). Senderowitz further
asserted that providing sexual reproductive health services to the teenagers is a sensitive issue
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and that confidentiality, privacy and respect must be maintained all the time. Mmari &
Magnani (2003) pointed out that teenagers feel embarrassed being seen at the clinic and fear
that their privacy and confidentiality will not be honored.

YOUTH EXPOSURE TO MEDIA IS A DOUBLE EDGED SWORD

Young people get most of the information about sexual and reproductive health from radio,
television, publications and, less prominently, the internet. The media provides a useful
source of information to youth about sexual and reproductive health. However, exposure to
some types of media and media content has resulted in many youths engaging in sex while
young, as well as alcohol and drug abuse. Such media content as pornographic materials are
factors behind many youths engaging in sex including unprotected sex. Parents find it
difficult nowadays to control youth media exposure because there are just too many media
outlets such as cell phones and internet.
Moore & Rosenthal (1993) point out that in western societies the prolonged transition to
adulthood has given rise to a distinct youth culture. This culture has a considerable impact on
teenagers‟ opinions and behaviours, with many young people conforming to particular
fashion, music or leisure activities as well as sexual attitudes and behaviour. The major
influences on this culture are mass media.

PEER PRESSURE
Peer pressure is also a major cause of premarital sex among teenagers as girls in school are
being pressurized by friends who are engaging in such acts. These girls in school talk about
their boyfriends, what they are doing with them, how their boyfriends buy them all sorts of
things and as a result the other girl who is listening to such talks will be forced to do the same
in order to fit in that group.

Peer association has been indicated as one of the strongest predictors of adolescent sexual
behavior (DiBlasio & Benda, 1994). Youth that do not engage in sex tend to have friends
who also abstain. Those that are sexually active tend to believe that their friends are sexually
active as well.

The social pressure often prevents young girls from using contraception. The girls feel that
they would only be accepted as women once they have proved their fertility. Having sexually
active friends is also strongly associated with the earlier onset of sexual activity at a young
age (Blum, 2005).
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In a study on high risk sexual behaviour in Tanzania, teenagers were forced into having
sexual intercourse by their peers. Peer pressure plays a role in initiating sexual activity which
frequently ends in teenage pregnancy (Ikamba & Quedraogo, 2003).

TRANSACTIONAL SEX
Exploitation by older men who are supposed to be role models to these girls has also become
a major cause of teenage pregnancies. Often girls especially from poor areas have so many
demands which cannot be met by their guardians and this leads them to go into relationships
with older men who give them money. In return these men also request for sex and in the end
they get the girls pregnant.

Studies in the United States indicate that age discrepancy between the teenage girls and the
men who impregnate them is an important contributing factor. Teenage girls in the
relationships with older boys and in particular with adult men are more likely to become
pregnant than teenage girls in relationships with boys of their own age (Vellu, 1996).

EARLY MARRIAGES
Poverty also contributes to the rate of teenage pregnancy because some teenage girls become
involved in the relationships with older men so that they can provide for them – they need a
sense of security. It is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy and is one of the
major factors underpinning early marriage. Where poverty is acute, a young girl may be
regarded as an economic burden and married to a much older – sometimes even elderly –
man.

When a younger girl (14) falls in love irrespective of the fact that she is willing or forced into
the affair with an older man (25) they obviously have conflicting opinions and it is often
impossible for the girl to win any argument thus she fails to defend her stands and that leads
to teenage pregnancy. And also early marriages contribute to the problem because most
expectations often being influenced by the cultural background are that in a marriage there
must be children, whilst, ignoring the obvious "mismatch" right in front of them (Howard &
Marth, 1990).

FAMILY NORMS
The most important factor is that many children come from very loose families. These are
families where the father and the mother drink alcohol, children in such families grow very

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loose without restrictions. In the home there is only one room and parents because of their
drunkenness have sex in front of those children. Therefore children growing up in those
circumstances are more likely to be exposed to sex which often result in pregnancy (Lindsay,
1995:93)

DEFILEMENT, RAPE AND INCEST

Men and girls, especially in rural and peri residential areas, do not know about defilement.
According to them, defilement is sexual intercourse, with a girl who had not reached puberty
or sexual intercourse with a virgin. Hence, a girl could only be defiled once. This
understanding of defilement generally is acceptable traditionally and biblically. Violation of
virginity could only attract compensation in form of damages. Mainly, reporting to the police
is only done when a girl has sex for the first time but has not reached puberty or she has
reached puberty but she appears to be very young. After first sexual intercourse, any
subsequent sexual acts that she may involve herself into are not a concern of society.

2.5 Research variables arising from literature review

Teenage pregnancy is defined as a teenaged or under aged girl (usually within the ages of
13–19) becoming pregnant. The term in everyday speech usually refers to women who have
not reached legal adulthood, who become pregnant. For the purpose of this research, the
researcher adopted this definition and teenage pregnancy and will be used interchangeably as
the variables appear in the literature
Early Marriage - For the purpose of this study, it refers to a married female below the age of
18 years. Early marriage refers to any form of marriage that takes place before a child has
reached 18 years

Family norms- This is referred to poor parenting

Incest- Sex between blood relatives. Sexual relations between people classed as being too
closely related to marry each other

Defilement-Sex with female minor (Below 16 years old). Defilement is defined as the act of
having sexual intercourse with a child below the age of 18 or a minor.
Rape - Sex with non consenting female partner. Rape is simply sex without the consent of
the other partner and as such whether a man decides forcibly have sex with his wife or a man
penetrates a prostitute sexually without her approval.

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Peer Pressure- Direct influence of friends. Peers are people who are part of the same social
group, so the term "peer pressure" refers to the influence that peers can have on each other.
Although peer pressure does not necessarily have to be negative, the term "pressure" implies
that the process influences people to do things that may be resistant to, or might not otherwise
choose to do.

Transactional sex is when money or gifts are exchanged for a sexual relationship between an
older and younger person. By transactional sex, we are referring to the exchange of gifts
(material, monetary) for sex framed outside of prostitution or sex work by those who
participate in the exchange.

2.6 Conclusion
This chapter described factors associated with and contributed to teenage pregnancies. It has
also discussed showed who conducted these studies and where they were conducted including
the methodologies which were used.

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 3.0 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLGY AND DESIGN

3.1 Introduction
The purpose of this study was to investigate existing situation, establish new phenomenon
and generate new knowledge of factors leading to teenage pregnancies in 3 densely populated
areas of Lusaka.

This chapter covers the research design; strategy; choice; time horizon; Conceptual models
and operationalization of research variable; data source; sample frame and size; sample
technique; data collection technique ; reliability and validity, ethical issues such as:
permission, informed consent, confidentiality, and anonymity and limitation of the study.

3.2 Research Philosophy and approach

This study used an inductive approach since it is a qualitative study. The approach was
primarily exploratory as it aimed at investigating and developing new perspectives on factors
contributing to teenage pregnancy in peri residential settings. It emphasized objectivity and
used systematic procedures to measure human behaviour by using formal structured
instruments when collecting data from respondents (Brink 2006).

3.3 Research design/strategy

Qualitative research design allows for deeper understanding, produces a wealth of detailed
information and is capable of capturing the richness of the adolescents‟ experiences in their
own words (Payne, 1993).

A generic understanding of qualitative research implies a multi method focus, involving an

interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter (Mertens, 1998). This means that
qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or
interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Furthermore, qualitative
research allows the researcher to gain an empathic understanding of the social phenomena.
Thus attempts are made to understand thoughts, feelings and emotions by understanding
people‟s values, beliefs and emotions.

The qualitative research approach was used for this study as this approach is primarily
exploratory in nature. According to York (1998), it is useful to conduct an exploratory when
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the researcher has limited knowledge about a given subject or wants to develop new
perspectives on it. This study was exploratory because it has explored factors contributing to
teenage pregnancy within the peri residential areas of Lusaka District. Brink (2003) also
stated that exploratory research studies what has been previously been studied and attempts to
identify new knowledge, insights, understandings and meanings to explore factors related to
the research topic.

3.3.2 Research choice

This study chose to use a mixed method approach; hence it consists of four stages which are:
In depth interviews; Focus group discussions; Semi structured interviews and
observations. Mixed methods approach is the general term for when both quantitative and
qualitative data collection techniques and analysis procedures are used in a research design.

3.3.3 Time Horizon

This study was a cross-sectional, meaning that the study of a particular phenomenon (or
phenomena) at a particular time. We say this because we recognize that most research
projects undertaken for academic courses are necessarily time constrained.

Cross-sectional studies often employ the survey strategy (Easterby-Smith et al. 2008; Robson
2002). They may be seeking to describe the incidence of a phenomenon (for example, the IT
skills possessed by managers in one organization at a given point in time) or to explain how
factors are related in different organizations (e.g. the relationship between expenditure on
customer care training for sales assistants and sales revenue). However, they may also use
qualitative methods. Many case studies are based on interviews conducted over a short period
of time.

3.3 Conceptual model, and operationalisation of research variables

Teenage Pregnancy – This includes girls between the ages 10 and 19 who are pregnant,
those with one or more children as well as girls who had terminated a pregnancy in the past.

Socio-demographic – Pertaining to characteristics of an individual‟s, groups‟, or

populations‟ gender, age, education, income or economic status, place of residence, marital
status, ethnicity, and employment.

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Reproductive Health- When people are able to have a responsible, satisfying and safe sex
life and that they have the capability to have children and freedom to decide if, when and how
often to do so.

Social disorganization- Social disorganization was defined by Bursik (1988) as the inability
of community members to solve jointly experienced problems.

Behavioral intention- refers to Perceived likelihood of performing behavior

Attitude- refers to Personal evaluation of the behavior. Attitude refers to the overall feelings
of favorableness or unfavorableness towards performing the behavior.

Subjective norm – refers to beliefs about whether key people approve or disapprove of the
behavior; motivation to behave in a way that gains their approval

Perceived behavioral control – refers to belief that one has, and can exercise, control over
performing the behavior

3.4 Source of data

This study used the Primary information collection method which is often referred to as field
research because it was concerned with the generation and collection of original data from the
field of operation. The main data sources which were used are: in depth interviews with the
girls who are pregnant and those with children including girls who are not pregnant and have
no children; Focus group discussions involving men and women including boys and the semi
structured interviews with the MCH coordinators and guidance teachers.

3.5 Sampling frame

A sample is a representative subset of the population from which generalizations are made
about the population or sampling is simply stated as selecting a portion of the population, in
the research area, which will be a representation of the whole population (Michael, 2012:24).

The sample frame for this study included:

Pregnant girls and those that have children since they are the focus of this study

Boys and girls will give their views as most girls are the victims of pregnancy and the in most
cases some boys are responsible for the pregnancies.

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Parents (men and women), especially whose children are victims of teenage pregnancy will
give an overview of their experiences before children become pregnant.

Selected teachers in schools based in 3 communities will give rates of teenage pregnancies in
schools and what they know which leads to teenage pregnancy. They will also give
information on what the school curriculum says on Sex education in the school set up.

Maternal and Child Health Coordinators in local clinics will also give rates of teenage
pregnancies in communities as well as the available Sexual Reproductive Health services for
young people at health institutions

3.6 Sample size

In depth Interviews were conducted to 57 girls (20 from Kanyama, 20 from Chipata and 17
from Mtendere). These girls included those with pregnancies, with children and school going
children. Semi structured Interviews in Schools and clinics of densely populated communities
targeted guidance teachers and MCH Coordinators respectively.

In Mtendere, 3 schools (2 secondary schools and 1 primary school) were visited. Two (2)
clinics (1 general clinic and 1 maternity clinic) were visited in Mtendere

In Chipata, 2 primary schools were visited and guidance teachers were interviewed. The
Community has only one clinic where an MCH Coordinator was interviewed.

In Kanyama, 2 primary schools were visited to interview guidance teachers. One clinic was
visited including the copperbelt University clinic since it is located near Kanyama compound
and provides services to Kanyama compound residents.

Focus group discussions were held in all the three communities targeting an average of 15
participants both women and men. The boys were met separately in groups of 10 from the
three communities.

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3.7 Sampling techniques
Pregnant girls and those that have children were purposively sampled as these were available
and met the objective of the study. According to Ma.Dolores, ( 2007:147), it is also called
judgment sampling, which is also a deliberate choice of an informant due to the qualities the
informant possesses.

Boys and girls were selected using simple random sampling system in order to infer the
findings back to the larger population of boys and girls.

Parents (men and women) were also selected using simple random sampling system in order
to infer the findings back to the larger population of women and men.

Counseling and Guidance teachers were sampled using judgment sampling, which is a
deliberate choice of an informant due to the qualities the information possessed. Counseling
and guidance teachers were trained in SRH curriculum for teenagers and are in charge of sex
education in schools.

Maternal and Child Health Coordinators were sampled using judgment sampling, which is a
deliberate choice of an informant due to the qualities the information possessed.

3.8 Data collection techniques

The following data collection methods were used:

Semi-structured interviews
This type of interview was administered to teachers and MCH coordinators in clinics mainly
because of sensitivity of the nature of the study. Unexpected answers and information were
discovered in the interview; hence this type of interview supplemented the frequency between
the identified variables and research questions.

Focus Group Discussion

These were conducted among parents (men and women) and boys in Kanyama, Chipata and
Mtendere. Focus groups produced qualitative data that provided insight into attitudes,
perceptions, feelings and opinions of the participants and also presented a more natural
environment than that of an individual interview because participants were influencing and
influenced by others, just as in real life, therefore provided socially orientated research which
captured “real life” data (Krueger, 1994).

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In depth Interview
In depth interviews were administered to girls as well as those teenagers who had given birth
and those who were pregnant

Observation
Although interviewing is an invaluable way to gather information, direct observation as a
technique, is highly reliant upon the accuracy and honesty of answers relating to how
someone behaves or what they believe. Observations were used as an alternative technique
during in depth interviews and semi structured interviews.

3.9 Reliability & Validity

In order to ensure reliability in qualitative research, examination of trustworthiness is crucial.
Seale (1999) cited in Golafshani (2003:601) states that while establishing good quality
studies through reliability and validity in qualitative research, “trustworthiness of a research
report lies at the heart of issues conventionally discussed as validity and reliability”. If the
validity or trustworthiness can be maximized or tested then more “credible and defensible
result” may lead to generalizability which is one of the concepts suggested by Stenbacka
(2001) cited in Golafshani (2003:603) as the structure for both doing and documenting high
quality qualitative research.

3.10 Ethical considerations

All study participants were given a copy of an introduction of the study (appendix 5). It
contained information about the project and its aim, about the study procedure (who would be
interviewed), about their personal contribution (what kind of questions would be asked),
personal rights (participation was voluntary and consent would have been verbally withdrawn
at any point), risks and benefits, confidentiality and contact details for further information.

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3.11 Limitation of study

The research focused on the Teenage girls and boys only, adolescents were not part of the
study to find out the factors contributing to teenage pregnancy in densely populated areas.
Other participants included men, women, guidance teachers and MCH coordinators.

The study was limited to the factors contributing to teenage pregnancy at in densely
populated areas only; therefore the findings cannot be generalized to residential or rural areas

Methodological limitations of the study should be noted, non-probability sampling method

was used to select participants. There could be possibility of selection bias.

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 4.0 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
The purpose of this study was to investigate existing situation, establish new phenomenon
and generate new knowledge of factors leading to teenage pregnancies in 3 densely populated
areas of Lusaka. This chapter presents the data and also discusses the findings of the study.

4.2 Qualitative data analysis

Data is presented according to the specific objectives of the study which include establish the
levels of teenage pregnancies in Chipata, Mtendere and Kanyama compounds; to find out if
there are any Sexual reproductive Health services available and offered to teenagers in
Chipata, Mtendere and Kanyama compounds; establish unknown factors/new trends leading
to teenage pregnancies in Chipata, Mtendere and Kanyama Compounds and to establish the
unique factors influencing teenage pregnancies in 3 densely populated areas.

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4.2.1 IN DEPTH INTERVIEWS WITH GIRLS
TEENAGE PREGNANCIES & SEXUALITY

Married & have babies Kanyama 12%

Chipata 20%
Mtendere 25%

Pregnant with Children & not married Kanyama 47%

Chipata 55%
Mtendere 20%

Not Virgins Kanyama 18%

Chipata 5%
Mtendere 15%

Virgins Kanyama 24%

Chipata 20%
Mtendere 40%

Source: Field data

4.2.1.1. AVAILABLE SRH SERVICES FOR TEENAGERS

CLINICS
Riverside Clinic which serves Kanyama compound residents offers condoms and
contraceptive pills to teenagers who visit the clinic and 18 of the girls interviewed are aware
of the services and are able to access these services. Only two girls expressed ignorance on
the available services at the clinic. Although the clinic is trying to reach to as many young
people as possible, they are facing a challenge where teenagers shun the clinic and opt to go
to CBU clinic where they are not tested for HIV when pregnant. Riverside clinic records 8
teenage pregnancies per month.
Garnerton clinic is also offering the same services as riverside clinic to Mtendere residents
and only 4 girls out of the 17 girls interviewed are aware and were able to access these
services available. Garnerton clinic records 4 teenage pregnancies per month.

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Chipata is served by Luangwa clinic and the MCH coordinator indicated that the clinic had
no services for teenagers and all the girls interviewed had no idea of what SRH services they
can access. The clinic records 5 teenage pregnancies per month.

SCHOOLS
All the 7 schools ( Luangwa Primary school, Twatema primary school, Garnertone secondary
school, St Francis Secondary school, Mwambashi primary school, Riverain primary school
and Harmony community school) visited in the 3 densely populated areas had counseling and
guidance teachers who are in charge of sex education in schools. All these teachers attended
workshops on the curriculum on SRH for teenage girls but the schools do not have a copy of
the curriculum on the SRH.
The counseling and guidance teachers guides and teach the girls on reproductive health and
sexuality. The teachers stated that participation of the girls was very good and that they were
willing to grasp new things on reproductive health.
Seven (7) schools visited indicated that they record on average 4 teenage pregnancies for the
past 2 years (2013 and 2014) but Luangwa Primary school had recorded 7 pregnancies on
average in 2013.

4.2.2 NEW TRENDS LEADING TO TEENAGE PREGNANCIES

4.2.2.1 INDESCENT DRESSING

CHIPATA, MTENDERE AND KANYAMA

The study revealed that the dressing for girls and boys was the upcoming factor that
contributed to teenage pregnancies. Being a densely populated, there is a mixed culture,
hence the residential culture is taking centre stage and the girls are in crisis in deciding what
looks good on them. In the event when teenage girls get involved in wanting to acquire and
own these clothes, many factors come in play such as high demand for money, lack of proper
guidance when and where to wear those clothes. Boys are also admired by girls due to a
common type of dressing popularly known as sagging. Findings revealed that such boys are
admired by girls and end up being followed and engage in sex at the end of the day.
Participant # 3 during a focus group discussion for boys in Chipata said “girls get excited
when they see our pants especially if it looks good, they believe it is expensive and that you
have money for buying such a pant”.
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Parents wondered how their daughters managed to buy clothes as they were still in school
and some homes where they come from were vulnerable.
One parent in Kanyama compound said that “our children go out with elderly men who in
turn give them money which they use to buy clothes. As a result they pretend that they are
going to school meanwhile they carry those clothes in their bags and only come home at
night wearing those clothes”.

4.2.2.2. OTHER SOCIAL EVENTS

All the focus group discussions held in 3 communities revealed that girls have a tendency of
getting involved in church activities as a way of getting away from home. For example many
teenagers get permission from their parents to go for overnight prayer meetings and yet they
go to meet their boyfriends. Other events which worsen teenage pregnancies are during
festival periods and funerals. Teenagers get permission from their parents to go for funerals
to sing in church choirs at night, to the contrary that is the time when they meet with their
boyfriends. Being densely populated areas any event such as commemoration of the
Independence Day and other political campaigns periods excite the community such that it is
the time for them to engage in sexual relationships. During these mentioned periods a lot of
pregnancies are noted.
For the past 5 years there has been a new trend during exam time where the examination
papers are leaked to the grade 12s in exchange for money with the source. This is a different
case for girls as this is the time when they are asked for sex in exchange for exam papers.
Boys and sometimes teachers ask for sex in exchange for these examination papers. Almost
all the participants during FGDs for women/men and boys in Mtendere, Kanyama and
Chipata attested to this development. Participant # 12 in Mtendere said, “Madam we have
seen many girls getting pregnant, by the time results come out their pregnancy will have
grown and they don’t even pass”.

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4.2.2.3. THE RE-ENTRY POLICY FOR GIRLS IN SCHOOLS

CHIPATA
In Chipata during a focus group discussion for women and men, participant # 4 said “we are
not going to see a reduction in teenage pregnancies because the re-entry policy which was
introduced by the government has removed fears of getting pregnant in our children”.
Findings revealed that girls are more comfortable and no longer fear to sleep with men
because they say that I will go back to school and leave the baby with my mother.
Some girls deliberately get pregnant in event when parents have no money to pay for their
education. They say it is better to sleep with a man who can pay for your education even after
you have given birth than wait for parents to look for money.
A teacher at Twatemwa Primary school In Chipata said, “Although the re- entry policy has
some advantages it has also disadvantages because girls feel it is a normal thing to get
pregnant and other girls are influenced to sleep with men”. She furthers said that “these day
schools have stopped carrying out pregnancy tests for girls at the beginning of the term
because of the introduction of the re-entry policy”. Some go on unnoticed until the pregnancy
is due for delivery.

4.2.2.4 TEENAGERS SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR

KANYAMA
Findings in Kanyama compound during a Focus Group Discussion for women and men
indicated that sexual debut for teenagers started early. Participant # 15 expressed concern at
the age girls mature. In her own words she said “our girls mature early and this makes them
to start developing sexual feelings at tender age and do not have much information to take
care of themselves”. This is in line with Shisana & Simbayi (2002) findings, that early sexual
activity is affected by the developmental characteristics such as early puberty and high levels of
androgen hormones which are associated with increased teenage sexual behaviour.

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4.2.3 UNIQUE FACTORS IN DENSELY POPULATED AREAS INFLUENCING
TEENAGE PREGNANCIES

4.2.3.1. POVERTY (WIDE GAP BETWEEN THE RICH AND POOR)

MTENDERE
Peri –Residential areas are in the processes of residentialization, therefore the scenario is that
of the poor and rich. In Mtendere, the MCH coordinator highlighted that the place used to be
a residential area for whites who owned farmlands. The worker for these whites settled in
Mtendere and eventually, other blacks who had wealth settled in the same area. Teenage girls
get exposed to those with money and as result they engage in sexual relationships regardless
of their social status.
During the semi structured interviews, guidance teachers and MCH coordinators cited
orphaned children living under Child Headed Homes (CHH) as the most affected and
exposed to teenage pregnancies due to social economic problems. May children especially in
Mtendere have got no parents and some of them are being kept by their old grandparents who
may not have power to discipline and control their movements. The teacher at St Francis
Secondary School said that the area had many orphans and some of them have no guardians
to look after them. As a result they are pushed into early marriages as a solution to their
problems. St Francis Secondary school, being a catholic school, is not implementing the
MOE re-entry policy. Teenage pregnancies are not noted at the school, the only thing they
see are teenagers getting transfers when they fall pregnant. The teachers further cited the
implementation of the co-curriculum activities at the school as a new trend in schools
whereby school children do not continue school activities in the afternoon to keep them busy.

4.2.3.2. CULTURE

MTENDERE, CHIPATA AND KANYAMA

In Mtendere, initiation ceremonies for girls are widely practiced. This came from the boys
during a focus group discussion. Participant # 7 said, “Aunty when you hear that there is
initiation ceremonies just know that the girl will get pregnant”. The boys said that they
believed that girls were being initiated on how to have sex with men and immediately they
come out, they looked forward to have sex and end up getting pregnant.

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The lifestyle for teenagers in densely populated is characterized by misconceptions and this
has led to teenage pregnancies. A teacher at Garnerton Secondary school cited an incidence
where a boy was caught with a charm he believed to attract girls. The boy wanted to share
with his friend and then the teacher caught him.
In Kanyama compound some teenagers are fond of sniffing tobacco in form of a powder
which is believed to make them warm and ready to sleep with men. This is perceived to
arouse their sexual desires and end up having sex with any man.
In Chipata, a teacher at Twatemwa Prrimary School said that the area was underdeveloped
such that teenagers had no role models. It was rare to see women go for work, the parents in
the community believed that the only role for girls was to get married and own their own
homes. The teacher further cited lack of education among parents as the contributing factor
for teenage pregnancies.

4.2.3.3 POOR INFRASTRUCTURE

Densely populated areas experience many challenges due to the geographic set up and being
characterized by rural and residential characteristics. Many households have extended houses
popularly known as cabins. Such structures cause congestion at one household with different
families and as a result sexual relationships are common and girls are more at risk.

The densely populated areas lack productive recreation activities; as a result those people
with money make temporary structures for video shows which are only accessed by
teenagers. They have proved to be a period when premature sex takes place and results into
teenage pregnancies.

Results revealed that the densely populated areas have many taverns which open as early as
06:00 hours and age restriction law on entry in taverns is not in force. Research findings
show that teenagers and those with babies are seen in these taverns at any time of the day.
Teenage girls are exposed to alcohol, this makes them beg from men to buy them alcohol and
when they get drunk they just sleep with anyone.

Findings from the 3 densely populated areas indicate that only Mtendere has one Secondary
school while Chipata and Kanyama have no secondary schools. This makes children travel
long distances to schools and some of them drop out and opt to get married. The long
distances they cover deter them from continues education and expose them to many risks

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including premature sex. Teenage girls in Mtendere ho live far from schools mobilize
themselves to rent a house near a secondary school in order to access education activities.
Such arrangements expose them to many challenges including engaging in sexual
relationships as a survival mechanism while staying on their own.

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 5.0 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

5.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a of the discussions of the major findings in the previous chapter,
which have been supported with appropriate literature references to provide an understanding
of the concepts related to teenage pregnancy in densely populated areas. These findings are:
indecent dressing; re-entry policy for girls in schools; teenage sexual behavior; social events;
Poverty (wide gap between the rich and the poor); Culture and Poor infrastructure

5.2 Discussions

5.2.1. INDECENT DRESSING

Participants indicated impolite dressing among teenagers as the root cause of teenage
pregnancies in densely populated areas. Densely populated areas are characterized by a
mixed culture, hence the residentialization has dominated the life style of many girls and as a
result they are in crisis of choosing fashions that are introduced. Boys are also fond of a
common type of dressing popularly known as sagging. Their bodies are most of the time
exposed, hence promoting sexual immorality. This is sadly predominant among the girls.
Young girls engage in sexual relationships in order to raise money to buy costly clothes
which are usually worn by celebrities during their performances.

5.2.2. THE RE-ENTRY POLICY FOR GIRLS IN SCHOOLS

Participants in the study expressed that the re-entry policy has been abused by some girls.
Some girls engage themselves in unprotected sex since they know that they will be given
another chance to be in school. Zambia, like any other country in Sub-Saharan Africa, shares
similar experiences in terms of teen pregnancies. Childbearing in Zambia begins early and by
the age of 15-19, 32 percent of women will have become pregnant though the levels and
trends vary between rural and residential areas (CSO, 2003).

Some girls have experienced more than one pregnancy while in school. Such girls are wrong
models to the other girls who may misunderstand the re-entry policy.

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5.2.3. TEENAGE SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR
Participants especially women and men stated that sexual debut for teenagers start early.
Teenagers are in crisis and they show rudeness, disobedience and rebellious behaviours. At
times, teenagers feel that they are unique and invulnerable to harm and seek to be
independent.

Shisana & Simbayi (2002) also indicated that early sexual activity is affected by the
developmental characteristics such as early puberty and high levels of androgen hormones
which are associated with increased teenage sexual behavior. This is a confusing and difficult
time and teenagers need parental guidance (Heaven 2001). For many teenagers, sex has
become morally equivalent to other casual, free time activities that they enjoy together (De
Villiers, 2004). They are constantly being exposed to sexual titillation on television, in
movies and in popular music on the radio and in music video clips (De Villiers, 2004).

5.2.4. SOCIAL EVENTS

All the focus group discussions held in 3 communities revealed that girls have a tendency of
getting involved in church activities as a way of getting away from home. For example many
teenagers get permission from their parents to go for overnight prayer meetings and yet they
go to meet their boyfriends. Other events which worsen teenage pregnancies are during
festival periods and funerals. Teenagers get permission from their parents to go for funerals
to sing in church choirs at night, to the contrary, that is the time they meet with their
boyfriends. Being densely populated areas any event such as commemoration of
Independence Day and other political campaign periods excite the community such that it is
the time for them to practice all sorts of prohibited activities. During these mentioned periods
a lot of pregnancies are noted.
Participants in the study spoke strongly on the examination leaked papers. Teenagers are seen
to be loitering in the late hours of the night in order to access these papers. Girls are usually at
risk to boys/teachers who ask for sexual favors in exchange of the examination papers.

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5.2.5 POVERTY (WIDE GAP BETWEEN THE RICH AND POOR)
Participants described the densely populated areas as place residentialization is being
introduced but not correctly. Hence, the rich dominates most of the activities and the
resources are not shared equally. Teenage girls are vulnerable to such environments as they
are asked for sexual favors in exchange for a better livelihood. Teenage girls are involved in
sexual relationships with older men so that they can provide for. Poverty is associated with
increased rates of teenage pregnancy. Economically poor countries such as South Africa,
Niger and Bangladesh have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich
countries such as Switzerland and Japan (McKay, 2007). The main social consequence of
teenage pregnancy is school drop-out as some learners do not return back to school after the
birth of the child or interrupted education for maternity leave (Chigona & Chetty, 2007).
Ten (10) teenage girls who are married stated that they faced many challenges living under
CHH such as looking after their siblings and making a better living. It is in this vein that they
decide to engage in sexual relationships and decide to get married at a tender age in order to
secure safety and support from elsewhere. The situation analysis conducted on CHH in south
Africa, (2008), indicates that the rate of teenage pregnancy was high in the child-headed
households as evidenced by the percentage of those younger than 4 years or „own child‟
(21.3%) in the composition of household inhabitants
Psychosocial needs such as counselling following trauma and multiple loss including death of
parents and dispersal of siblings are issues these households are grappling with. The children
also require acknowledgement of their self-esteem, recognition, dignity and respect.
Participants indicated that teenagers use all their means to own a cell phone because it is a
quick way of communicating and without anyone knowing the movements of teenagers.
Tradition way of communicating has differed with this modern way of communicating.
Participants expressed that with this development teenage girls have resorted to begging for
coins in order to top up their phones. Phones have turned out to have two way effects of
communicating secretly and demanding for money in exchange for sex. Teenage girls end up
getting pregnant.

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5.2.6 CULTURE
Participants in the study said that even if the initiation ceremonies for girls are meant for
educating girls on how to take care of their bodies as they become of age and also respecting
elders, it is contrary. Some girls are further educated on how to take care of homes, husbands
and children. They are also taught bedroom issues which arouse their sexual desire as they
come out of the initiation period. The lifestyle for teenagers in densely populated is
characterized by misconceptions and this has led to teenage pregnancies. Low educational
expectations have been pinpointed as a contributing factor. The risk of teenage pregnancy is
greater among adolescents whose parents have no formal education (Muchuruza, 2000).
A teacher at Garnerton Secondary school cited an incidence where a boy was caught with a
charm he believed to attract girls. The boy wanted to share it with his friend and then the
teacher caught him. In Kanyama compound some teenagers are fond of sniffing tobacco
powder believed to make them warm and ready to sleep with men.

5.2.10 POOR INFRASTRUCTURE

Participants indicated that the geographical arrangement of the communities facilitates
promiscuity behavior especially with teenagers. Houses have been built close to each other
and within the household premises extended households have been established. Densely
populated areas are known to have a lot of taverns and makeshift places showing video clips.
The taverns and video shows are frequented by young people both boys and girls. Few
secondary schools also deter girls and boys to access education activities and in the end girls
are forced into early marriages.
Teenagers who participate in one form of risk behaviour often also partake in other risk
behaviours (Essau, 2004). Many studies conducted by Shrier, Emans, Woods & Durant, 1996
and Flisher et al., (2000) have shown the occurrence of substance use and sexual activity.
Kirby (2002) also stated that alcohol use increases the teenager‟s chances of unprotected
sexual intercourse and, in turn pregnancy. Palen et al., (2006) emphasized that although the
association between lifetime sexual behaviour and alcohol use confers to teenagers‟ sexual
behaviour is that teenagers are more likely to engage in causal sex. This research study also
found that girls were more likely to engage in sexual activities when drunk with people that
they were not in the relationship with.

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 6.0 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Introduction
The aim of this study is to investigate existing situation, establish new phenomenon and
generate new knowledge of factors leading to teenage pregnancies in 3 densely populated
areas of Lusaka. This chapter summarises the findings and discussions made, gives
conclusions about the factors leading to teenage pregnancy and the recommendations on how
to deal with or to prevent future occurrences of teenage pregnancy in densely populated
areas.

6.2 Conclusions and Implication

Teenage pregnancy has been recognized as one of the major social problems affecting the
teenagers in densely populated areas. It was found that various factors that contributed to
teenage pregnancy were indecent dressing, re-entry policy for girls; social events; Culture;
poverty; poor infrastructure and teenage sexual behavior.
To resolve the situation, the re-entry policy for girls need to be revised, parental guidance and
supervision need to be regarded as integral in the life of teenagers, Youth friendly services
need to be introduced and strengthened in government clinics and sex education to be
initiated early in the life of teenagers.
As children make the transition from childhood to adolescence and engage in the process of
identity formation, their reliance on parents and siblings as the sole sources of influence and
decision making begins to change. Increasing interaction with peers begins to expand their
sphere of influence. Peer attitudes, norms and behavior as well as perceptions of norms and
behavior among peers have a significant and consistent impact on the teenagers‟ sexual
behaviour. Studies have shown that when teenagers believe that their friends are having sex,
they are more likely to have sex and when a positive perception about condom use is
perceived among peers, teenagers are more likely to use condoms and other contraceptives
(Kirby, 2002).

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6.3 Recommendation
 Sex education should begin as early as grade 5 focusing on negative effects of sex.
Schools should also promote scripture union in schools where sex before marriage
should be discouraged by quoting the scriptures in the bible and conduct sensitisation
through drama performances.

 The re-entry policy for girls should be revised and ensure that it is implemented as a
parallel program in order to preserve young girls from believing that teenage
pregnancy is normal.

 To introduce and strengthen youth friendly corners where teenagers will be able to
access teenage service on SRH without any intimidation from adults.

 Introduce multifaceted intervention strategies at the individual, family, community

and school levels.

 Parents to consider spending time with their children even on weekends to talk to
them and at least find out what find out what is going in their life

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Blum, R. (2000). The Effects of Race, Ethnicity, Income and Family Structure on Adolescent
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Brink, H.I., 2006, Fundamentals of Research Methodology for Health Care Professionals,
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Central Statistical Office (2003) Zambia Demographic and Health Survey, Lusaka

Central Statistical Office, Census of Population and Housing Preliminary Report (Lusaka,
2010)
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Chigona, A. & Chetty, (2007). Girls’ Education in South Africa: Special Consideration to
Teen Mothers as Learners. Journal of Education for International Development 3: 1.
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De Villiers, F. P. R. (2004). Social Interaction of Teenage Mothers during and after

pregnancy. South African Family Practitioners, 46(2), 21 – 24.

DiBlasio, F. & Benda, B. (1994) “Adolescent sexual beahviour: multivariate analysis of

social learning model” Journal of Adolescence Research vol. 5, 449-466.
Elliot, M., & Merrill, F. (1961). Social Disorganization (F. Chapin Ed. Fourth ed.). New
York: Harper & Brothers.

Essau, C. A. (2004). Risk-taking behaviour among German Adolescents. Journal of Youth

Studies, 7, 499 – 512.

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Heaven, P. C. L. (2001). Contemporary Adolescence: A Social Psychological Approach.

Melbourne: Macmillan Education.

Ikamba, L. M. & Quedraogo, B. (2003). High Risk Sexual Behaviour: Knowledge, Attitudes
and Practice among Youth at Kichangani Wad, Tanga, Tanzania. Dar-es-Salaam: The Adult
Education Press http://www.fhs.usyd.ed, (Accessed on 21/12/2010).
Kirby, D. (2002). Antecedents of adolescent initiation of sex, contraceptive use and
pregnancy, American Journal of Health Behaviour, 26, 473 – 485.

Kubrin, C. (2009). Social Disorganization Theory: Then, Now and in the Future. In Krohn
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Ma.Dolores, C.T. (2007) Purposive Sampling as a Tool for Informant Selection. Department
of Botany, University of Hawai‟i at Manoa, USA.

McKay, B. (2007). Teen Pregnancies on the Rise. Atlanta: Centre for Disease Control and
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Diversity with Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

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MoE, Annual Statistical Bulletin: 2009 (Lusaka, 2009) and Annual Statistical Bulletin 2010
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8.0 APPENDICES

Appendix 1

QUESTIONAIRE FOR IN DEPTH INTERVIEW FOR TEENAGE GIRLS (BOTH

PREGNANT, ALREADY DELIVERED AND NOT PREGNANT)

TEENAGE SEXUALITY AND PREGNANCIES

LOCATION

1. How old are you? (Age last birthday)

[1] 13 years

[2] 14 years

[3] 15 years

[4] 16 years

[5] 17 years

[6] 18 years

[7] 19 years

2. What is your marital status?

[1] Single

[2] Married

[3] Separated

[4] Divorced

[5] Widowed

[6] Other (Specify) ____________

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3. Are you pregnant

[1] Yes

[2] No

4. Is this your first pregnancy? If NOT pregnant, move to Question 5.

[1] Yes

[2] No

5. If this is not your first pregnancy, at what age was your first one?

[1] Before 13 years

[2] 13 years

[3] 14 years

[4] 15 years

[5] 16 years

[6] 17 years

[6] 18 years

[7] 19 years

6. Are you a virgin?

[1] Yes

[2] No

7. Roughly at what age did you lose your virginity?

[1] 13 years or before

[2] 14 years

[3] 15 years

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[4] 16 years

[5] 17 years

[6] 18 years

[7] 19 years

[8] Not applicable

8. What factors do you think led you to have sex with a man?

9. Are you in school?

[1] Yes

[2] No

10. If you are still in school, have you ever been pregnant?

[1] Yes

[2] No

AVAILABLE SERVICES

11. Are there Sexual Reproductive Health services for teenagers in community clinics
and schools for girls?

[1] Yes

[2] No

12. If yes - Do you have access to these services?

[1] Yes
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[2] No

If the answer is no Explain the reasons why?

CAUSES OF TEENAGE PREGNANCY

13. What do you think are the factors contributing to teenage pregnancy in your
community?

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Appendix 2

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION GUIDE FOR PARENTS (MEN AND WOMEN) AND
BOYS

1. What is your understanding of teenage pregnancy?

2. What are the new trends leading to teenage pregnancy in your community

3. Being a densely populated set up, what are the unique factors influencing teenage
pregnancies?

4. As residents of this community, are there any Sexual Reproductive services

available for teenagers?

5. What do you think the community should do to prevent teenage pregnancy?

THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTCIPATION!!

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Appendix 3

SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR HEALTH STAFF IN DENSELY

POPULATED CLINICS
1. Name of the clinic

2. What is the population of Teenagers in the community

- Males

- Females

3. What SRH services for teenagers are available at this clinic?

4. What type of SRH services do teenagers demand?

5. How many teenage pregnancies do you record per month?

6. In your own opinion, what do you think are the new trends leading to teenage pregnancies
in this community?

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7. Being a densely populated set up, what are the unique factor influencing teenage
pregnancies?

8. What do you think the clinic should do in order to address the issue of teenage
pregnancies?

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Appendix 4

SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR TEACHERS IN DENSELY

POPULATED SCHOOLS
Name of the school

1. How many teenage pregnancies do you record per term?

2. Do you have a Sexual Reproductive Health curriculum for teenagers in school?

[1] Yes

[2] No

If answer is yes, how do teenagers participate?

3. What are the new trends leading to teenage pregnancies in schools apart from the ones
listed below?

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4. Being a densely populated set up, what are the unique factor influencing teenage
pregnancies?

5. Do you have sex education in school?

[1] Yes

[2] No

6. How can sex education be made more appropriate to teenagers‟ needs within the school?

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APPENDIX 5

INTRODUCTORY DOCUMENT
Questionnaire identification number [_____________]

Area/location __________________________________

Interviewers’ name______________________________

Interviewers’ signature___________________________

Date of interview_________________________________

INTRODUCTION:

My name is Misozi Angela C. Tembo, a 3rd year Distance learning student at Cavendish
University Zambia. Am currently working for Children In Distress (CINDI Lusaka), an
organization supporting Orphans and Vulnerable Children through family and community
structures.

I am conducting a research based on Investigating on the factors leading to teenage

pregnancies in densely populated areas. As part of my research, am talking to a wide cross
section of people in this community including parents (Men and women), teachers, health
personnel, Teenagers (boys and girls) and pregnant girls. The purpose of this research is to
investigate existing situation, explain new phenomenon and to generate new knowledge on
teenage pregnancies

CONFIDETIALITY AND CONSENT

The information you will provide is strictly confidential and will be used purely for academic
purpose to fulfill the requirement for the award of a Bachelor of Development Studies degree
of Cavendish University Zambia. No name will be taken and or written in final research
report.

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I would greatly appreciate your active participation in responding to the questions. The
questionnaire will take about 45 minutes to administer it. Would you be willing to participate
(Verbal consent)?

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