CURRICULUM STUDIES

BY;

MISS KIMONO SHARON

Concepts and Terminologies Curriculum

The word “curriculum” comes from the Latin word “currere”, which means: “to run or to run
a course”. It has its origin in the running/chariot tracks of Greece. It was, literally, a course. In
Latin curriculum was a racing chariot; curere was to run.

The term curriculum can be perceived into 2 ways;

1) A discipline area of study or field of study.

2) As an instructional program, course of study or subjects offered in schools.

According to Cole (2003) he defines curriculum more than a list of topics to be covered. It’s
a policy stated about education and the ways of realizing the policy through a program of
action.

Curriculum is the sum of all activities. experiences and learning opportunities for which an
institution or a teacher takes responsibility.

Oluoch (2006) explains curriculum as all that is planned to enable the student acquire and
develop desired knowledge, skills and attitudes.

Saylor and Alexander (1974) defined the term curriculum as a set of learning activities and
experiences for children to learn in school to attain the aims and goals of education

A curriculum can be defined as all those selected and organized integrative, evaluative and
innovative learning experiences provided to learners either consciously or unconsciously
under the guidance of the school in order to achieve stipulated objectives

Some notions that are important in understanding the curriculum

1) It is a planned learning programs with activities, experiences, learning resources

 2) Its useful in acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes
3) It aims at attaining the goals and objectives of education.
4) It contains content to be covered, learning experiences, Methodology, the ways
and means of ascertaining whether education goals have been achieved.

Curriculum as a discipline area of study

A discipline according to various educators has organized knowledge appropriate for teaching
and learning. There are three fundamental features that an area of study must have to qualify
as a discipline.

1) It should be subjected to analysis and simplification for effective teaching and

learning.
2) It should allow for synthesis and coordination whereby various areas within the
discipline should show relationship.
3) Knowledge in a discipline should be dynamic and should contain principles of growth
with time.

Curriculum qualifies as a discipline of study because it meets the three features;

1) It has its own theories, ideas and concept and as a body of knowledge.
2) Its content is organized for instruction
3) It also has the facts and knowledge is dynamic.

However, the knowledge and content in curriculum field is still not well defined because of
two main reasons.

1) Curriculum development is a continuous process which has implication on resources

and personnel.
2) There is little agreement on where curriculum matters and where education matters
begins due to the few books (scope of education and curriculum)

Curriculum as a program of instruction

We can define in broad and narrow perspective

Narrow definitions

Curriculum means content, subjects on the timetable and what to be taught in each subject.

Broad definitions
Curriculum refers to both what is taught and reason why it is taught.

Components of curriculum as a program of instruction

These are parts of curriculum that are normally organized /arranged during a designed of the
curriculum. Also, referred to as elements of the curriculum

There are mainly four elements of the curriculum;

1) Aims, Goals and Objectives

2) Content and Learning experiences/activities.
3) Teaching methods
4) Evaluations

1) Aims, Goals and Objectives

These are terminal points which describes the behavior expected of the learners. It determines
the nature of the curriculum which affect the entire educational program. That is, it controls
the process of learning and all other curriculum activities in implementation and evaluation.

• Curriculum Aims

These are general statements that describes the expected learning outcomes of the curriculum.
They don’t directly relate to the school curriculum. Its achievements is determined after the
completion of the schools. These removes the themes one normally translated by curriculum
developers with more immediate and specific outcomes.

• Curriculum Goals

These are school outcomes, they reflect the purposes of the school systems. These refers to
what the learners are expected to achieve after going through the school systems

• Curriculum objectives

These refers to most immediate specific outcomes of classroom interaction. They are also
referred to as instructional objectives. They directly reflect specific change of behavior.

2) Content and learning

Content refers to subject matter, knowledge, information or learning materials which include
concepts, ideas, principles, skills and values in a given areas/subjects.Learning activities
refers to the tasks that the teacher and the learner engage in during the lessons as they interact
in the classroom. Learning activities create a link to the content of a particular subject/area

3) Teaching Methods

These techniques that the teachers of instruction use in order to influence the attainment of
objectives. This are influence by the following;

• Teachers competency
• Pupils attainment
• Learning environment
• Facilities within the school.

4) Evaluation

Is the process of determining the extent to which the curriculum activities are being attained
and achieved? The mode of evaluation will be determined by objectives that have been set,
the content and learning activities which have been used.

Importance of evaluation

1) To ascertain the appropriateness or effectiveness in content and other materials.

2) To determine appropriate use and efficiency of teaching activities and teaching
methods.
3) To determine the performance of students based on evaluation
4) To determine the achievements of other personnel before closing evaluation

KICD Content of Curriculum

Consist of three elements in dimensions

• Objectives
• Learning experiences
• Evaluation process.

Objectives

Appears in all levels of curriculum and affected in syllabus, Scheme of work and lesson plan.

Learning experiences
These are experiences between the learner and external condition in the environment in which
he/she can react.

These includes; content, resources/materials, teaching methods, Learning activities, Teachers,

Fellow learners, Resource personnel’s as well as the organization of the experience

Evaluation processes.

This is seen as a continuous process throughout the curriculum development process. There
are two types of evaluation.

• Formative
• Summative

Formative is done throughout the curriculum development process while summative is done
after curriculum learning is implemented.

School curriculum

A school curriculum is all planned and unplanned teaching and learning experiences to enable
the learner acquire developed desired knowledge, skills, attitudes and values for personal and
society’s benefits.

The school curriculum is made up of:

• Objectives
• Learning experience /activities
• Content/subject matter
• Evaluation/assessment procedure

Vision of CBC

To enable every Kenyan to become an engaged, empowered, ethical citizen. This is achieved
by providing skills and knowledge to every Kenyan student that they need, to thrive.

The mission of CBC

To nurture every learner’s potential.

The national goals of education

 1. Foster nationalism and promote national unity-Kenya is made up of over 42 tribes.
The competency-based curriculum teaches learners to respect and embrace different
cultures across the country. It promotes a sense of national pride.
2. Promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development-The new system is set to instil critical skills to students that will enable
them;
• Participate effectively in the social circles.
• Support themselves economically.
• Become competent in technology in tandem with global trends.
3. Promote individual development and self-fulfilment-CBC will enable learners realize
their full potential by helping them develop their gifts, talents and characters.
4. Promoter sound moral and religious values-Sound moral and religious values are
inculcated in every learner as the values are enshrined in the curriculum through
various religious subjects.
5) Promote social equity and responsibility-The new system provides an inclusive and
equitable access to quality education and differentiation education to all learners.
6) Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures-Indigenous
languages are taught thus enabling learners value their own culture, embrace positive
culture practices and respect another people’s culture.
7) Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes other nations-
Foreign languages are taught as part of the subjects. This helps students appreciate
diverse nations and participate effectively in the international arena.
8) Promote positive attitude towards good health and environmental protection-
Environmental activities and health education are taught to help learners promote
environmental conservation and educate them on the importance of well being of self
and others.

Competence

This is the ability to do something successfully and efficiently.

Core competence

Is an organization defining strength, providing the foundation from which education section
(nation) will grow, seize upon new opportunities and deliver value to customers? Competency
is conceptualised as ‘the ability to apply appropriate knowledge and skills to successfully
perform a function’. They will be mainstreamed in every strand and lesson.
CBCs core competencies include:

1) communication and collaboration

2) Critical thinking and problem solving
3) Imagination and creativity
4) Citizenship
5) Digital literacy
6) Learning to learn
7) Self-efficacy

Facilitation

Refers to providing necessary resources, information and support in order for learners to
complete a task, rather than teaching.

21 st century skills

This is a broad set of knowledge, skills, work habits and character traits believed by education
stakeholders and employers to critically important to succeed in today’s world eg technology
literacy, critical thinking, leadership, social skills etc

Pedagogy

This refers to method and practice of teaching especially an academic subject/thematical

concept.

Inquiry based learning

This is a teaching approach that emphasizes the students to generate questions, ideas and
observation.

Value based education

Works on values that enhance academic achievement and developing students social and
relationship skills that last throughout their lives. The CBC life values include love,
responsibility, responsibility, respect, unity, peace, patriotism and integrity.

TYPES OF CURRICULUM

Curriculum Development Curriculum development is the process of creating curriculum

materials for use by educators and children that are product of curriculum planning.
Curriculum development describes all the ways in which a training or teaching organization
plans and guides learning. This learning, can take place in groups or with individual learners.
It can take place inside a classroom or outside a classroom. It can take place in an institutional
setting like a school, college or training centre, or in a village or a field. It is central to the
teaching and learning process. (Rogers and Taylor) 1988)

1) Overt/explicit/written

Is simply that which is written as part of formal instruction of schooling experiences. It may
refer to a curriculum document, texts, films, and supportive teaching materials that are overtly
chosen to support the intentional instructional agenda of a school. Thus, the overt curriculum
is usually confined to those written understandings and directions formally designated and
reviewed by administrators, curriculum directors and teachers, often collectively.

2) Hidden/covert

That which is implied by the very structure and nature of schools, much of what revolves
around daily or established routines. Refers to the unwritten, unofficial, and often unintended
lessons, values, and perspectives that students learn in school.

Longstreet and Shane (1993) offer a commonly accepted definition for this term – the
“hidden curriculum,” which refers to the kinds of learnings children derive from the very
nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as from the behaviours and
attitudes of teachers and administrators

It consists of all that is learned during school activities, out of the designated official
curriculum. These includes:

• How learners should sit

• How to greet the teacher
• Role of the teacher and prefect
• How to relate with the teachers, fellow students and other people at school.
• Values such as hard work, respect, obedience, co-operation, value for others,
empathy etc.

3) Null curriculum

That which we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these elements are not
important in their educational experiences or in our society.
Eisner offers some major points as he concludes his discussion of the null curriculum. The
major point I have been trying to make thus far is that schools have consequences not only by
virtue of what they do teach, but also by virtue of what they neglect to teach.

For example, in social studies, the teacher may give a general overview of the history of
science while covering the scientific revolution. However, this information is excluded from
the formal curriculum.

From Eisner’s perspective the null curriculum is simply that which is not taught in schools.
Somehow, somewhere, some people are empowered to make conscious decisions as to what
is to be included and what is to be excluded from the overt (written) curriculum. We teach
about wars but not peace, we teach about certain select cultures and histories but not about
others. Both our choices and our omissions send messages to students.

4) Societal curriculum/social

As defined by Cortes (1981). Cortes defines this curriculum as: the massive, ongoing,
informal curriculum of family, peer groups, neighbourhoods, churches, organizations,
occupations, mass media, and other socializing forces that “educate” all of us throughout our
lives. This type of curricula can now be expanded to include the powerful effects of social
media (YouTube; Facebook; Twitter; Pinterest, etc) and how it actively helps create new
perspectives, and can help shape both individual and public opinion.

5) Phantom curriculum

The messages prevalent in and through exposure to any type of media. These components and
messages play a major part in the enculturation of students into the predominant meta-culture,
or in acculturating students into narrower or generational subcultures.

6) Concomitant curriculum

What is taught, or emphasized at home, or those experiences that are part of a family’s
experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the family. (This type of curriculum may be
received at church, in the context of religious expression, lessons on values, ethics or morals,
moulded behaviours, or social experiences based on the family’s preferences.)

7) Rhetorical curriculum

Elements from the rhetorical curriculum are comprised from ideas offered by policymakers,
school officials, administrators, or politicians. This curriculum may also come from those
professionals involved in concept formation and content changes; or from those educational
initiatives resulting from decisions based on national and state reports, public speeches, or
from texts critiquing outdated educational practices.

8) Electronic curriculum

Those lessons learned through searching the Internet for information, or through using e-
forms of communication. (Wilson, 2004) These types of curriculum may be either formal or
informal, and inherent lessons may be overt or covert, good or bad, correct or incorrect
depending on ones’ views. Students who use the Internet and electronic media on a regular
basis, both for recreational and informational purposes, are bombarded with all types of
media and messages.

9) Curriculum in Use

The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in textbooks, and content and
concepts in the district curriculum guides. However, those “formal” elements are frequently
not taught. The curriculum-in-use is the actual curriculum that is delivered and presented by
each teacher.

10) Received curriculum

Those things that students actually take out of classrooms; those concepts and content that are
truly learned and remembered.

11) The internal Curriculum

Processes, content, knowledge combined with the experiences and realities of the learner to
create new knowledge. While educators should be aware of this curriculum, they have little
control over the internal curriculum since it is unique to each student

Merits of CBC curriculum

CBC Curriculum offers so many benefits not only to a learner but also the parents and the
teachers. There is maximal engagement of all the stake holders involved. These articles
provide top 15 benefits of embracing CBC Curriculum. Get facts, and be of sound knowledge
as we embrace the curriculum for our own good.

Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) is a system of education designed by Kenya Institute

of Curriculum Development (KICD) and other education stakeholders launched by the
Ministry of Education in 2017 It is designed to emphasize the significance of developing
skills and knowledge and applying those competencies to actual real-life situation. The
education system replaced the 8-4-4 system. CBC life values are;

a) Love
b) Responsibility
c) Respect
d) Unity
e) Peace
f) Patriotism
g) Integrity

Competency-Based Curriculum is divided into 3 levels;

• Early years Educations

• Middle school Education

• Senior school Education

Newly introduced terminologies in CBC include;

• Classes are called grades

• ECD has two levels- pre-primary (PPI&PP2)
• Subject areas are called learning areas
• Topics and sub-topics are called strands and sub strands
• Lesson objectives are called learning outcomes
• Learning resources are used unlike teaching aid

According to KICD the CBC seeks to make learners competent in seven key areas namely
(core competencies)

a) Communications and Collaborations

b) Critical thinking and Problem solving
c) Creativity and Imagination
d) Citizenship
e) Digital literacy
f) Learning to learn
g) Self-efficacy.

The skills be inculcated in learners from early age to trigger the use of talents and energy.
CBC ensures areas of age appropriate sex education. This plays a role in preventing negative
sexual and reproductive health outcomes.

Modern youth is up against problems which never existed in the past. i.e.

a) Population bulge.
b) Scarce employment opportunities.
c) Technology explosion.

In order to generate valuable educational opportunities for young people, a set of tools have
to be offered for them to make a sense of the world and act on it effectively. That they be free
to provide own means of sustainability and alterative living. Transformative experiences are
vital to what people seek from education by gaining the truth which had hitherto been hidden
from them.

15 Benefits of CBC Curriculum

The CBC curriculum is preferred over the 8-4-4 system because the CBC Curriculum’s
benefits come within shaping the learners’ future.

Some of the Importance of the CBC Curriculum includes;

1) Better Decision-Making Abilities

CBC aims at letting the learn to have flexibility in exploring content at all angles while
teachers have been granted the freedom to carry through the curriculum when classes are on.

2) Learner-Focused System

CBC education system majors focus on the learner as an individual rather than the school
performance. As a result, the teachers can familiarize themselves with the student’s demands
regarding strength and weakness. Leaners hence create a good relationship with teachers who
help them shape their talents and careers.

3) Balance Education System

The education system provides a distinctive assessment with many areas of the learner’s
development in classwork and co-curricular activities. According to CBC, the learner’s ability
is tested all-round.

4) Focus on Competencies
CBC’s central focus is around learners discovering their potentials in life. It creates a
platform where the learner can positively relate to acquiring knowledge and skills to connect
with various disciplines as they advance to their heights.

5) Digitally Based

The teacher-learner alliance creates an opportunity for progressive learner support in the
flexible teamwork environment.

6) Synchronous Development

The CBC system encourages corporative learning with learners to assimilate, enhancing
positive growth among learners compared to meaningful learning where little positive change
is realized.

7) Collaborative Model

The CBC system is a collective responsibility for both stakeholders and curriculum partners
to produce local experts who can enhance developments.

8) Community Service Learning

Involving learners in community services exposes them to apply the knowledge acquired
during their learning period. Practicing their community development skills creates a ground
for the teachers to spot learners’ creativity and potential in discovering specific talents.

9) Distinction of Theory and Practical

The learners are tested on the ability to distinguish what they have learned in class and how
practically they can follow instructional approaches in applying the skills outside style. In this
manner, the teachers can identify every learner’s potential and know what works for them.

As a result, it becomes easier to help the learner improve their strength and overcome their
weaknesses.

10) Parental Empowerment and Engagement

The CBC form of education requires parents to participate in their children’s positive
outcomes during their primary education levels. The parents provide a conducive learning
environment by being the learners, which motivates the learners to progress in their learning
institutions. Parents need to collaborate with the teachers in providing basic requirements as
per the school curriculum demands to enhance the smooth progress of uninterrupted studies.
 11) Fosters Excellence

According to the learners’ CBC system, excellence is based on pre-eminence and interest
areas rather than just completions for excellence in internal and external examinations and
ranking.

12) Expands Learner’s Opportunities

CBC provides learners with a diver’s opportunities to learn from to help them narrow to talent
identification and potential exploration according to their needs and capabilities. The system
encourages learners to develop a positive attitude towards education by allowing them to
access equal education opportunities. The focus is on discouraging school dropouts as many
learners can enjoy exploring their fields of interest.

13) Diversity and Inclusion

CBC system is programmed to help the learners appreciate that everyone is different and
unique in terms of brain capacity. They are brought to an understanding that it is ok to be
gifted differently and that no gifting is independent.

As a result, all the institutions are compelled to accommodate all the learners regardless of
their classwork performance regarding intellectual, physical, emotional challenges. The
learners are brought to an understanding in terms of appreciating diversity in the country,
such as Race, Language, Ethnicity, Culture, Religion, Gender

14) Problem-Solving and Critical Thinking

CBC exposes the learners to a learning system that demands them to reason, make a
reasonable judgement and use creativity in arriving at solutions. As opposed to the former
education system where learners were required to remember what they were taught, CBC
enables the understanding. Every challenge has an explanation attached. They have to find
out how to arrive at the solution without simply cramming an answer.

15) Fosters Imagination and Creativity

CBC does not bind the learner to what is entailed to the syllabus but allows the learners to
expand their minds to discover new ideas and images and bring them into accomplishment.
The learners can analyse and find discrete patterns to generate solutions that can positively
affect the phenomenon.
Focusing on learners’ ability, the CBC curriculum can be said to be the best education system
for learners. Maximum learner’s potential can be realized for the good of all.

THE 21ST CENTURY SKILLS

Comprises of skills, abilities, knowledge and learning dispositions that have been identified
as being required for success in the 21st century society.

These skills are associated with deeper learning based on mastering skills such as analytical
reasoning, complex problem solving and teamwork.

It also involves people’s skills which involve interaction and collaboration. This are skills that
enable people to be flexible and adaptable in different roles or in different field. Those that
involve processing information and managing people more than manipulating equipment (in
an office) also referred to as “applied skills or soft skills” include personal, interpersonal or
learning-based skills. i.e. life skills (problem solving behavior, people skill and Social skills)

1) Critical thinking
2) Creativity
3) Collaboration
4) Communication
5) Information literacy
6) Media literacy
7) Technology literacy
8) Flexibility
9) Leadership
10) Initiative
11) Productivity
12) Social skills

These skills are intended to help students keep up with the lightning-pace of today’s modern
markets. Each skill is unique in how it helps students, but they all have one quality in
common. They’re essential in the age of the internet.
The Three 21st Century Skill Categories

Each 21st Century skill is broken into one of three categories:

1) Learning skills
2) Literacy skills
3) Life skills

Learning skills (the four C’s) teaches students about the mental processes required to adapt
and improve upon a modern work environment.

Literacy skills (IMT) focuses on how students can discern facts, publishing outlets, and the
technology behind them. There’s a strong focus on determining trustworthy sources and
factual information to separate it from the misinformation that floods the Internet.

Life skills (FLIPS) take a look at intangible elements of a student’s everyday life. These
intangibles focus on both personal and professional qualities.

Altogether, these categories cover all 12 21st Century skills that contribute to a student’s
future career.

The four C’s are by far the most popular 21st Century skills. These skills are also called
learning skills. More educators know about these skills because they’re universal needs for
any career. They also vary in terms of importance, depending on an individual’s career
aspirations.

The 4 C's of 21st Century Skills are

• Critical thinking: Finding solutions to problems

• Creativity: Thinking outside the box
• Collaboration: Working with others
• Communication: Talking to others

Category 1. Learning Skills (The Four C’s)

Arguably, critical thinking is the most important quality for someone to have in health
sciences.

In business settings, critical thinking is essential to improvement. It’s the mechanism that
weeds out problems and replaces them with fruitful endeavours.
It’s what helps students figure stuff out for themselves when they don’t have a teacher at their
disposal.

Creativity is equally important as a means of adaptation. This skill empowers students to see
concepts in a different light, which leads to innovation.

In any field, innovation is key to the adaptability and overall success of a company.

Learning creativity as a skill requires someone to understand that “the way things have
always been done” may have been best 10 years ago — but someday, that has to change.

Collaboration means getting students to work together, achieve compromises, and get the best
possible results from solving a problem.

Collaboration may be the most difficult concept in the four C’s. But once it’s mastered, it can
bring companies back from the brink of bankruptcy.

The key element of collaboration is willingness. All participants have to be willing to

sacrifice parts of their own ideas and adopt others to get results for the company.

That means understanding the idea of a “greater good,” which in this case tends to be
company- wide success.

Finally, communication is the glue that brings all of these educational qualities together.
Communication is a requirement for any company to maintain profitability. It’s crucial for
students to learn how to effectively convey ideas among different personality types.

That has the potential to eliminate confusion in a workplace, which makes your students
valuable parts of their teams, departments, and companies.

But when employees communicate poorly, whole projects fall apart. No one can clearly see
the objectives they want to achieve. No one can take responsibility because nobody’s claimed
it.

Without understanding proper communication, students in the 21st Century will lack a pivotal
skill to progress their careers.

Category 2. Literacy Skills (IMT)

Literacy skills are the next category of 21st Century skills.

They’re sometimes called IMT skills, and they’re each concerned with a different element in
digital comprehension.
The three 21st Century literacy skills are:

• Information literacy: Understanding facts, figures, statistics, and data

• Media literacy: Understanding the methods and outlets in which information is
published
• Technology literacy: Understanding the machines that make the Information Age
possible

Information literacy is the foundational skill. It helps students understand facts, especially
data points, that they’ll encounter online.More importantly, it teaches them how to separate
fact from fiction.

In an age of chronic misinformation, finding truth online has become a job all on its own.

It’s crucial that students can identify honesty on their own.

Otherwise, they can fall prey to myths, misconceptions, and outright lies.

Media literacy is the practice of identifying publishing methods, outlets, and sources while
distinguishing between the ones that are credible and the ones that aren’t.

Just like the previous skill, media literacy is helpful for finding truth in a world that’s
saturated with information.

This is how students find trustworthy sources of information in their lives. Without it,
anything that looks credible becomes credible.
But with it, they can learn which media outlets or formats to ignore. They also learn
which ones to embrace, which is equally important.

Last, technology literacy goes another step further to teach students about the machines
involved in the Information Age.

As computers, cloud programming, and mobile devices become more important to the world,
the world needs more people to understand those concepts.

Technology literacy gives students the basic information they need to understand what
gadgets perform what tasks and why.

This understanding removes the intimidating feeling that technology tends to have. After all,
if you don’t understand how technology works, it might as well be magic.

But technology literacy unmasks the high-powered tools that run today’s world.
As a result, students can adapt to the world more effectively. They can play an important role
in its evolution.

Category 3. Life Skills (FLIPS)

Life skills is the final category. Also called FLIPS, these skills all pertain to someone’s
personal life, but they also bleed into professional settings.

The five 21st Century life skills are:

• Flexibility: Deviating from plans as needed

• Leadership: Motivating a team to accomplish a goal
• Initiative: Starting projects, strategies, and plans on one’s own
• Productivity: Maintaining efficiency in an age of distractions
• Social skills: Meeting and networking with others for mutual benefit

Flexibility is the expression of someone’s ability to adapt to changing circumstances.

This is one of the most challenging qualities to learn for students because it’s based on two
uncomfortable ideas:

1) Your way isn’t always the best way

2) You have to know and admit when you’re wrong

That’s a struggle for a lot of students, especially in an age when you can know any bit of
information at the drop of a hat.

Flexibility requires them to show humility and accept that they’ll always have a lot to learn
— even when they’re experienced.

Still, flexibility is crucial to a student’s long-term success in a career. Knowing when to

change, how to change, and how to react to change is a skill

FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Philosophical ideas and principles that inform curriculum development.

Philosophy is a term derived from a Greek noun (philosophia) which is a compound noun
composed of philos meaning love and Sophia meaning wisdom. Love in philosophical sense
refers to “unconditional commitment to a person, an activity or a thing” while “wisdom is the
search and the attempt to abide by the truth “
Philosophy therefor is the love of wisdom “that is the unconditional commitment to a search
of truth.

Philosophy is an academic discipline that uses reason or thinking to solve issues.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS.

This are value conditions because they deal with values and beliefs that make up philosophies
of life and education

The curriculum planners seek to establish ideals and notion that indicate priority values in
selecting experiences for the curriculum

The nature contribution from this foundation will led to the issue of selection of subject
matter in the curriculum

There are two broad philosophical schools which relate to the issue of subject matter /content

• The traditionalist school – they are the perenealist and essentialist

• The progressive school -- has the pragmatics and reconstructionalists

Theories of subject matter

Are categorized into three

a) Subject matter should be taught for its own sake
b) Subject matter should be taught for use
c) Subject matter should be taught as a medium for teaching life processes skills.

Subject matter should be taught for its own sake

It was proposed by Perrenialists. They believe in the permanents of curriculum content and
experiences. They assault that regardless of the change in the society curriculum content
should remain the same throughout since the value of something does not change with time.

The educational system should be stable in its purpose of study.

Perrenialists have two approaches in subject matter in the curriculum

• They emphasize classical subjects because they believe they have value in their own
right and any educated person should be exposed to them. this includes Arts,
 Literature, History, Music and discipline. For Perrenialists vocational is not important
because it does not involve the use of mind.
• They emphasize the desire to make children literate and moral to enable them earn a
living as well as find a useful place in the society therefor all should have a common
curriculum.
• The school also emphasize on authority to the teacher that is the teacher is the master
of the subject and therefor learners influence is irrelevant.
Perrenialists also emphasizes on testing the learners on the content received

Guiding principles emanating on curriculum field

➢ Human nature remains the same everywhere there for education should be the same
for everyone as knowledge is permanent and truth does not change with the
environment.
➢ Man is irrational and should be guided by this towards their goals therefor students
have to learn to cultivate reasons and to control their emotions and teachers should
assist them towards this.
➢ Students should be taught certain basic subjects that will acquaints them with the
worlds basic which will make them refrain from regarded modern changes as being
the most important. i.e. use of ICT.

Implications of curriculum planners

1. Emphasizes of some subjects in curriculum which are considered compulsory i.e.

English, Kiswahili, and mathematics.
2. Common curriculum for all students in different parts of the country
3. There are uniform and vigorous examinations with the various levels of education. i.e.
K.C.P.E, K.C.S.E
4. The teacher is central to the implementation of the curriculum hence is seen as the
authority in subject matter.
5. Emphasizes on preservation of culture heritage through drama, music and literature.

Subject matter should be taught for use

It was advanced by essentialist who emphasized on training the intellectual or mental abilities
of the learners.

They believed that the value of a subject in the curriculum depends upon the use that is made
up of a subject and therefor that value is operational.
They agree with Perrenialists on certain basic principles;

➢ They maintain that there are certain essentials subject that each student in
school must be taught.
➢ Learning involves hard work often couple with the unwilling application.
➢ The teacher’s role is to mediate between the adult world and the world of the
child.
➢ The heart of the educational process is the assimilations of the prescribed
subject matter.
➢ The should retain traditional methods of mental discipline.

Essentialists concentrate on;

• Re-examining curriculum matter

• Differentiating essentials from non-essentials in school programs.
• Re-establishing the authority of the teacher in the classroom.

Implications to curriculum planners

1) Curriculum planners should make clear objectives and clarify the use of any subject
matter that is plan for. this is seen in the syllabus for the various level where
objectives are clearly set up.
2) In Kenyan curriculum various subjects are taught because of their usefulness in their
achievements of national goals of education
3) Only relevant subjects are included in the curriculum
4) The co-subjects /essential are located more time in the school timetable unlike others.

Subject matter as a medium for teaching life processes and skills

This theory was advanced by progressivists who believed that change is the essence of reality
and nothing remains permanent.

They believe that we live in a dynamic world and therefor education as well as curriculum is
subject to change.

Educators therefor must be ready to modifying methods and policies in the light of new
knowledge and changes in the environment.

The curriculum and specifically the subject matter should be seen as a means of managing
and handling situations of life.
For progressivists the curriculum must be inter-disciplinary that’s a situation where subject is
put together.

Principles advocated by progressivists regarding the nature of education

1. Education should be life itself and not a preparation for life

2. Learning should be directed related to the needs and interests of the learners. the
teachers are to guide the learners.
3. Learning through problem solving should be given priority.
4. Teachers have to advise and not to direct the learners because teachers have superior
and richer experience but it is the student’s interest and need which determine what
they learn so the teacher acts as a guide and a coordinator of learning process.
5. The school should encourage cooperation and not competition. this is so because man
is social by nature and more satisfaction from relating to others however, competition
is necessary for selection in specialized opportunities

Implications to curriculum planner

1) It has led to learner centered curriculum where the learner plays an active role in
learning process
2) It has led to change in the role of the teacher in the classroom that is the teacher
guides the pupils through various learning experiences.

PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

They include; idealism, realism, pragmatism and existentialisms

IDEALISM

Is the oldest system of philosophy known to man?

It was born out of Plato’s theory of ideas. According to Plato the ultimate supremacy is the
ideas. He believed that the ideas / reality is permanent

Plato advanced the doctrine of universal forms and maintained that reality can only be
achieved through reasoning.
Idealism believed the essential nature of man is spiritual, believed in mental, religious and
aesthetic nature. also believed that the soul was formed prior to birth hence the idea of
recollection.

According to recollection human beings knows and are aware of the world around them.
during the teaching process the learner the learners remembers what he or she has forgotten.
Also believes that the spiritual world is more important than the eternal world because the
spiritual world is of ideas and feelings

To idealist, mind and soul is more important than the matter of the body.

Believe that there is a supernatural being /power behind existence and the creation of order in
the world and the supernatural being in God.

Idealism is based on Christianity.

Implications of idealism in the Kenyan education system

1. Idealism and the curriculum.

Idealist curriculum is taught oriented / emphasized on reasoning and stresses on
subject related to spiritual world i.e. CRE. This subject training and cultivation of
moral, intellectual and aesthetic values. subject like Religion, History, poetry is
considered to be of prime importance for aesthetic and moral development. for
intellectual development of the child literature, mathematics and science must be
included in the idealist curriculum. Idealists curriculum believes in the development
of sound, body and mind of the child.
2. Idealism and teaching methods
The ultimate goal of a teacher is attainment of aims of education for pupils therefor
Socratic methods/ questioning and answering is the most recommended method of
teaching in idealism.
3. Idealism and school discipline
Believed that there can be no spiritual development of a child without discipline. They
give importance of impressionistic discipline. They assert that the teacher gains
respect from the child by his /her affectionate and sympathetic behavior and motivates
him by his /her praise worth ideas. Idealism believes in guided freedom and strict
discipline.
4. Idealism and the teacher
 According to idealist a teacher is a spiritual symbol of the right conduct. The teacher
leads the child towards absolute perfection that is a teacher is considered to be a pilot
of God, is perfecting man. A teacher is a priest of man’s spiritual heritage, he tells the
child the way to reach God. He/ she acts as a friend, a philosopher and a guide. A
teacher is not an instructor or a task master but a helper or a guide of the child towards
perfection. In idealistic philosophy, the teachers have a very important role to play
since he leads the students from darkness to light and help students to develop his
personality.
5. Idealism and the school
A school is a place where the capacities of logical thinking, reasoning and evaluation
of the child are progressively developed by the teacher. The school should develop
values in a child, like nation ship, humanism and love of God.

6. Idealism and assessment /nature of exam

In idealism, assessment, is the means for focusing teachers, collective attention,
examining their assumption and creating a shared culture dedicated towards
improving the quality of the learners and learning process.
7. Idealism and aims of education
Idealism emphasizes on individuals and social aims of realization which leads the
child towards perfection and enables him to realize the himself/herself.
Plato says that to become a philosopher king, a person has to go through all processes
of education. according to him, education should not aim at putting knowledge into
the soul but at turning the soul towards right desires.

REALISM

Is a school of thought that holds the view that reality or a given object exists independently of
our conceptual skill that is, an object exists whether you perceive it or not?

In philosophical terms the objects are ontologically independent of some one’s conceptual
skills, perceptions or believes.

Realism is a philosophy that was advanced by Aristotle between 384BC-322BC.

Aristotle is considered the father of realism and was Plato’s student however he decided to
adapt this from his teacher. According to realism reality or truth can only be perceived
through empiricism (the use of sense /knowledge)
Types of realism

Classical realism

Suggest that reality can only be perceived through senses. What can’t be perceived through
senses does not exist.

Christian realism

Was founded by St Thomas Acquinunus between 1225-1275. Acquinnus presumed that God
is pure reasoning with the truth of all things. He believed that the soul purpose of existence is
to reunite the soul with God.

Modern realism.

Was founded by Francis Bacon between (1561- 1626) and John Locke (1632-1704). Locke
believe that everything that we know, comes from experience and from reflecting from that
experience. Locke also believed that we are not born with any innate or preconceived ideas
but rather the brain is a blank slate or a tabular rasa. According to realists the role of the
teacher is that of an organizer, a systemize and a promoter of critical thinking.

Realist principles

1) Realism considers material world as true since we can directly perceive it through
sense knowledge.
2) Matter is true and real according to realism there for the spiritual world according to
Aristotle is thought oriented and is unreal
3) Realist also believe that the soul and mind is a fragment of imagination.
4) They also believe that the universe is not external and that the sensation we get while
in contact with object through our senses is the only reality and a get way to
knowledge.

Implication of realist to Education system

Realist curriculum

Realist advocate that teaching subjects and activities included in the curriculum must prepare
the child for actual day to living in an orderly manner.
They believed that knowledge must be given through the medium of mother tongue so as to
help the child solve his daily problems.

Essential subjects in the curriculum are languages and vocational training.

The role of a realist teacher

A teacher is like an organizer he/she is supports to put facts as they are in their real form and
present knowledge in an effective way. the teacher should create opportunities for
observation, practical and experiments.

Realists believe in training the teachers before engaging themselves in teaching work in an
effective way.

Realism and teaching methods

Realists believes in the use of experimentation and practical’s in teaching.

They stress in teaching the objectives. in their opinion teaching objectives should first show
the learners and should be allowed to handle them and then be interpreted and explained later
by the teacher.

Realism and the school

Realists regards the school as the mirror of the society reflecting the true state of affairs. the
school should also be well furnished and equipped with necessary teaching aid that will aid
effective teaching, experimentation and practical.

Realism and discipline

Focus on moral and religious education of a child. they allocate for self-discipline and role
modelling. The school and the teacher should be like the love of the mother full of affection
love and empathy.

Realism and school management

Realism advocates for free learning environment that encourages world travelling towards.
The school administration has a responsibility of putting in place and maintaining requisite
and infrastructure.

PRAGMATISM
Is an American philosophy that is practical in Approach? the term pragmatism is derived
from Greek word pragma which means activity or work done.

To pragmatism change is fundamental and reality /truth is relative or not permanent since it
changes from time to time and place to place. To pragmatist reality/ideas and values are true
so long as they help someone in solving his problems.

Principles of pragmatism

• Pragmatism upholds social and democratic values

• It is a utilitarian ideology, that holds that reality of a principle lies at its usefulness of
utility.
• Pragmatist believes that the past is gone and dead. it is for no use thinking and talking
about what is a dead and a past account. They believe in ideas that leads to solving of
present and future problems.

Implication of pragmatism to the education system

Pragmatist curriculum

Believe that the curriculum should be flexible and dynamic.

According to the pragmatists subject to be included in the curriculum must be useful for
immediate and future needs of the child i.e. Geography, Mathematics and Science must be
made compulsory.

Pragmatism and the teaching methods

They advocate for child centered learning where a learner actively participates in a teaching
and learning process. These Methods of teaching according to pragmatism include problem
solving, discussions, practical and experiments. this method of teaching lay emphasis in
learning and doing.

In the learning process the teacher is just a guide or a mid-wife who provides conducive
learning experiences. a teacher is like a facilitator to learning while learners takes an active
role in learning.

Pragmatism and school discipline

Pragmatists condemns enforced discipline i.e. like having strict rules. they advocated for
social discipline base on the child interest and a sense of social responsibility. the school
should provide a purposeful and conducive environment that encourageous the freedom or
autonomy of students in determining their moral events.

Pragmatism and the students

It gives an important place to the child. the aim of education should be to prepare the child for
society so that we can become a responsible citizen and useful citizen. it focuses on child
centers education whereby the child is more important person on education process.

Pragmatist and the teacher

To pragmatist the teacher is a friend, a guide and a philosopher to the child.

The behavior of the teacher towards the child must be sympathetic, democratic and the child
must be given academic freedom to choose what they want to do.

The role of the teacher is to suggest problems to children and to stimulate them to find for
themselves solutions which will work. They believe that doing is more important than
knowing thus the syllabus should not be followed systematically.

EXISTENSIALISM

Is a philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, existence and choices.

It is the view that humans define their own meaning in life and try to make rational decisions
despite existing in an irrational universe.

Believes that individual is entirely free and must take personal responsibility for their choices.

The major tenet beliefs/ principle of existentialism is that existence proceeds essence (you
exist as human beings before your usefulness in the society)

According to existentialism reality is subject meaning truth is not permanent and depends on
individuals. the basic feature of a human person is freedom .an essentialists educator in terms
of pedagogical praxis/application is one who encourages students to engage in
philosopharism about the meaning of human existence, life, love and death through dialogue
and Socratic methods.
Implications

Existentialism advocates for inclusions of subjects that creates room for dialogue in the
curriculum.

Subjects that require a learner to make subjective choices i.e. Literature, Drama, Poetry are
highly encouraged.

Existentialists education must be child centered and prefers learners to choose what they want
to learn.

Teaching methods include self-learning and self-direction.

SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS INFLUENCING CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Sociology as a distinct discipline

August Comte is the founder of the discipline of sociology. He coined the word from a Latin
word socio meaning society and the word logio meaning science therefor according to him
sociology is the science of the society.

It looks at the interaction in the social institution and tries to establish the effects to the
members.

Max Weber goes ahead to state that sociology tries to understand the social actions in order to
arrive at the root cause and establish the effects. This process involves systematic methods of
investigation.

Sociology further tries to understand the changes that occur in the societies that affect human
behavior and groups.

Sociological factors influencing the curriculum development is majorly concerned with

influences of the curriculum from the society. Life in the society influences the school
system. School guides and prepare the youth for life in the society. Society influences the
expectations of the youth in life and partially ideas that the youth go to school with.

In curriculum planning and development, the study of the society indicates;

1) The kind of knowledge, skills and competencies that the youth require to be able to
cope with the tasks and role in the society.
 2) The problems prevalent in the society for which education should provide answers i.e.
Population explosion, Unemployment, Poverty and environmental degradation.

The relationship between sociological foundations and the curriculum can be based
established under 3 levels;

1) The purpose of the curriculum.

School is an agent of social growth and development. In this respect curriculum should
perform the following,

it should assist to preserve and transmit cultural heritage.

It should transform culture. It should be an instrument for individual development that is to

help the learners to realize their determine and attain their goals potential.

2) Pressure in the society influencing the curriculum.

Society uses both formal and informal means to exert pressure on school system i.e. a formal
complains directed to the school.

3) Characteristics of students experiencing the curriculum.

There are individual differences among the school therefor there should be differentiated
approaches in designing and implementing the curriculum;

• There should be differentiation between students from urban and rural areas.
• Students also have differentiation aspiration and curriculum should facilitate
individual students to realize their aspiration.
• Creation of suitable learning environment to improve academic performance
of the students.

Other social institutions that influence the curriculum

The family

Family data helps in curriculum planning and implementation by providing them with
background information of the individual learner.

It is the most important social agent. It gives an individual the identity and it is the place
where an individual is given the basic skills of the society which makes one be able to
accommodate future socialization.
Religious institutions

Religious education is part of the school curriculum. This contributes to moral development
of the learner and quality of life in schools.

Religious institutions help learners to develop a sense of self-respect and respect for others.

These institutions socialize the members in various religious rituals. They are able to learn the
spiritual way of the society from the many attributes given to God by the society.

Peers

Are people of the same age sets who interact and teach one another more about the societal
values. Peers can educate one positively and negatively depending with the group one is
getting involved with and the parents need to be very careful about the kind of peers that mix
their children with.

Social media /mass media

Apart from communication and entertainment mass media socialized individuals to

understand the kind of life that goes on in other communities. This help individuals to adjust
and lead a life that is acceptable in other communities.

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

Psychologist are concerned with establishing patterns in human behavior so as to understand

and predict behavior.

They look for determinants of behavior in hereditary characteristics and environmental

influences.

Psychology provides information about the teaching and learning process. They also seek
answers as to how a curriculum will be organized to achieve students’ learning at the
optimum level and what amount of information they can absorb in learning the various
contents of the curriculum.

Psychological foundations of curriculum make it possible for teachers to make appropriate

decision in relating to classroom behavior of the learners. Psychologists believe that learning
experiences have to be introduced to the learner when exposure is most effective and most
beneficial to the learner.

They consider the following while presenting learning experiences;

 1) Capability of the learners
2) Maturation level of the learners.
3) Learners rate of learning as well as how they learn.

Psychology offers principles that governs the process which are useful to the teacher and the
curriculum planner to make decisions on the following;

1) Sequence

Consider the stages of development and therefor learning experiences that are appropriate
at each stage.

2) Organization

There should be organizations of grouping of learning experiences for effectiveness.

3) Methodology

Includes the selection of appropriate methods and approaches in promoting and guiding
learning.

4) Formulation of appropriate education goals and instructional objectives.

5) Decisions regarding the scope of curriculum.

Contributions of psychological foundations in curriculum planning.

➢ Learning is most effective when the student is actively involved in learning situation
➢ An effective learning situation should recognize and provide for the purposes of
learning (clear learning outcomes)
➢ Learning is influenced by individuals past experiences, attitudes and values (entry
behavior)
➢ Learning is most effective when the student is permitted to work in attention free
environment (conducive environment)

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS

These are past events that have had influences on the curriculum. They are also referred to as
historical landmarks, they include;

1) Early Christian Education

It was influenced by Greek, Roman, Hebrew ideas. Early Christian Schools had a curriculum
which inducted believers in the church. The subjects taught included discipline, Christian
theology, Church doctrine, sciences, Moral standards, Math and Astronomy. This are seen
important subjects in current curriculum planning which upholds moral standards.

2) Renaissance

It took place in 14thC in Italy. It was a period of revival /rebirth especially in culture and
learning, during that time there was increase quest for knowledge and thirst for adventure,
there was a desire to open up education to the masses.

Curriculum in schools included good manners, morals, Rhetoric compositions, sports, Games,
Dance, Vocational studies.

Vocational studies were emphasized because of interactions and communication between

various countries hence need for skills which include book keeping, correspondent studies.

In this period there was development of university which established faculties of studies in
Literature, Arts, Medicine and Theology this have currently influence curriculum planning in
schools and universities around the world.

3) Reformation

This were religious and political movement of the 16th C in Europe. It began as an attempt to
reform the roman Catholic Church and resulted in the establishment of protestant churches
Through the campaigns of Martin Luther, there was publication of biblical and other
materials in local dialect so that every person will read for themselves and interpret the bible,
this contributed to education in Primary, Secondary and Higher Education. The results of this
movement are apparent in our educational system today, multiplication of churches is still
ongoing.

4) The Scientific Movement in Education

The educators and philosophers of 16th C were concerned more with observation regarding
the working of the universe this led to philosophy of realism they believe that objects exist as
seen in real world divorced from human mind and perception.

This had a lot of influence on education i.e. the application of principles of scientific
management of education.

5) The progressive movement in education

Studies and researchers by famous European scholars regarding the appropriate curriculum
for pupils had great influences on nature and type of curriculum.
One of them was John Dewey – this resulted in learner centered education which was more of
a reaction to the traditional school system which was teacher centered. This has effects to
today as we consider learners to the most important person in any learning institution that is
instructional objectives are formulated in terms of what the learner are expected to achieve.

Importance of Historical foundations in curriculum planning

• It provides insight into past events that are influences in the current curriculum plans.
• It enables curriculum planners to anticipate the future.
• It enables curriculum planners to avoid mistakes made in the past.
• Enables curriculum planners to be aware of events that continue to shape the
curriculum.

Analyze Factors that influenced curriculum development in Kenya post-independence

1) Political factors

Funding plays a fundamental role. Funds help in purchase of materials and approve
evaluation systems.

2) Social factors

Gender evaluation and political economy should be factored in.

Issues at play include:

✓ Religion
✓ Culture
✓ Social groupings
✓ Race
✓ Peer culture
✓ Family
✓ Drugs, delinquencies and crime (should address these needs)
3) Economic factors

A good curriculum should foster global competition in technical fields. It should promote
employment, promotions and profits to an individual and the nation.

4) Technological factors

It should utilize multimedia to foster education goals and learning experiences.

 5) Environmental issues

It should focus on pollution awareness recycling and other healthy environmental practices.

6) psychological factors

It should capture changes in personality, cognitive ability and behavior.

Theories of Curriculum development

Theory is an attempt to explain a rationale for viewing, analyzing and interpreting the
curriculum and instructional program of an educational institutions.

Theories are also known as modules for curriculum design. they include;

1) Tyler’s Model (1949)

2) Wheelers Model (1967)
3) Taba’s Model (1962)
4) Oluoch’s Model (1982)
5) Hunkins Model

Tyler’s Model (1949) /Objectives Model

Tyler’s starts by asking four fundamental questions which have to be answered in the process
of curriculum planning;

1) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2) What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes?
3) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4) How can we determine whether these purposes are likely to be attained?

The four questions raised by Tyler may be formulated into a simple four steps process by
which the curriculum is planned and develop as follows;

Step I – objectives

Step II -selection of learning experiences

Step III- Organization of learning experiences

Step Iv – Evaluation
The first step is the most crucial one in this model since all the others proceed from and are
regulated by the statement of objectives because of its emphasis of objectives. This model is
referred to as objective model.

There are three sources of objectives

1) The study of the learners. done to establish the needs of the learners so as to determine
the changes in behavior that the school should bring about in the learners.
2) Study of the contemporary life in the society. The school is supposed to prepare the
youth for life in the society. The curriculum offered in school should address the
persistent problems in the society outside the school.
3) Suggestion from subject specialist

Subject specialist represents their conception of objects as they write books on their subject.

The objectives arrived at from these three sources is then filtered through philosophical and
psychological ‘screens ‘in order to arrive at the final refined objectives.

Once the first step of stating objective is accomplished the model proceeds through the steps
of selection and organization of learning experiences as a means of achieving the already
stated objectives.

Evaluation according to Tyler is essentially the process of determining to what extend the
educational objectives are actually been realized by the program of curriculum instruction.

Tyler’s Model had significant impart on subsequent /curriculum activities world wide

Criticism of Tyler’s Model

1) Places a lot of emphasis on objectives at the expense of other elements of curriculum.

2) It’s too simple and linear and does not show the interrelatedness to the separate
elements of the curriculum.
3) It puts evaluation at the end but evaluation occurs throughout the curriculum
development process.

HILDA TABAS MODEL (1962)

She perceived that curriculum has four elements.

1) Aims and Objectives.

2) Content
3) Learning Experiences
 4) Evaluation

In any curriculum design these must be selected on the basis of certain consideration such as
nature vs principles of learning ideas of learners and knowledge. Tabas model can be
presented in a diagram as follows;

Objectives

Evaluation
Content

Learning
This model is basically same asexperiences
of Tyler’s. Since Taba emphasis on objectives, however, she
made content more conspicuous. she emphasized on interrelationship among the elements.

Taba suggested a participatory approach to curriculum design in which teachers should

participate in making curriculum. She suggests 7 major steps in which teachers should have
input in curriculum development.

Steps

1) Diagnosis of needs
The teacher identifies the needs of the learners for whom the curriculum is designed.
2) Formulative objectives.
The teacher specifies the objectives to be achieved based on the identified needs.
3) Selection of content.
The objectives selected suggests the content of the curriculum unity thus its validity
and significant
4) Organization of content.

The teacher organizes the content in some kind of sequence taking into consideration the
majority of the learners and their academic achievement.
 5) Selection of learning experiences.
The students must engage in an interaction with the content hence the teacher must
identify and use an instructional methodology that will involve the student with the
content.
6) Organization of learning experiences.
They must be sequence keeping in mind the particular students will be taught.
7) Evaluation and means of evaluation.
Determines what objectives have been accomplished or achieved. Taba suggest that
evaluation procedures reconsidered by both students and teachers.

Criticisms of Tabas Model

1. Though, she emphasizes the participatory approaches to curriculum designs the

procedures suggested are technical and complex and not every teacher cannot do it.
2. Taba advocates that teachers should participate in making the curriculum and by so
doing assumes that they share the necessary expertise.
3. She assumes the availability of resources in curriculum development process.

Wheelers model

Was formed in 1967

Wheeler seems to react in the simplicity of Tailors model and especially to its linear nature.
He converts Tailors original ideas into a cyclical form and offers a five-stage model of a
curriculum process.

1) Statement of aims, goals and objectives.

2) Selection of learning experiences
3) Selection of content
4) Organization and integration of learning experiences
5) Evaluation

The first step involves statement of aims, goals and objectives. Wheeler discusses this step
further and provide a procedure of breaking down aims and goals into behavioral terms.
The next two stages in this model are the selection of learning experiences and content then
there is organization and integration of learning experiences and finally evaluation is done

The model describes a continuous process that does not end at evaluation

Aims ,goals and

objectives

Selection of
Evaluation learning
experiences

Integration and
organization of
learning Selection of
experiences content

Criticisms of wheelers model

1) The model does not bring out the dynamic’s interrelatedness of the element
2) Evaluation also appears to be standing last yet it is a continuous process which does
not have to be delayed until the exercise is over.

Olouch’s model (1982)

Oluoch’s model of curriculum development goes a long toward trying to solve the
fundamental problem; that much of what is taught in not learned and much of what is
presented and tested is not assimilated. Oluoch explains curriculum as all that is planned to
enable the learner to acquire and develop desired knowledge, skills, values and attitude.

Olouch wrote in the context of the Kenya situation. Although most people think of education
as the same as going to school, he believed that this was wrong. He defined education in a
much broader way: Education is the process of acquiring and developing desired knowledge,
skills and attitudes (Oluoch, 1982). This definition is superior to many others as it suggests
that education is continuous across the life span and can occur outside school settings.

According to Olouch, curriculum came from the Roman word racecourse, a tract followed by
horses in a race. Curriculum came to be considered a course of study followed by a school or
some other teaching institution and also an individualized syllabus in educational institution.
He believes that curriculum should be defined as everything that is planned by an educational
institution to help the students learn whatever it is that the institution would want them to
learn (1982,). It includes the formal course of study, extra-curricular activities and other
informal activities within the school environment. Olouch developed a conceptual framework
of the school curriculum.

Olouch had the objectives for the learner (what is desired that the learners should attain), the
learning activities (how the desired objectives are to be accomplished, including the learning
activities within the content and the student assessment (evaluation of the learning outcome).

We also note that he includes three different dimensions of school curriculum.

• Formal dimension: Refers to the learning activities within or outside of

classrooms and schools that are normally undertaken by students as formal class
work.
• Non-formal dimension: Refers to learning activities organised in a less rigid
manner. The students are not formally grouped as for class work, but group
themselves according to interests, aptitude and ages. They may occur in or outside
classrooms and schools, and are part of the broad comprehensive education
programme made available to learners.
• Informal dimension: Consists of the guided aspects of learning activities that go
on in the school all the time, such as interactions. Although these represent part of
the hidden curriculum of schools, it is only the activities that relate to the planned
aspects of the environment that count as informal learning activities. The extent of
stimulation provided by learning resources within the learning environment is an
example of the informal dimension.

Elements of school curriculum according to Oluoch

1) Goals and objectives of the curriculum

2) Learning opportunities through which the goals and the objectives of the curriculum
should be achieved
 3) The evaluation process, to find out if the goals and objectives previously set have
been achieved and if they have, to what degree.

These elements are appropriate to all dimensions of the school curriculum.

Components of Curriculum Development.

Seven major components for curriculum development can be identified. These are;

1) Needs assessment.
2) Formulation of a curriculum development project.
3) Curriculum designing.
4) Personnel training.
5) Development of curriculum materials and equipment.
6) Implementation.
7) Project evaluation.

1) Needs assessment.

This is a method or technique for identifying educational objectives that most need to be
accomplished in a given instructional situation.

It is an essential component of curriculum development in the determination as precise as

possible as of what is that needs improving.

The needs to be assessed may include the societal and national needs of education. The
component establishes the base of curriculum development.

2) Formulation of curriculum development project.

This component involves statement of goals and objectives of the curriculum development
project, approximating the time it would take before completion and how many individuals
are required and also the financial amount required. In this way all the necessary resources
will be committed for the entire duration of the project.

3) Curriculum designing.

After extraction of information and identification of the learner, designing the curriculum
begins.

Before designing the content, there is need to be clear objectives. Stating the specific learning
outcomes expected that would be in need for figuring out these learning outcomes.
Curriculum designing involves deciding what part in the effort to realize intended learning
outcomes. Therefore, is important that detailed curriculum designs be prepared and reviewed
from time to time as project proceeds.

4) Personnel training.

For the success of curriculum development procedure, teachers have to be included and they
should understand and accept the ideas contained in the curriculum being proposed or
implemented.

All the categories of personnel should be trained to understand and accept the ideas of the
materials forming part of the new curriculum.

5) Development of the curricular materials and equipment.

These materials are designed to help the teacher grasp the knowledge and to implement the
ideas contained in the new curriculum.

These materials include the syllabuses, books and mass media programs for school teachers
and students.

Similarity in preparation of these materials should be of importance for the development of

relevant curriculum materials.

6) Implementation.

This is the interaction of the learners with the teachers, ideas, materials and equipment with a
view to achieving the goals of the new curriculum. Organization of familiarization programs
for educators, parents and other members of the society should be important.

The implementation component happens after all the above components have been put in
place.

7) Project evaluation.

After the new curriculum has been implemented, it should be analysed if it’s headed towards
the stated goals and objectives and to make appropriate adjustments if otherwise. These
various dimensions are useful for us to remember since they suggest that we need to plan not
just for the formal classroom learning activities.

Olouch described various stages to be used in the process of curriculum development.

1) Information gathering
 This is a process of collecting information about the need for and feasibility of the
curriculum development process. It should address the issues of what information
should be collected, from whom should it be gathered, who should collect it, who
should coordinate this process and what should it be used for.
2) Formulating the curriculum project
This is the process of looking if the curriculum project is desirable and also feasible,
and if it is then the curriculum development is described within a written project
report.
3) Planning the curriculum
This component involves considering each dimension of the school curriculum
carefully in reference to:
• Understanding and stating the goals and objectives of the curriculum,
• Determining, organising and stating the necessary learning objectives
• Determining and stating the methods that will be used in assessing the
progress and achievement of the learners.

4. Selection and preparation of materials and equipment

In this component the requirements for the materials and equipment to be used in the
curriculum are identified and costed. At this point who will prepare the new materials
and how they are to be prepared or made are also discussed so that they will be ready
for the new curriculum.
5. Curriculum Try-out
In this component the curriculum, the materials and the equipment are piloted. They
are used in a few schools to see if the desired results occur. If not, revisions are made
before the implementation.
6. Curriculum Implementation:
At this point the new curriculum is used in the various schools. The phase may
require teacher in-servicing or orienting to the new curriculum, provision of support
services and facilities and introduction of possible organisational changes with the
schools and districts educational systems. It will be important to inform the general
public about the new curriculum and to address their concerns.
7. Curriculum Project Evaluation
 In this component the curriculum project is evaluated, and this evaluation focuses on
the planning phase, the implementation phase and when it is completed after a
specified period of time. This component should be focused on clearly identifying
what exactly is to be evaluated, why it is to be evaluated and how it is to be measured.

SHORTCOMINGS OF OLUOCH’S MODEL OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT.

Despite the major positivism towards the success of Oluoch’s model of curriculum
development, it still faces a number of shortcomings;

1) It is bulky and contains a lot of processes. The model involves a lot of steps and
actions that have to be and undertaken which may be bulky and tiring. This may bring
monotony and confusion during the development and implementation of the
curriculum.
2) Some of the procedures and guidelines that are suggested in the model are technical
and complex and not every teacher can perform.
3) There is a strong tendency in the literature about behavioural objectives in curriculum
design to assume that the objectives that can be defined behaviourally, the objectives
cannot be easily assessed, and these objectives do not form the important objectives
for a school curriculum. The corollary also seems to be accepted. If it seems
impossible to detect and asses a specific learning outcome, it probably isn’t
important.
4) If identification of all worthwhile outcomes in behavioural terms comes to be
commonly accepted and expected, then it is inevitable that over time curriculum will
tend to emphasize those elements which have been identified. Important outcomes
which are detected only with great difficulty and which are translated only rarely into
behavioural terms tend to atrophy. They disappear from curriculum because much
time is spent on the allotted teaching explicitly for the more readily specifiable
learning to which have been directed.
5) The model carries a lot of processes and guidelines through certain people. This
processes of research, collection, analysis and implementations which need a lot of
financing. Project people, and researchers have to be paid and curriculum
implemented.
6) Research, collection of data, analysis, implementation is time consuming and
therefore it might take a long time before a curriculum is completely developed. The
more the time is taken, the more is the need for more money to finance it.
Hunkins model of curriculum development

Hankins has a unique feature called the feedback and adjustment loop. This loop allows
decision makers to refer back to previous stages to make changes and any modifications.

Hunkins has seven major stages to be used in curriculum development.

1) Curriculum conceptualization and legitimization.

Participants engage in deliberation regarding the nature of curriculum and also its educational
and social political value.

Allows the ability to formulate ideas and substantiate them by taking the norms, values and
culture of our society into account in its design.

2) Diagnosis

Formulation of the objectives, identification of knowledge and skills set, Educational

objectives and instructional objectives.

Translating need into causes.

Generating goals and objectives from the needs – these sense as guidelines or as statements of
expected learning outcomes.

3) Content selection.

Organizes and selects the content and learning activity.

Allows the sequencing of the units, topics and various subject and courses.

Refers to cognitive process that the proceeds students to learn to apply their knowledge and
skills.

To communicate with others.

To identify criteria for content selection.

4) Experience selection.

Involves selection of instructional methods and materials.

Variety of learning experiences.

5) Implementation

Offers role clarification, provisions of support services staff development programs,

modifications of procedures and communication.

6) Evaluation.

Measures the effectiveness and efficiency of the curriculum.

The evaluation stage summarizes the good as well as the weakness of the program.

7) Maintenance

Offers permanent follow up and quality of the program.

This stage may reveal when some of the program should be altered or replaced.

RELEVANCE TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA.

The model provides guidelines for the contemporary development and improve of the
curriculum in Kenya today. The setting up of an organization for curriculum development in
Kenya is based on the guidelines provided by the model which have entirely helped for the
development of a competent and all-round curriculum.

The model has recommended that a procedure to be followed in developing a school

curriculum in Kenya which should be based on the principles; - Curriculum development
should be based on the outcomes. Should concern itself with all curriculum dimensions and
elements. Be a team effort.: all these principles through the Kenya Institute of Curriculum
Development have been implemented and has largely help in the development of the major
curriculums and organized the basis of well formulated projects making the development
simpler and procedural.

The model has made possible reorganization of the formerly Kenya Institute of Education to
currently Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development which is the organization in the
country with the responsibility of curriculum development in school education. This change is
in the aspect of functions, the control, the panels and the structure of the staff of the institute.
This has made the Kenya institute of curriculum development to be more effective in coming
up with the competent and reliable curriculums.

Each subject area or curriculum area has subject pane and each of them with a related teacher
for educational research and evaluation matters in that subject. These panels interact as much
as possible to bring about coordination in education in the country. The panel’s main work is
to coordinate the content and its relevance in the subject area. The concept of personnel
training before the implementation of a curriculum in the model is relevantly visible in the
new curriculum. Through seminars and conferences, teachers have been made to understand
the changes and ideas in the new curriculum about to be implemented. Each category of
teachers has been trained about the content and the teaching and learning activities they are to
use for the accomplishment and the success of the new 2.6.3.3 curriculum in Kenya.

Principle of Curriculum Construction

What are the principles you will follow when construction curriculum for your children?
Principles are guiding rules. They are the rules, which will guide you when constructing, or
designing or making a curriculum. The principles include:

1) Principle of Child Centeredness

When designing a curriculum for your children, you should keep in view the child’s
abilities, interests and needs.

2) Principle of Actual Participation

The curriculum should provide opportunities for actual participation of children. There
should be activities for children to do.

3) Principle of Co-Ordination and Integration

The curriculum should provide fullness of experience i.e. there should be maximum co-
ordination and integration between curricular and co-curricular activities. Curricular
activities refer to the activities planned and organized in classroom and co-curricular
activities refer to activities done outside the classroom.

4) Principle of Community Centeredness

Education should prepare a child to fit in his/her community. This is possible only when the
curriculum is central on the community of the child that is the content and activities of the
curriculum should originate from the culture of the child.

5) Principle of Conservation

Curriculum should include activities and experiences, which will help in the conservation of
past heritage. Heritage means history and culture. Curriculum should preserve what is useful
and add what is helpful in solving the life problems

6) Principle of Variety and Elasticity

Curriculum should provide a variety of activities because of individual differences and

freedom of choice. Children are different in terms of abilities, interests and age. For children
to learn best, there should be a variety of activities. Curriculum should also be flexible and
not rigid and should accommodate necessary changes.

7) Principle of Social

Curriculum should meet the needs of a society i.e. should cater for the aspirations of a
society. The curriculum should provide knowledge and skills to make children useful in
their society.

8) Principles of Activity Centeredness

Children learn by doing. Unless they do activities, they will never learn. Curriculum should
provide a variety of activities for children to do. The activities should be selected according
to the abilities, interests and age of children.

9) Principle of Creativity

Curriculum should promote or develop children’s creativity. It should provide activities,

which will enable children to exercise their environments according to the needs of the time.

10) Principle of Utility Curriculum

 should have value to children and society or community of the child. It should be of
practical use to children. The curriculum should give due emphasis to work experience. It
should provide knowledge and skills children need to be useful to themselves, families,
communities and to the nation (Kenya).

DIMENSIONS OF CURRICULUM

Types of curriculum: Formal, Informal & Non-formal

Education

Education is a gradual process which brings positive changes in human life and behaviour.
We can also define education as “a process of acquiring knowledge through study or
imparting the knowledge by way of instructions or some other practical procedure”.

Education brings a natural and lasting change in an individual’s reasoning and ability to
achieve the targeted goal. It facilitates us to investigate our own considerations and thoughts
and makes it ready to express it in various shapes.

Education is the main thing that encourages us to distinguish between right and wrong
because in the absence of education, we can’t do what we need or we can’t achieve our goal.

Straightforwardly, we can say, “education is the passage to progress”. It is additionally the

way to our fate as achievements can only be accomplished when individuals have
information, aptitudes, and frame of mind. In this way, education resembles a medium
through which we can associate with various individuals and offer our thoughts.

To tackle issues and do inventiveness we first need to gain proficiency with some essential
abilities. We require learning and abilities to wind up increasingly imaginative. So education
is fundamentally learning of abilities and ideas that can make us increasingly innovative and
issue solver. Education is to pick up the capacity to develop and take care of issues in order to
achieve their lawful motives.

Dimensions of curriculum

Education goes beyond what takes places within the four walls of the classroom. A child gets
the education from his experiences outside the school as well as from those within on the
basis of these factors. There are three main types of curriculum, namely, Formal, Informal
and Non-formal. Each of these types is discussed below.

1) Formal dimension
Refers to education carried out in institution with specific goals with well stated curriculum,
venues, well defined teachers and learners who may learn basic, academic, or trade skills.

It involves experiences provided with learning areas such as Mathematics, Geography.

Small children often attend a nursery or kindergarten but often formal education begins in
elementary school and continues with secondary school.

Post-secondary education (or higher education) is usually at a college or university which

may grant an academic degree. It is associated with a specific or stage and is provided under a
certain set of rules and regulations.

The formal education is given by specially qualified teachers they are supposed to be efficient
in the art of instruction. It also observes strict discipline. The student and the teacher both are
aware of the facts and engage themselves in the process of education.

Examples of Formal curriculum

• Learning in a classroom
• School grading/certification, college, and university degrees
• Planned education of different subjects having a proper syllabus acquired by
attending the institution.

Characteristics of formal education

1) Formal education is structured hierarchically.

2) It is planned and deliberate.
3) Scheduled fees are paid regularly.
4) It has a chronological grading system.
5) It has a syllabus and subject-oriented. The syllabus has to be covered within a specific
time period.
6) The child is taught by the teachers

Advantages of Formal education

1) An organized educational model and up to date course contents.

2) Students acquire knowledge from trained and professional teachers.
3) Structured and systematic learning process.
4) Intermediate and final assessments are ensured to advance students to the next
learning phase.
 5) Institutions are managerially and physically organized.
6) Leads to a formally recognized certificate.
7) Easy access to jobs.

Disadvantages of Formal education

1) Sometimes, brilliant students are bored due to the long wait for the expiry of the
academic session to promote to the next stage
2) Chance of bad habits’ adoption may be alarming due to the presence of both good
and bad students in the classroom
3) Wastage of time as some lazy students may fail to learn properly in spite of
motivation by the professional trainers.
4) Some unprofessional and non-standard education system may cause the wastage
of time and money of the students which leads to the disappointment from formal
education and argue them to go for non-formal education.
5) Costly and rigid education as compare to other forms of learning

2) Informal dimensions

These comprises of unplanned and spontaneous experiences in the school. They influence the
learner’s behavior. They are derived from school rules and regulations. They are learnt
through teachers, students, school community or the school environment.

Informal education is learning which takes place through imitation, observation and
participation. This kind of education is more organized but more permanent and it goes on
throughout a person’s life. i.e. may be a parent teaching a child how to prepare a meal or ride
a bicycle.

People can also get an informal education by reading many books from a library or
educational websites.

Informal education is when you are not studying in a school and do not use any particular
learning method. In this type of education, conscious efforts are not involved. It is neither
pre- planned nor deliberate. It may be learned at some marketplace, hotel or at home.

Unlike formal education, informal education is not imparted by an institution such as school
or college. Informal education is not given according to any fixed timetable. There is no set
curriculum required. Informal education consists of experiences and actually living in the
family or community.

Examples of Informal Education

• Teaching the child some basics such as numeric characters.

• Someone learning his/her mother tongue
• A spontaneous type of learning, “if a person standing in a bank learns about opening
and maintaining the account at the bank from someone.”

Characteristics of Informal Education

• It is independent of boundary walls.

• It has no definite syllabus.
• It is not pre-planned and has no timetable.
• No fees are required as we get informal education through daily experience and
by learning new things.
• It is a lifelong process in a natural way.
• The certificates/degrees are not involved and one has no stress for learning the
new things.
• You can get from any source such as media, life experiences, friends, family etc.

Advantages of Informal Education

• More naturally learning process as you can learn at anywhere and at any time from
your daily experience.
• It involves activities like individual and personal research on a topic of interest for
themselves by utilizing books, libraries, social media, internet or getting assistance
from informal trainers
• Utilizes a variety of techniques.
• No specific time spans.
• Less costly and time-efficient learning process.
• No need to hire experts as most of the professionals may be willing to share their
precious knowledge with students/public through social media and the internet.
• Learners can be picked up the requisite information from books, TV, radio or
conversations with their friends/family members.

Disadvantages of Informal Education

 • Information acquired from the internet, social media, TV, radio or conversations with
friends/family members may lead to the disinformation.
• Utilized techniques may not be appropriate.
• No proper schedule/time span.
• Unpredictable results which simply the wastage of time.
• Lack of confidence in the learner.
• Absence of discipline, attitude and good habits.

3) Non-formal curriculum

These are organized learning activities that goes on outside the classroom. Its similar to
formal education however the difference comes with the teaching methods. It is also
organized in a more flexible manner. It is meant to meet the needs of a particular group.
(Music, Games, Scouting, Club and Societies, Journalism)

Non-formal education includes adult basic education, adult literacy education or school
equivalency preparation

In nonformal education, someone (who is not in school) can learn literacy, other basic skills
or job skills.

Home education, individualized instruction (such as programmed learning), distance learning

and computer-assisted instruction are other possibilities.

Non-formal education is imparted consciously and deliberately and systematically

implemented. It should be organized for a homogeneous group. Non-formal, education should
be programmed to serve the needs of the identified group. This will necessitate flexibility in
the design of the curriculum and the scheme of evaluation.

Examples of Non-formal Education

• Boy Scouts and Girls Guides develop some sports program such as swimming comes
under nonformal education.
• Fitness programs.
• Community-based adult education courses.
• Free courses for adult education developed by some organization.

Characteristics of Non-formal Education

• The nonformal education is planned and takes place apart from the school system.
 • The timetable and syllabus can be adjustable.
• Unlike theoretical formal education, it is practical and vocational education.
• Nonformal education has no age limit.
• Fees or certificates may or may not be necessary.
• It may be full time or part-time learning and one can earn and learn together.
• It involves learning of professional skills.

Advantages of Non-formal Education

• Practiced and vocational training.

• Naturally growing minds that do not wait for the system to amend.
• Literacy with skilfulness growth in which self-learning is appreciated.
• Flexibility in age, curriculum and time.
• Open-ended educational system in which both the public and private sector are
involved in the process.
• No need to conduct regular exams.
• Diploma, certificates, and award are not essential to be awarded.

Disadvantages of Non-formal Education

• Attendance of participants is unsteady.

• Sometimes, it’s just wastage of time as there is no need to conduct the exam on
regular basis and no degree/diploma is awarded at the end of the training session.
• Basic reading and writing skills are crucial to learn.
• No professional and trained teachers.
• Students may not enjoy full confidence as the regular students enjoy.
• Some institutes provide fake certification through online courses just for the sake of
earning.

Research on:

1) Explore the history of curriculum development in Kenya.

2) Analyze the curriculum development cycle used in Kenya.
3) Examine various curricula offered in Kenya.
4) Discuss the importance of each stage of curriculum development.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT CYCLES

HISTORY OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA

CURRICULUM CHANGES

The 7-4-2-3 Education System

Introduction of 7-4-2-3 System of Education

According to Ominde (1964), the chairman of the first educational commission in the
independent Kenya, “during colonial era, there was no such thing as a nation” only several
nations living side by side in the same territory. Education, like society, was stratified along
racial lines, there existed an ‘African education’, a ‘European Education’, and an ‘Asian
Education’; three separate systems divided by rigid boundaries (Ominde 1964). This
stratification was based on the colonialist’s assertion that the mental development of the
average African adult was equivalent to that of the average 7-8-year-old European boy
(Gachathi, 1976). African education’ therefore tended to be a hybrid, precariously hovering
between a European model with a European subject matter, and an education deemed suitable
to the place in colonial life considered ‘appropriate’ to the African population (Ominde
1964). Thus, the eve of independence brought with it sweeping reforms in the educational
system. With the creation of a single nation came the emergence of a single educational
system, no longer stratified along racial lines. Ominde Commission was formed to introduce
changes that would reflect the nation's sovereignty. The commission focused on identity and
unity, which were critical issues at the time. Changes in the subject content of history and
geography were made to reflect national cohesion. Between 1964 and 1985, the 7-4-2-3-
system was adopted, seven years of primary, four years of lower secondary (form 1 -4), two
years of upper secondary (form 5-6), and three years of university. This does not include the
'pre-primary' schooling provided to children under the age of six. The principle preoccupation
for Ominde’s report was introduce an education system that promoted national unity and
inculcated in the learners the desire to serve their nation (Simuyu, 2001).

Criticism of 7-4-2-3 System of Education

7-4-2-3 system of education lacked the capacity and flexibility to respond to the changing
aspirations of individual Kenyans and the labour market needs, in terms of new skills, new
technologies and the attitude to work (Owino, 1997).

According to Simuyu (2001), the 7-4-2-3 policy was criticized in two major areas (2001):
 I. The policy was being too academic and therefore not suitable for direct employment.
Thus, the policy lacked orientation to employment.
II. The policy encouraged elitist and individualistic attitudes among school leavers,
something that was considered incompatible to the African socialist milieu.

The Gachathi Report (GoK, 1976, p 33-34) raised the issue of unemployment in relation to 7-
4- 2-3 policy: The report maintained that “One of the largest problems confronting the
country is that of unemployment. The problem is aggravated by the annual outputs of school
leavers whose number continue to swell following the enormous expansion of the education.

Among those who made calls for change of educational policy were, the Kenya National
Assembly’s Select Committee on unemployment (1970) as cited in Maleche (1976, p.13)
Therefore, education, which was regarded by Kenyans as a medium for social mobility and
national economic development failed to deliver as the number of unemployed school leavers
continued to grow system in the first years of independence. ILO also called for a change to
the education system in order to help reduce unemployment. The change consisted of
increasing the technical and vocational aspects of the curriculum. The move by ILO towards
vocational sing the education system won support from the World Bank.

8-4-4 Education System

The 8-4-4 system of education was introduced in January 1985, following the Mackay report
of 1982. King and McGrath (2002) claims that the 8-4-4 policy arose out of the concerns that
a basic academic education might lack the necessary content to promote widespread
sustainable (self) employment”. Therefore the 8-4-4 policy emanated from the assumption
that it would equip pupils with employable skills thereby enabling school dropouts at all
levels to be either self- employed or secure employment in the informal sector. King
&McGrath, 2002 observes that the new policy would orient youths towards self-employment.
The system strongly emphasizes attitudinal and skills preparations for the world of work and
especially self-employment.

According to Sifuna (1990), there are three events that led to implementation of the 8-4-4
system: the 1966 conference on education at Kericho in Kenya, which stressed the need for
integrating rural development; the International Labour Organization mission report entitled
"Employment, Incomes and Equality: A Strategy for Increasing Productive Employment of
1972;" and the recommendation of the National Committee on Educational Objectives and
Policies of 1975. In 1979 the Ministry of Education was changed to the Ministry of Basic
Education with an introductory nine-year basic education system program. The rationale was
that the previous program was too short and not rigorous enough to give graduates enough
practical education. It also recommended that the first six years of primary were to
concentrate on numeric and literacy skills and the last two years on basic education with
practical orientation. This represented a shift from a focus on enrolment to restructuring the
program as a means to cater to the influx of unemployed.

The structure of 8-4-4 System

The 8-4-4 System is divided into primary, secondary and university excluding the pre-school
years. This section gives a brief description of the structure.

a) Primary Education

It starts at age of six years and consists of eight years of schooling, out of which first three
may be in the mother tongue, while English is invariably the language of instruction from
standards 4 to 8. Most schools are public and run on the basis of Harambe system, but the
number of private schools, though small as yet, is rising very fast. Most schools are co-ed
though a few only- girl’s schools also exist. The primary education ends with an exam for
Kenya Certificate of primary education. Enrolment levels in primary education are reasonable
by third world standards - partly a result of the making it free

b) Secondary School

Secondary school consists of four years. Majority of secondary schools are run on the
Harambee system. About one fourth are Government schools, but only the most meritorious
are able to enter them. The private schools charge high fees and many offers British O-levels,
followed by A levels or the International Baccalaureate. The enrolment in secondary school is
far less compared to the primary school, as it is not free, though some plans to do that are
being prepared.

c) University and College Education

Since the establishment of University of Nairobi in 1970, the first public University in Kenya,
seven more general public Universities and a number of private Universities have been
introduced, most of them run by religious organizations.

Debate over 8-4-4 System

However, although the 8-4-4 policy has been described a major educational reform in the
history of Kenya’s education system since independence in 1963, there are views that it is a
great devastation.

The 8-4-4 system has been the subject of national debate since its inception. It has been
criticized for being broad, expensive and burdensome to pupils and parents”. Since its
inception, 8-4-4 system was changed to be more accommodative. Several commissions have
been formed with the view of improving the system: The Wanjigi Report (GoK, 1983); The
Kamunge Report (GoK, 1985), The Mungai Report (GoK, 1995); The Ndegwa Report (GoK,
1991) and The Koech Report (GoK, 1999). The Kamunge Report (GoK, 1985) on Education
and training which recommended the reduction of examination subjects under the 8-4-4, was
implemented in secondary schools but ignored at the primary schools’ level; The president
(Moi) rejected the Koech Report.

Those commissions’ reports, that were implemented, made profound contributions to certain
aspects of the education system in Kenya, for instance, the Gachathi and Mackay Reports
contributed to the change of education policy from 7-4-2-3 to 8-4-4.

The Gachathi report noted with great concern the rising rate of unemployment among school
leavers and recommended the restructuring of the education system curriculum in order to
have more streams of science, mathematics and, technical and vocational subjects (Republic
of Kenya, 1976).

The Mackay Report influenced the extension of primary education from seven to eight years
and thus influenced the restructuring of the education system from 7-4- 2-3 to 8-4-4 and
hence the introduction of technical and vocational i.e. practical subjects in primary schools.
They both commission reports emphasized the integration of technical and vocational
education in the entire Kenyan educational system right from primary to tertiary levels
(Simiyu, 2001).

2-6-3-3-3 SYSTEM OF EDUCATION

The new curriculum has been touted as the ultimate remedy to limitations identified in the 8-
4-4 system because it is entirely skills-based.

It was piloted this year between May and September across 470 schools – 10 in each county.

Learners will not sit exams but they will be evaluated through Continuous Assessment Tests
(CATs) on the skills acquired as opposed to cramming for exams as has been the case.
Experts are of the view that it will enable learners to develop beyond academics and also
focus on how best they can use their specific talents to make a living.

The needs of special needs children have also been incorporated in the curriculum which will
integrate ICT at all levels of education.

The 2-6-3-3-3 model places emphasis on formative years of learning where learners will
spend a total of eight years - 2 in pre-primary and six in primary.

Subjects to be taught in lower primary are Kiswahili, English, literacy, and mother tongue as
well as science, social studies and agricultural activities.

Upper primary will include Kiswahili, English, Mathematics, Home Science, Agriculture,
Science and Technology, Creative Arts (art, craft and music), Moral and Life Skills and
Physical and Health Education.

Others are social studies (citizenship, geography and history) with an option of a foreign
language (French, German, Chinese and Arabic).

Junior Secondary (grades 7, 8 and 9) and Senior Secondary Education (grades 10,11 and 12)
will each take three years.

Twelve core subjects will be taught at junior secondary - Mathematics, Kiswahili, English,
life skills, health education, social studies, integrated science, business studies, religious
education, agriculture, life skills, sports and physical education.)

Learners at this level will also be required to take a minimum of one and a maximum of two
optional subjects that suit their career choices, personalities, abilities and interests. Home
science, foreign languages, Kenyan sign language, indigenous languages, visual arts,
performing arts, Arabic and computer science will be optional at junior secondary.

Learners at senior secondary (ages 15-17) will focus on three areas of specialization
depending on their skills, talents and interests. These are arts and sports science, social
sciences and Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM). Graduates from
this level will have the option to join vocational training centres or pursue university
education for three years.

TAXONOMIES OF LEARNING

Benjamin Samuel Bloom was an American educational psychologist who examined and then
restructured the way teaching should be approached, to maximise learners’ performance.
Blooms and his colleague identified 3 domains of learning outcome of educational activities,
the outcome is called Blooms Taxonomy.

Blooms Benjamin has put forward a taxonomy of educational objectives which provides a
practical framework within which educational objectives could be organized and measured.

It continues to impact the way educational curricula are structured to this day. In the
taxonomy Bloom divided educational objectives into 3 domains, divided into levels starting
from the simplest to the most complex.

i) Cognitive (processing information)

ii) Affective (attitudes and feelings)

iii) Psychomotor (physical skills).

Essentially, Bloom’s model evolved education from being a case of learners just memorising
information they had been taught to first remembering it; then understanding it; then applying
it (in exercises); then analysing it and, finally, being able to evaluate it at a complex level.

Bloom’s taxonomy was updated by former students of his in 2001, and the updated version is
now widely used in all spheres of education. In 2008, a variation of Bloom’s was created for
use specifically in the modern, digitally-enabled classroom (see Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy:
A reference guide for teachers.

Bloom’s revised taxonomy: what is it, and how is it used? Bloom’s taxonomy is a multi-
layered model for encouraging learning by progressing through six levels of increasing
complexity. The six levels are: Cognitive levels Explanation, Creating Putting elements
together to form a new, coherent and functional whole.

Evaluating Making judgements based on criteria and standards by checking and critiquing.

Analysing Breaking information into constituent parts and establishing how they relate to one
another.

Applying Implementing what was learnt in the Remembering and Understanding phases.

Understanding Constructing meaning by interpreting and summarising information.

Remembering recalling information from long-term memory. Bloom’s taxonomy encourages

learners to engage with knowledge at a deeper and more interactive level, working with what
they are learning in the real-world sense, rather than just passively taking information on
board.

Bloom’s taxonomy as an interdependent learning process

Bloom’s taxonomy arranges learning into six cognitive levels in order of hierarchy and
complexity

It also sees each level as being interdependent on the other levels, with all levels contributing
to the final, holistic learning outcome.

The interdependence of Bloom’s different learning levels can be articulated through logic:

• Before we can understand a concept, we must be able to remember it.

• Before we can apply the concept, we must be able to understand it.
• Before we analyse it, we must be able to apply it.
• Before we can evaluate its impact, we must have analysed it.
• Before we can create something based on the concept, we must have remembered,
understood, applied, analysed and evaluated the concept.

The non-pyramid forms for expressing Bloom’s taxonomy indicate that learning may not
always progress linearly up through the six levels. Rather, learners might move back and
forth between different levels depending on the learning situation, or they might spend more
time in some levels of the taxonomy than in others. The human brain, by nature, tends to
behave in a lateral manner rather than a set linear manner.

Cognitive domain

Involves those objectives that deal with the development of intellectual abilities and skills.

It has six levels listed from the simplest to the most complex.

The six cognitive levels of Bloom’s taxonomy (Revised &original) Within those domains, his
taxonomy progressed from Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) to Higher Order Thinking
Skills (HOTS), through six levels: Kknowledge, Ccomprehension, Aapplication, Aanalysis,
Ssynthesis and then Evaluation.

Original Blooms taxonomy

 1) Knowledge

The collection and recalling appropriate previously learnt information. This include the recall
of terminology and specific verbs. The verbs to be used to the statement of instructional
objective at this level include: Define, Describe, Enumerate, Identify, List, Match, Label,
Name, Read, Select and State.

2) Comprehension

Entails the understanding of information so as to be able to translate, perceive and interpret

instruction and problems. Learners should be able to classify, site, discuss, explain. Give
examples, paraphrase, summarize, relate in own words, understand and distinguish.

3) Application

Involves using previously learnt information in a new situation to solve problems. The verbs
are; apply, state, produce, change, complete, modify, compare, relate, use and produce.

4) Analyzing
Refers to the ability to breakdown informational materials into their component parts,
examine them and understand instructional structure. It may involve identifying motives
making references or finding evidence to support generalization. Verbs include; breakdown,
corelate, point out, recognize, separate, sub-divide, select, compare, limit, illustrate.

5) Synthesis

Refers to the building of structure/pattern from various types of elements. The key words are;
categorize, (look for other verbs for synthesis)

6) Evaluation

Refers to the process of making judgement about information. Its value and quality. The key
words are appraising, comparing and contrasting, justifying, discriminating, judging,
evaluating.

Application of blooms taxonomy. i.e. in creating a table of specification.

Objectives

Knowledge
Course content recall Comprehension Application Synthesis Evaluation
Seed germination
2 2 2
Plant growth
1 2 2
Manufacture of
food 1 2 2
Reproduction 1 2 2
Seed dispersal
1 1 2
Total 6 9 10

The six cognitive levels of Revised Bloom’s taxonomy

 1) Remembering

Verbs: Define, Label, List, Name, Recite, Repeat. Remembering is the act of retrieving
knowledge and can be used to produce things like definitions or lists. It is the lowest of the
taxonomic levels but is essential for the learning process because learners need to have
knowledge in place before they can engage with it at higher cognitive levels.

Examples of Remembering include reciting the times’ table, naming different parts of the
human anatomy, answering true or false questions, recalling critical events on a historical
timeline or even naming the six cognitive levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. Remembering
requires no understanding of the knowledge, only to have it accurately and thoroughly in
mind.

2) Understanding

Verbs: Explain, Discuss, Examine, Generalize, Group, Order, Paraphrase, Rephrase, Sort.

Refers to the construction of meaning and the building of relationships. Understanding can be
demonstrated by, for example, grouping a list of different animals into the right categories
(marine, avian, terrestrial, amphibian); explaining how one event on a historical timeline
impacted on another, discussing the moral of a story or being able to explain why Bloom’s
has different cognitive levels and the logic behind their hierarchy.

3) Applying

Verbs: Compute, Demonstrate, Direct, Dramatize, Formulate, Make, Present. The third level
in Bloom’s taxonomy, Applying, marks a fundamental shift from the pre-Bloom’s learning
era because it involves remembering what has been learnt, having a good understanding of
the knowledge, and then being able to apply it to real-world exercises, challenges or
situations.

Examples of Applying in action could include making repairs to a computer’s components;

role- playing, mediation and conflict resolution between two warring countries;
demonstrating the steps that take place in HIV counselling and testing, or presenting a talk on
solutions to climate change.

4) Analysing

Verbs: Simplify, Criticise, Distinguish, Explain, Illustrate, Inspect, Question. Analysing is

the cognitive level where a learner can take the knowledge they have remembered,
understood and applied, then delve(dig) into that knowledge to make associations,
discernments or comparisons.

Analysing would mean a learner can take complex information, and simplify it or summarise
it. As other examples, a learner would be able to give reasons why one historic military
campaign failed and why another succeeded, or critically examine aspects of Bloom’s
original taxonomy and explain why his students later updated them.

5) Evaluating

Verbs: Decide, Forecast, Judge, Prioritise, Revise, Value, Weigh. The fifth level in Bloom’s
Digital Taxonomy is evaluation. This level requires the learner to make criteria-based
judgements through the processes of critiquing and checking.

Evaluating could involve reading a book and writing a review on its merits; looking at the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights and deciding which rights are more or less relevant to
a given country; suggesting ways to introduce digital technology into the classroom
environment, or making an informed judgement in a role play of court case proceedings
 6) Creating

Verbs: Construct, Write, Develop, Design, Invent, Originate, Set up. The final taxonomic
level is concerned with taking various elements and creating a new, coherent product. This
level draws on all of the other levels, with the learner remembering, understanding and
applying knowledge; analysing and evaluating outcomes and processes, and then constructing
the end product, which may be either physical or conceptual.

For example, designing and building a house out of wooden segments, and designing a 3D
model of a house on a computer would both be examples of Creating. Another example
would be a Learner taking the knowledge of Bloom’s taxonomy which they have
remembered, understood, applied, analysed and evaluated, and creating a brand-new model
for the tiers of cognitive thinking and learning.

Taxonomies of Cognition Old and New

Bloom’s Taxonomy 1956 Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Taxonomy 2001

1. Remembering
1.Knowledge
Recognizing or recalling knowledge from memory. Remembering is
Remembering or retrieving
when memory is used to produce or retrieve definitions, facts, or lists, or
previously learned material.
to recite previously learned information.

2.Understanding
2.Comprehension
Constructing meaning from different types of functions be they written
The ability to grasp or construct
or graphic messages or activities like interpreting, exemplifying,
meaning from material.
classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, or explaining.

3.Application 3.Applying

The ability to use learned material, Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or
or to implement material in new and implementing. Applying relates to or refers to situations where learned
concrete situations. material is used through products like models, presentations, interviews
or simulations.

3) Analysis
The ability to break down or 4.Analysing
distinguish the parts of material into
Breaking materials or concepts into parts, determining how the parts
its components so that its
relate to one another or how they interrelate, or how the parts relate to
organizational structure may be
an overall structure or purpose. Mental actions included in this function
better understood.
are differentiating, organizing, and attributing, as well as being able to
distinguish between the components or parts. When one is analysing,
he/she can illustrate this mental function by creating spreadsheets,
surveys, charts, or diagrams, or graphic representations.

5) Evaluating

4) Synthesis: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking

and critiquing. Critiques, recommendations, and reports are some of the
(Now Creating #6) The ability to
products that can be created to demonstrate the processes of
put parts together to form a coherent
evaluation. In the newer taxonomy, evaluating comes before creating as
or unique new whole.
it is often a necessary part of the precursory behaviour before one
creates something.

6. Creating

6.Evaluation Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole;

reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through
(Now #5) The ability to judge,
generating, planning, or producing. Creating requires users to put parts
check, and even critique the value of
together in a new way, or synthesize parts into something new and
material for a given purpose.
different creating a new form or product. This process is the most
difficult mental function in the new taxonomy.
Affective Domain

The affective domain is part of a system that was published in 1965 for identifying,
understanding and addressing how people learn.

The affective domain describes learning objectives that emphasize a feeling tone, an emotion,
or a degree of acceptance or rejection. Affective objectives vary from simple attention to
selected phenomena to complex but internally consistent qualities of character and
conscience.

It is concerned with emotions and attitudes.

This domain deals with developing learners’ feelings and emotions, especially in modifying
their attitudes towards things and persons.e.g. pupils should show sympathy to the less
fortunate members of the community after listening to a sad story, or appreciation beauty, etc.

It also deals with interests, appreciations and modes of adjustment (Ndubisi 1985). Some
level of cognitive is involved in development of feelings emotions and attitudes. For example,
learners can only develop what they know or perceive, conceive and think.

Affective domain has five levels which comprise the following:

 1) Receiving

Is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas, material, or phenomena and
being willing to tolerate them. (. Involves awareness and paying attention.)

Key words include: to differentiate, to accept, to listen (for), to respond to, name, choose,
point out, use, locate, follow.

Receiving also refers to willingness to attend to or listen to a given stimuli. For example,
before one can develop a feeling of or emotion of courage, one may have to be willing to
watch a movie or listen to a story of the courageous exploit of someone else. This is the first
level in the inculcation of a spirit of courage in a learner;

2) Responding

Involves active participation in the learning process. The learners react to what they have
received.

Responding also refers to the response that comes from the learner as a result of attending to
or receiving stimuli presented.
Is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or phenomena involved by
actively responding to them.

The key words include; Answer, assist, help, label, discuss, perform, practice, to comply
with, to follow, to commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to acclaim.

3) Valuing

Is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or phenomena.

Describe the value of words that the learner attaches to a particular object, phenomenon or
behaviour.

The key words include; complete, join, demonstrate, differentiate, illustrate, justify, propose,
explain, form, write, report, study and work.

Valuing also refers to the acceptance of the value being taught as ‘courage’, ‘honesty’, by the
learner. It is an internalizing process involving accepting the value to one that is contrary to it,
and commitment to live the value. For example, having received and responded positively to,
say, a story telling lesson on “honesty is the best policy”, the learner may internalize or
imbibe the value, preferring it to any other opposed to it, and be ready/willing to commit
himself to living the value of honesty;

4) Organization

Is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a harmonious and internally
consistent philosophy. Involves arranging values according to priority by comparing, relating
and synthesizing them. Key words; Alter, Arrange, Organize, synthesis

Organising/Organisation: This is the bringing together of different values and organising

them into a value system which eventually leads to character formation. In other words, this
level is important in that the learner is able to put together different values of honesty,
perseverance, handwork and organize them into a value system that may result in producing
in him/her, the character expected of a good citizen;

Key words; Alter, Arrange, Organize, synthesis, to discuss, to theorize, to formulate, to

balance, to examine.
 5) Characterization by value or value sets / internalization of values

By value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with the values he or she has
internalized.

Characterization by a value or value Complex: This is the last stage and the final or end result
of what learners is expected to become as a result of exposure to the learning material in the
affective domain. It is expected at this stage that the learner’s behaviour would have been
modified or his/her attitude changed for the better, and that the new behaviour learnt becomes
a permanent feature or aspect of his/her character.

Key words include: to revise, to require, to be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to
manage, to resolve, perform, influence, quality, display, relate.

Psychomotor domain

Involves physical movement, coordination and use of motor skills. The domain describes the
ability to physically manipulate things such as tools.

The psychomotor domain relates to the learning of physical movements. The members of the
original committee did not write a book on about the psychomotor domain.

a) Perception (sensory guiding of motor activity)

This is the ability to use senses to guide motor ability. Key words: identity, isolate, select.

b) Set (feeling ready to act)

Indicate the readiness to act. The key words include; display, move, explain, proceed and
volunteer.

c) Guided response (beginning to learn complex skills)

Refers to the early stages of learning. Stages which include; Imitation, trial and error achieved
by practice. Key word copy, pressing, following and reproducing.

d) Complete overt response (performing with advanced skill)

Is the skillfully performance of physical and activities that involves complex movement,
pattern providence are indicated.

e) Mechanism (developing basic proficiency)

Refers to the immediate stage of learning a complex skill. Learning response should be
habitual, confidence and proficiency. Learners can assemble, construct, demonstrate,
measure,

f) Adaptation (modifying movement to meet special circumstances)

Individual experiencing learning at this level have well developed skills and are to make
modifications to fit certain requirements. Learners at this level adapt, change after, rearrange
and recognize.

g) Origination

Involves creativity. The learner can create new different movement pattern to suit different
variations. Individuals should build, compare, combine, imitate and create

Bloom's Taxonomy: The Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and
use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in
terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. Thus,
psychomotor skills rage from manual tasks, such as digging a ditch or washing a car, to more
complex tasks, such as operating a complex piece of machinery or dancing.
The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behaviour to the most complex:
Category
1)Perception (awareness): The ability
to use sensory cues to guide motor
activity. This ranges from sensory
stimulation, through cue selection, to
translation.
2)Set: Readiness to act. It includes
mental, physical, and emotional sets.
These three sets are dispositions that
predetermine a person's response to
different situations (sometimes called
mindsets).
Example and Key Words (verbs)
Examples: Detects non-verbal
communication cues. Estimate where a ball
will land after it is thrown and then moving
to the correct location to catch the ball.
Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature
by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the
height of the forks on a forklift by
comparing where the forks are in relation to
the pallet.
Key Words: chooses, describes, detects,
differentiates, distinguishes, identifies,
isolates, relates, selects.
Examples: Knows and acts upon a
sequence of steps in a manufacturing
process. Recognize one's abilities and
limitations. Shows desire to learn a new
process (motivation). NOTE: This
subdivision of Psychomotor is closely
related with the “Responding to
phenomena” subdivision of the Affective
domain.
Key Words: begins, displays, explains,
moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states,
volunteers.
 Examples: Performs a mathematical
equation as demonstrated. Follows
3)Guided Response: The early stages in
instructions to build a model. Responds
learning a complex skill that includes
hand-signals of instructor while learning to
imitation and trial and error. Adequacy
operate a forklift.
of performance is achieved by
practicing.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react,
reproduce, responds

Examples: Use a personal

4)Mechanism (basic proficiency): This computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a
is the intermediate stage in learning a car.
complex skill. Learned responses have
become habitual and the movements can Key Words: assembles, calibrates,

be performed with some confidence and constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,

proficiency. fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures,

mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

Complex Overt Response (Expert):

Examples: Manoeuvres a car into a tight
The skilful performance of motor acts
parallel parking spot. Operates a computer
that involve complex movement
quickly and accurately. Displays
patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a
competence while playing the piano.
quick, accurate, and highly coordinated
performance, requiring a minimum of Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates,
energy. This category includes constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens,
performing without hesitation, and fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures,
automatic performance. For example, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
players are often utter sounds of
NOTE: The Key Words are the same as
satisfaction or expletives as soon as they
Mechanism, but will have adverbs or
hit a tennis ball or throw a football,
adjectives that indicate that the performance
because they can tell by the feel of the
is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.
act what the result will produce.

Adaptation: Skills are well developed Examples: Responds effectively to

and the individual can modify unexpected experiences. Modifies
 movement patterns to fit special instruction to meet the needs of the learners.
requirements. Perform a task with a machine that it was
not originally intended to do (machine is not
damaged and there is no danger in
performing the new task).

Key Words: adapts, alters, changes,

rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.

Examples: Constructs a new theory.

Develops a new and comprehensive training
Origination: Creating new movement
programming. Creates a new gymnastic
patterns to fit a particular situation or
routine.
specific problem. Learning outcomes
emphasize creativity based upon highly
Key Words: arranges, builds, combines,
developed skills.
composes, constructs, creates, designs,
initiate, makes, originates.

Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies

As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor
domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is by Simpson (1972). There are
two other popular versions by Dave (1970) and Harrow (1972):

Dave (1975)

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Copying a work of art. Performing a skill

Imitation — Observing and
while observing a demonstrator.
patterning behaviour after
someone else. Performance may
Key Words: copy, follow, mimic, repeat, replicate,
be of low quality.
reproduce, trace
 Examples: Being able to perform a skill on one's own
Manipulation — Being able to
after taking lessons or reading about it. Follows
perform certain actions by
instructions to build a model.
memory or following
instructions.
Key Words: act, build, execute, perform

Examples: Working and reworking something, so it

will be “just right.” Perform a skill or task without
Precision — Refining, becoming
assistance. Demonstrate a task to a beginner.
more exact. Performing a skill
within a high degree of precision
Key Words: calibrate, demonstrate, master,
perfectionism

Examples: Combining a series of skills to produce a

video that involves music, drama, colour, sound, etc.
Articulation — Coordinating
Combining a series of skills or activities to meet a
and adapting a series of actions
novel requirement.
to achieve harmony and internal
consistency.
Key Words: adapt, constructs, combine, creates,
customize, modifies, formulate

Examples: Manoeuvres a car into a tight parallel

parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and
Naturalization — Mastering a
accurately. Displays competence while playing the
high-level performance until it
piano. Michael Jordan playing basketball or Nancy
become second-nature or natural,
Lopez hitting a golf ball.
without needing to think much
about it.
Key Words: create, design, develop, invent, manage,
naturally

Harrow (1972):

Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Reflex Movements — Reactions that Examples: instinctive response
are not learned, such as an involuntary
reaction Key Words: react, respond

Fundamental Movements — Basic Examples: perform a simple task

movements such as walking, or
grasping. Key Words: grasp an object, throw a ball, walk

Examples: track a moving object, recognize a

Perceptual Abilities — Response to
pattern
stimuli such as visual, auditory,
kinaesthetic, or tactile discrimination.
Key Words: catch a ball, draw or write

Physical Abilities (fitness) — Stamina

Examples: gain strength, run a marathon
that must be developed for further
development such as strength and
Key Words: agility, endurance, strength
agility.

Examples: Using an advanced series of

Skilled movements — Advanced integrated movements, perform a role in a stage
learned movements as one would find play or play in a set of series in a sports game.
in sports or acting.
Key Words: adapt, constructs, creates, modifies

Examples: Express one's self by using

Nondiscursive communication — Use
movements and gestures
effective body language, such as
gestures and facial expressions.
Key Words: arrange, compose, interpretation

QUESTIONS

1) Why are learning taxonomies important in curriculum development.

2) Which is the taxonomy for generating learning outcomes in the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains?
3) What determines the choice of learning taxonomy used in generating learning
outcomes.
Strand two:

CURRICULUM MONITORING AND EVALUATION

CURRICULUM MONITORING

By the end of the sub strand, the teacher trainee should be able to:

a) Explore given concepts related to monitoring of curriculum.

b) Examine the principles of monitoring in curriculum.
c) Discuss the process of monitoring in curriculum.
d) Analyze the aspects of the curriculum that should be monitored.
e) Develop and use monitoring tools to carryout curriculum monitoring.
f) Discuss the challenges encountered in curriculum monitoring.
g) Appreciate the importance of ethics when monitoring curriculum.

Monitoring of curriculum refers to the process of assessing and evaluating the effectiveness
of a particular curriculum in achieving its intended outcomes.

It is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing and using information to track a

programmes progress toward reaching its objectives and to guide management decisions. It
focuses on whether learners are achieving the expected learning outcomes.

CONCEPTS RELATED TO MONITORING OF CURRICULUM

Relevance

It refers to the applicability and appropriateness of a curriculum to the needs, interest,

attitudes and expectations of learners and the society in general.

Curriculum Alignment
This refers to the degree to which the curriculum is aligned with the intended learning
outcomes. The monitoring process involves examining how well the curriculum is aligned
with the learning objectives and standards, ensuring that the curriculum is focused on
achieving the desired outcomes.

Assessment

The monitoring process involves assessing student learning outcomes to determine the
effectiveness of the curriculum. This involves using various assessment methods, such as
tests, quizzes, projects, and performance tasks, to measure the progress of students in
achieving the intended learning outcomes.

Consistency

It is the quality of always behaving or performing in a similar way or always happening in a

similar way

Evaluation

This involves examining the effectiveness of the curriculum in achieving its intended goals
and objectives. The evaluation process involves collecting data on student learning outcomes,
analysing the data, and using the results to make informed decisions about curriculum design
and implementation.

Feedback

Monitoring of the curriculum involves providing feedback to teachers, administrators, and

other stakeholders on the effectiveness of the curriculum. This feedback is used to make
necessary adjustments to the curriculum, ensuring that it meets the needs of students and
achieves the intended learning outcomes.

Continuous Improvement

Curriculum monitoring involves a continuous improvement process that involves regularly

assessing and evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum and making necessary
adjustments to improve it. This process ensures that the curriculum is constantly evolving to
meet the changing needs of students and the educational environment.

PRINCIPLES OF MONITORING IN THE CONTEXT OF COMPETENCY-BASED

CURRICULUM
Competency-based curriculum (CBC) focuses on developing the knowledge, skills, and
abilities that students need to be successful in their future careers.

Monitoring in the context of CBC should be a dynamic and ongoing process that involves
multiple stakeholders, multiple sources of data, and a commitment to continuous
improvement. This ensures that students develop the competencies they need to succeed in
their future careers.

Effective monitoring of CBC requires the following principles:

1) Clear Learning Outcomes

CBC should have clear and specific learning outcomes that define the knowledge, skills, and
abilities that students are expected to develop. These outcomes should be aligned with
industry or professional standards, ensuring that students are prepared for their future careers.

2) Continuous Assessment

Assessment should be ongoing throughout the CBC to monitor student progress and ensure
that they are meeting the intended learning outcomes. The assessments should be varied and
aligned with the learning outcomes, and provide multiple opportunities for students to
demonstrate their competence.

3) Authentic Assessment

The assessments should be authentic, meaning that they are relevant to the real-world
contexts in which the students will be working. This ensures that students develop the skills
and knowledge that are applicable to their future careers.

4) Multiple Sources of Data

CBC monitoring should use multiple sources of data to evaluate student progress, including
formative assessments, summative assessments, self-assessments, and peer assessments. This
provides a more comprehensive picture of student progress and helps identify areas for
improvement.

5) Continuous Improvement

CBC monitoring should be part of a continuous improvement process that involves regularly
evaluating and refining the curriculum. This process should involve stakeholders, such as
teachers, students, and industry professionals, to ensure that the CBC is relevant and
effective.
 6) Transparency

CBC monitoring should be transparent, meaning that all stakeholders should have access to
the data and results. This helps to build trust and accountability, and ensures that all
stakeholders are working towards the same goals.

PROCESSES OF MONITORING IN CURRICULUM

Monitoring of curriculum involves a set of processes that are designed to assess and evaluate
the effectiveness of the curriculum in achieving its intended goals and objectives. The
following are some of the key processes involved in monitoring curriculum:

1) Setting Learning Objectives

The first step in monitoring the curriculum is to define the learning objectives and outcomes
that the curriculum is designed to achieve. These objectives should be specific, measurable,
and aligned with the goals of the curriculum.

2) Assessment

The next step in the monitoring process is to assess student learning outcomes using various
assessment methods, such as tests, quizzes, projects, and performance tasks. The assessments
should be aligned with the learning objectives and should provide a clear picture of student
progress.

3) Data Collection

Once the assessments are completed, the data collected from the assessments is analyzed to
determine how well the curriculum is achieving its intended goals and objectives. This data
can come from various sources, including student work, teacher observations, and
performance records

4) Data Analysis

After the data is collected, it is analysed to identify patterns, trends, and areas of strength and
weakness. This analysis can be done using various statistical methods, such as regression
analysis or descriptive statistics.
 5) Evaluation

The data analysis is then used to evaluate the effectiveness of the curriculum in achieving its
goals and objectives. The evaluation should be based on the evidence gathered through the
assessments and data collection processes.

6) Feedback

Feedback on the evaluation is provided to teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders to

help them make informed decisions about curriculum design and implementation. This
feedback can be used to make necessary adjustments to the curriculum, ensuring that it meets
the needs of students and achieves the intended learning outcomes.

7) Continuous Improvement

Curriculum monitoring is an ongoing process that involves regularly assessing and

evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum and making necessary adjustments to improve
it. This process ensures that the curriculum is constantly evolving to meet the changing needs
of students and the educational environment.

ASPECTS OF THE CURRICULUM THAT SHOULD BE MONITORED

Monitoring of curriculum involves assessing and evaluating various aspects of the curriculum
to ensure that it is effective in achieving its intended goals and objectives. The following are
some of the key aspects of the curriculum that should be monitored:

Content

Curriculum content means the totality off what is to be taught in school curriculum.

It should be monitored to ensure that it is relevant, current, and aligned with the learning
objectives and standards. The content should also be inclusive and culturally responsive,
addressing the diverse needs and experiences of students.

Teaching Strategies

The teaching strategies used in the curriculum should be monitored to ensure that they are
effective in engaging students and facilitating learning. Teachers should use a variety of
strategies that are appropriate for the content and the needs of the students.

Assessment
The assessment strategies used in the curriculum should be monitored to ensure that they are
valid, reliable, and aligned with the learning objectives. The assessments should provide
multiple opportunities for students to demonstrate their competence and should be authentic
and relevant to real-world contexts.

Student Learning Outcomes

The student learning outcomes should be monitored to ensure that they are aligned with the
goals of the curriculum and that students are making progress towards achieving them. This
involves regularly assessing and evaluating student work, analysing data, and providing
feedback to students and teachers.

Feedback

Feedback should be monitored to ensure that it is timely, specific, and actionable. Teachers
should provide feedback to students that is aligned with the learning objectives and that helps
them improve their performance. Feedback should also be provided to teachers,
administrators, and other stakeholders to inform decision-making about curriculum design
and implementation.

Resources

The resources used in the curriculum should be monitored to ensure that they are adequate
and appropriate for the content and the needs of the students. This includes materials,
technology, and equipment used in the classroom, as well as resources available to teachers
and students outside of the classroom.

Implementation

The implementation of the curriculum should be monitored to ensure that it is being

implemented as intended and that it is effective in achieving its goals and objectives. This
involves regular observations of classroom instruction, as well as monitoring of teacher
training and support.

CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN CURRICULUM MONITORING

Monitoring of curriculum is a critical process that is necessary to ensure that the curriculum is
effective in achieving its intended goals and objectives. However, this process can also be
challenging due to a number of factors. The following are some of the key challenges
encountered in curriculum monitoring:
 1) Resource constraints

Monitoring of curriculum requires a significant amount of time, effort, and resources.

Schools may not have adequate resources to support comprehensive monitoring, such as
dedicated staff or technology for data analysis.

2) Assessment bias

Assessments used to monitor curriculum may be biased towards certain types of learners or
may not fully capture the diversity of student experiences and backgrounds. This can lead to
inaccurate assessments of student learning and may result in ineffective adjustments to the
curriculum.

3) Alignment with standards

Curriculum monitoring requires alignment with national and local standards. However,
standards may be inconsistent or not well defined, making it difficult to determine if the
curriculum is achieving its intended goals.

4) Resistance to change

Teachers and administrators may resist changes to the curriculum based on monitoring data or
feedback, particularly if they are accustomed to a certain way of teaching or if the changes
require additional resources or training.

5) Limited data

The data collected during curriculum monitoring may be limited, making it difficult to
accurately assess the effectiveness of the curriculum. For example, assessments may not
cover all aspects of the curriculum or may not be administered frequently enough to capture
changes in student learning.

6) Lack of consensus

Different stakeholders may have different opinions on what should be monitored and how it
should be monitored. This can lead to disagreements and challenges in implementing a
comprehensive monitoring system.

7) Difficulty in translating data into action

Even when data is collected and analysed, it can be difficult to translate it into actionable
steps that lead to improvements in the curriculum. This requires buy-in from teachers and
administrators, as well as clear communication about the implications of the data.

DEVELOP AND USE MONITORING TOOLS TO CARRY OUT CURRICULUM

MONITORING

Developing and using monitoring tools is a crucial part of curriculum monitoring, as it allows
educators to collect and analyse data on various aspects of the curriculum. The following are
steps for developing and using monitoring tools for curriculum monitoring:

1) Identify the areas of the curriculum that need to be monitored

Before developing monitoring tools, it's important to identify the areas of the curriculum that
need to be monitored. This could include content, teaching strategies, assessment, student
learning outcomes, feedback, resources, and implementation.

2) Define the monitoring goals and objectives

Define the goals and objectives for each area of the curriculum that you want to monitor.
This helps to guide the development of monitoring tools and ensures that data collected is
aligned with the intended outcomes.

3) Determine the type of monitoring tool to use

Depending on the area of the curriculum being monitored, different types of monitoring tools
may be appropriate. For example, observation checklists or rubrics can be used to monitor
teaching strategies, while assessments can be used to monitor student learning outcomes.

4) Develop the monitoring tool

Based on the type of monitoring tool chosen, develop the tool by creating questions, prompts,
or tasks that are aligned with the goals and objectives of the curriculum. The tool should be
clear, concise, and easy to use.

Tools for monitoring the curriculum.

• Project record.
• Formal surveys
• Interviews
• Direct observations
 • Questionnaires
5) Pilot test the monitoring tool

Before using the monitoring tool with a larger group, pilot test it with a small group to ensure
that it is effective in collecting the intended data.

6) Collect data using the monitoring tool

Use the monitoring tool to collect data on the identified areas of the curriculum. This could
involve administering assessments, conducting observations, or collecting feedback from
students and teachers.

7) Analyse the data

Analyse the data collected using the monitoring tool to identify areas of strength and areas
that need improvement. This analysis can be used to make data-driven decisions about
curriculum design and implementation.

8) Use the data to make improvements

Use the data collected and analysed to make improvements to the curriculum. This could
involve adjusting content, teaching strategies, assessment, or implementation.

9) Repeat the monitoring process

Monitor the curriculum regularly using the monitoring tools to ensure that improvements are
made and that the curriculum remains effective in achieving its intended goals and objectives.

Overall, developing and using monitoring tools for curriculum monitoring is a crucial part of
ensuring that the curriculum is effective in achieving its intended outcomes. By following
these steps, educators can collect and analyse data that can be used to make data-driven
decisions about curriculum design and implementation.

IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVING ETHICAL ISSUES IN CURRICULUM

MONITORING

Observing ethical issues in curriculum monitoring is crucial because it ensures that the
process is conducted in a responsible, fair, and equitable manner. The following are some of
the reasons why observing ethical issues is important in curriculum monitoring:

1) Protecting student privacy

Curriculum monitoring involves collecting data on students, and this data may include
sensitive personal information. Observing ethical issues ensures that the data is collected and
stored in a way that protects student privacy.

2) Preventing discrimination

Curriculum monitoring data can reveal disparities in academic achievement among students
from different backgrounds. Observing ethical issues ensures that this data is not used to
discriminate against students or perpetuate bias.

3) Maintaining trust

Observing ethical issues in curriculum monitoring helps to maintain the trust of students,
parents, and the wider community. If the monitoring process is not conducted ethically, it can
erode trust and undermine the credibility of the educational institution.

4) Ensuring transparency

Observing ethical issues ensures that decisions about curriculum design and implementation
are made in a transparent manner, and that stakeholders are informed about the data and how
it was collected.

5) Upholding professional standards

Observing ethical issues in curriculum monitoring upholds professional standards of ethics

and conduct. It ensures that the monitoring process is conducted in a way that is responsible,
fair, and equitable.

6) Ensuring accountability

Observing ethical issues in curriculum monitoring ensures that educators are accountable for
the decisions they make based on the data collected. It ensures that they are responsible for
ensuring that the monitoring process is conducted in a way that is transparent, responsible,
and equitable.

Debate on the challenges of monitoring CBC and how to overcome them

There are several challenges that arise when monitoring Competency-Based Curriculum
(CBC) in educational institutions. In this debate, we will discuss some of these challenges and
propose ways to overcome them.

1) Developing and Implementing Effective Monitoring Strategies

One of the biggest challenges in monitoring CBC is developing and implementing effective
monitoring strategies. This is because CBC is a new curriculum that requires a different
approach to teaching and assessment. Traditional monitoring strategies may not be effective
in capturing the competencies that students are expected to acquire under CBC.

Solution: To overcome this challenge, educators should develop monitoring strategies that
are aligned with CBC's learning outcomes. These strategies should involve ongoing formative
assessments that capture students' progress towards achieving the desired competencies.
Additionally, educators should use a variety of assessment tools, such as portfolios, rubrics,
and self-assessment, to capture students' progress accurately.

2) Inadequate Resources

Another challenge in monitoring CBC is the lack of resources. Monitoring CBC requires the
use of various tools, such as technology, trained personnel, and time. Schools and educational
institutions may not have the necessary resources to conduct effective monitoring of CBC.

Solution: To overcome this challenge, schools and educational institutions can collaborate
with other stakeholders, such as the government, NGOs, and the private sector, to provide the
necessary resources for monitoring CBC. They can also use cost-effective tools, such as
online platforms, to capture and analyse data on student progress.

3) Resistance to Change

Resistance to change is a significant challenge in implementing CBC. Some educators may be

resistant to change, particularly if they have been using traditional teaching methods for a
long time. This can make it difficult to monitor CBC effectively.

Solution: To overcome this challenge, educators should be trained on CBC and its
monitoring strategies. They should be provided with the necessary support to adapt to the new
curriculum, including ongoing professional development and coaching.

4) Data Management
Collecting, managing, and analysing data on student progress can be a significant challenge in
monitoring CBC. Schools and educational institutions may not have the necessary expertise
to manage large amounts of data effectively.

Solution: To overcome this challenge, schools and educational institutions should invest in
data management systems and personnel with expertise in data management. Additionally,
they should collaborate with other stakeholders, such as the government and NGOs, to
develop data management systems that are aligned with CBC.

In conclusion, monitoring CBC is a complex process that requires the development and
implementation of effective monitoring strategies, adequate resources, the support of
educators, and efficient data management systems. These challenges can be overcome
through collaboration, ongoing professional development, and the use of cost-effective and
innovative monitoring strategies.

Curriculum evaluation
By the end of the sub strand, the teacher trainee should be able to:

a) Explore the concepts related to curriculum evaluation.

b) Evaluate learners progress using various methods and tools learning.
c) Prepare evaluation reports that show learners progress in learning.
d) Appreciate the role of the teacher in evaluating learners progress and acquisition of
competencies.
e) Examine the roles of different agencies in curriculum monitoring and evaluation.

Curriculum evaluation

It is the process of systematically examining and analysing a curriculum to determine its

effectiveness in achieving its goals and objectives.

It involves the collection and analysis of data related to various aspects of the curriculum,
including content, teaching methods, student performance, and overall impact on learners.

The process involves the use of standards and criteria, formative and summative evaluation,
input, process, output, and outcome evaluation, stakeholder involvement, and continuous
improvement. By evaluating the curriculum, educators can identify areas for improvement
and make necessary changes to enhance the effectiveness of the curriculum.
concepts related to curriculum evaluation

Evaluation in the context of a Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) focuses on assessing

students' mastery of specific competencies or skills. Here are some brainstormed concepts
related to evaluation in relation to a Competency-Based Curriculum:

1) Competency assessment

Evaluation in a CBC involves assessing students' proficiency in the identified competencies.

It focuses on measuring the extent to which students have acquired the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes specified in the curriculum. Competency assessments can be formative (ongoing) or
summative (end-of-term or end-of-year), allowing for continuous monitoring of students'
progress and providing feedback for improvement.

2) Performance-based assessment

CBC emphasizes performance-based assessments that require students to demonstrate their

competencies through real-world tasks or projects. These assessments can include
presentations, portfolios, performances, simulations, case studies, and problem-solving tasks.
Performance-based assessments provide a more authentic and holistic picture of students'
abilities and allow for the application of knowledge and skills in practical contexts.

3) Rubrics and criteria

Evaluation in CBC often involves the use of rubrics or criteria to assess students'
performance on specific competencies. Rubrics provide clear guidelines and descriptors for
different levels of proficiency, enabling teachers to provide targeted feedback and students to
understand their strengths and areas for improvement. Rubrics can be used to assess various
aspects of a competency, such as knowledge, skills, application, and critical thinking.

4) Self-assessment and reflection

CBC encourage students to engage in self-assessment and reflection as part of the evaluation
process. Students are encouraged to assess their own progress, identify their strengths and
weaknesses, set goals, and reflect on their learning experiences. Self-assessment helps
students take ownership of their learning and fosters metacognitive skills, enabling them to
monitor their own growth and development.
 5) Authentic assessment

Authentic assessment methods are employed in CBC to evaluate students' competencies in

real-world contexts. These assessments require students to apply their knowledge and skills to
solve complex problems or engage in meaningful tasks that mimic real-life situations.
Authentic assessments promote critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, and
collaboration, as they assess students' abilities to transfer their learning to practical scenarios.

6) Multiple measures of assessment

CBC recognizes that competencies can be multifaceted and may require multiple measures of
assessment. Rather than relying solely on traditional exams, evaluation in CBC incorporates
various assessment methods to capture different dimensions of a competency. This can
include written assessments, oral presentations, group projects, observations, interviews, and
practical demonstrations.

7) Individualized feedback and support

Evaluation in CBC emphasizes providing individualized feedback and support to students.

Teachers play a crucial role in assessing students' progress, identifying areas of improvement,
and offering tailored feedback to help students enhance their competencies. Feedback should
be constructive, specific, and actionable, guiding students towards their learning goals.

8) Continuous improvement

Evaluation in CBC is an iterative process that promotes continuous improvement of the

curriculum and instruction. It involves analysing assessment data, identifying trends, and
using the findings to refine teaching strategies, instructional materials, and the overall
curriculum design. Evaluation data helps identify areas where students may be struggling,
leading to targeted interventions and adjustments in instructional practices.

9) Stakeholder Involvement

Stakeholder involvement is an essential aspect of curriculum evaluation. Stakeholders,

including students, teachers, parents, and the community, should be involved in the
evaluation process to ensure that their needs and expectations are met. This involvement also
provides valuable feedback that can be used to improve the curriculum.
Validity

A test is said to be valid when its item measure what they are intended to measure.When
designing a test, a teacher must ensure that the test content covers what he/she actually
intends to test or what he/she has taught i.e. Must cover the objectives, course content and
learning experiences.

How to ensure high test validity.

1) Setting questions from all parts of the syllabus covered i.e. course content
2) Ensure that the number of questions set from each section reflects and relative
importance of the sections. More questions from the area that is more emphasized
should be set.
3) Ensuring that the questions are set in such a way that they test the necessary are of
cognition. i.e. Namely, Recall

Reliability

A test is said to be reliable if it consistently measures what it is supposed to measure. A

reliable test must produce similar set of results for the same group of learners when examined
on different occasion.

How to ensure high test reliability

• Marking to be done according to the marking scheme.

• Appropriate language to be used.
• No ambiguity in the question set.
• No clues
• Clearly typed questions
• Instructions are clear and brief.
• No cheating

Significance of curriculum Evaluation

a) To determine whether the objectives are being achieved.

b) To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a programme
c) To find out the suitability of teaching and learning materials.
 d) To ascertain the need for revision of the course content.
e) To improve the method of teaching and instructional techniques.

Here are some of the benefits of curriculum evaluation:

• It can help to identify areas where the curriculum is not meeting its goals.
• It can provide feedback to teachers and administrators on how to improve the
curriculum.
• It can help to ensure that the curriculum is aligned with state and national standards.
• It can help to justify the cost of the curriculum to stakeholders.

Evaluate learners progress using various methods and tools learning

There are several methods and tools that can be used to evaluate learners' progress in their
learning journey. The choice of evaluation method or tool should depend on the learning
objectives, the level of the learners, and the type of learning area being taught. Some of the
commonly used methods and tools for evaluating learners' progress are;

1) Formative Assessment

This type of assessment is conducted during the learning process to provide feedback and
identify areas where the learners need improvement. Formative assessments can include
quizzes, surveys, polls, classroom discussions, and peer evaluations.

2) Summative Assessment

This type of assessment is conducted at the end of a unit, module, or course to determine the
learners' overall performance. Summative assessments can include final exams, projects,
research papers, and presentations.

3) Portfolios

Portfolios are collections of work that demonstrate a learner's progress and achievements
over time. Portfolios can include written assignments, creative projects, and other artifacts
that reflect the learner's skills and knowledge.
 4) Rubrics

Rubrics are scoring guides that provide criteria for evaluating a learner's performance on a
specific task or assignment. Rubrics can be used to assess both formative and summative
assignments.

5) Self-Assessment

Self-assessment allows learners to reflect on their learning progress and identify areas where
they need improvement. Self-assessment can be conducted through self-reflection exercises,
journals, and peer feedback.

6) Peer Assessment

Peer assessment involves learners evaluating each other's work using specific criteria. Peer
assessment can be conducted through peer review sessions, group projects, and classroom
discussions.

7) Observation

Observation involves observing learners' behaviour and performance in real-time.

Observations can be conducted by teachers, peers, or parents and can provide valuable
insights into learners' strengths and weaknesses.

Prepare evaluation reports that show learners progress in learning

It is also important to use clear and concise language in the evaluation report, with a focus on
providing relevant and useful information to learners and their families.

The evaluation report should be visually appealing and well-organized, with clear headings
and sections to help readers navigate the report.

When preparing an evaluation report to show learners' progress in learning, there are several
key elements that should be included:

1. Introduction
The introduction should provide an overview of the evaluation report, including the purpose
of the evaluation, the evaluation methods used, and the time period covered by the evaluation.

2. Learner Profiles

The learner profiles should provide a summary of each learner's progress in the learning
journey, including their strengths, weaknesses, and areas where improvement is needed. The
profiles should also include information on the learners' learning goals and how they have
progressed towards achieving them.

3. Evaluation Results

The evaluation results should include data and feedback collected from various evaluation
methods and tools used, such as formative and summative assessments, portfolios,
rubrics, self-assessment, and peer assessment. The evaluation results should provide a
detailed analysis of each learner's progress in relation to the learning objectives.

4. Recommendations

The recommendations should be based on the evaluation results and should provide specific
suggestions for how each learner can improve their learning outcomes. The recommendations
should be actionable and realistic, with a focus on helping learners achieve their learning
goals.

5. Conclusion

The conclusion should provide a summary of the evaluation report, including the key findings
and recommendations. The conclusion should also highlight the importance of ongoing
evaluation and the need for continuous improvement in the learning process.

Brainstorm on the most appropriate ways of reporting evaluation results and discuss
sample of the reports
When reporting evaluation results, it is important to consider the audience and the purpose of
the report. The most appropriate ways of reporting evaluation results can vary depending on
the context. It is important to present the evaluation results in a clear, concise, and visually
appealing format that is easy for the audience to understand

1. Narrative Report

The National Science Foundation conducted an evaluation of its Science, Technology,

Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education programs. The evaluation report includes a
narrative analysis of the evaluation results, including case studies and anecdotal evidence.
The report also includes recommendations for improving the effectiveness of STEM
education programs.

2. Graphs and Charts

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) publishes reports on the academic
achievement of students in the United States. The reports include graphs and charts that
illustrate trends and comparisons in student performance over time.

3. Dashboards

The Colorado Department of Education publishes a dashboard that provides a visual

summary of key evaluation results, including student achievement data and school
performance ratings.

4. Infographics

The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) publishes infographics that present
data on public health issues, such as the prevalence of obesity in the United States.

5. Executive Summaries
The Education Trust publishes executive summaries of its evaluations of education programs
and policies. The executive summaries provide a brief overview of the evaluation results,
including key findings and recommendations for improvement.

Examine the role of the teacher in evaluating learners progress and acquisition of
competencies

The role of the teacher in evaluating learners' progress and acquisition of competencies is
crucial. Teachers play a significant role in ensuring that learners are developing the necessary
competencies to succeed in their academic and personal lives. Here are some of the way’s
teachers can evaluate learners' progress and acquisition of competencies:

1. Designing Assessments

Teachers design assessments that measure learners' knowledge, skills, and competencies.
These assessments may include quizzes, tests, essays, projects, and presentations.

2. Providing Feedback

Teachers provide learners with feedback on their assessments, highlighting their strengths and
weaknesses. Feedback can be verbal or written and can provide learners with specific areas of
improvement.

3. Monitoring Progress

Teachers monitor learners' progress throughout the school year, keeping track of their
performance on assessments and assignments. Teachers can use this information to identify
areas where learners need additional support or intervention.

4. Analysing Data

Teachers analyse assessment data to determine learners' strengths and weaknesses. This data
can be used to inform instruction and to identify areas where learners may need additional
support.

5. Adjusting Instruction
Teachers adjust their instruction based on learners' progress and needs. If learners are
struggling in a particular area, teachers may provide additional support or instruction to help
them succeed.

6. Collaborating with Colleagues

Teachers collaborate with their colleagues to ensure that assessment and evaluation practices
are consistent and aligned with the curriculum.

Critique the role of teachers in evaluation of learner’s progress and acquisition of

competences

The role of teachers in the evaluation of learners' progress and acquisition of competencies is
critical. However, it is important to note that teachers may face some challenges in carrying
out this role effectively. Here are some critiques of the role of teachers in evaluation:

1. Bias

Teachers may have biases that can impact their evaluation of learners' progress and
acquisition of competencies. These biases can be based on factors such as race, gender,
socioeconomic status, and personal relationships.

2. Lack of Training

Teachers may not have adequate training in assessment and evaluation, which can impact
their ability to effectively evaluate learners' progress and acquisition of competencies. This
can lead to inaccurate assessments, which can have a negative impact on learners' academic
and personal development.

3. Time Constraints

Teachers may have limited time to devote to the evaluation of learners' progress and
acquisition of competencies. This can impact their ability to provide detailed feedback and to
adjust instruction based on learners' needs.
 4. Overemphasis on Testing

In some educational systems, there is an overemphasis on testing as a means of evaluating

learners' progress and acquisition of competencies. This can lead to a narrow focus on test-
taking skills and a de-emphasis on other important competencies.

To overcome these critiques, it is important for teachers to receive adequate training in

assessment and evaluation.

Teachers should also be aware of their biases and work to ensure that their evaluations are fair
and unbiased.

Additionally, educational systems should provide teachers with adequate time and resources
to evaluate learners' progress and acquisition of competencies.

Finally, there should be a balance between testing and other means of evaluating learners'
progress and acquisition of competencies, such as project-based assessments, portfolios, and
teacher observations.

RESEARCH

Examine the roles of different agencies in curriculum monitoring and evaluation

Role of KICD
TSC
KNEC
Quality Assurance
Role of the Ministry

Curriculum monitoring and evaluation involve the participation of different agencies and
stakeholders at various levels. Here are some of the roles of different agencies in curriculum
monitoring and evaluation:

1. Ministry of Education
The Ministry of Education is responsible for designing and implementing the curriculum. It
is also responsible for monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of the curriculum. The
Ministry of Education is tasked with ensuring that the curriculum is up-to-date, relevant, and
aligned with national and international standards.

2. Curriculum Development Canters

Curriculum development centres are responsible for developing and revising the curriculum.
These centres work closely with the Ministry of Education to ensure that the curriculum is
effective and meets the needs of learners.

3. Examination Boards

Examination boards are responsible for designing and administering assessments. These
assessments are used to evaluate learners' progress and to ensure that the curriculum is
effective.

4. School Administrators

School administrators are responsible for implementing the curriculum in their schools. They
ensure that teachers have the necessary resources and support to teach the curriculum
effectively.

5. Teachers

Teachers play a critical role in curriculum monitoring and evaluation. They are responsible
for assessing learners' progress and providing feedback. Teachers are also responsible for
adjusting instruction to meet the needs of learners.

6. Parents and Students

Parents and students also play a critical role in curriculum monitoring and evaluation. They
provide feedback on the effectiveness of the curriculum and can provide insight into areas
where additional support may be needed.

Overall, curriculum monitoring and evaluation involve the participation of different agencies
and stakeholders at various levels. Each agency has a critical role to play in ensuring that the
curriculum is effective and meets the needs of learners. Effective collaboration among these
agencies and stakeholders is critical for successful curriculum monitoring and evaluation.

DYNAMIC OF CURRICULUM CHANGE

Objectives
a) Differentiate key terms namely curriculum such as change; review; reform etc.
b) Explain various strategies of curriculum change.

Curriculum change involves many procedures. Curriculum elements (objectives, content,

learning experiences and evaluation) can be subjected to change from time to time.
(Syomwene, Nyandusi, Yunguyungu,2017).
Furthermore, change can also involve making alterations in school programmes, management
and even teaching at school level. New courses and programmes can also be introduced into
the level school curriculum. Change can therefor occur at classroom, school level and in
education system in general.

Curriculum change
According to Syomwene, Nyandusi and Yunguyungu (2017) this term implies making
something different from its usual state, altering a given aspect of an entity (Curriculum
package) so that they seem to look different in the perspective of time.
Change may not necessarily mean engaging in converting something wholly into something
else. This means that change can be affected within a certain particular aspect of a bigger
entity such as education in a way perhaps only an area like teaching methodologies can
undergo some degree of change while other aspects of this enterprise remain intact.
Curriculum innovation
It refers to a situation in which something new, even spectacular is added to an existing entity
(Shiundu and Omulando 19920)
It is an idea, experience or even practice that is perceived as fresh and new and furthermore is
meant to add value or enrich an already existing curriculum programme.
Innovation can also mean the process of imitating, originating something new and spreading
it or disseminating ‘through’ a social system like education, Institution etc.
Curriculum Reform
This is really a large-scale undertaking in nature. In matters of curriculum it may involve a
structural shift in the programme or even change of subjects presumably aimed at improving
the situation. It Implies change for the better.
Curriculum Review
It is the systematic approach that involves critical examination of curricular areas with a view
to revise and evaluate such aspects within a specified time frame.
The aim of review is to identify gaps and weaknesses in the curriculum in order to increase
effectiveness of curriculum and improve learning experiences.
Curriculum review comprises several phases such as research and selection, revision and
development, implementation evaluation and monitoring.
Curriculum scholars i.e. Taba (1962), Otunga, Odero and Barasa (2011) seem to agree that
curriculum is always in a dynamic state because there is always continuous need for
adjustments to be made in response to persistent changes in the environment and emergence
of new needs in the society.
Any change in the society or even among school population i.e. staff, school community or
even learners has direct influence on curriculum.
From sociological view point a change in society may necessitate change in education realm
(Shiundu and Omulanda, 1992) the other way around education can also be consciously used
to change society (education viewed as an agent of social change)
According to Shiundu and Omulando (1992) change be viewed from two perspectives
namely;
a) change as an effect
adjustments by educational institution as a result of change occurring in other social
institutions e.g. economic, technological and ideological realm of society.
i.e. Rampant unemployment in Kenya (economic) has led necessitated changes in curricular
circles.
b) Change as a condition
A condition of change in education curriculum can be viewed as instrumental in bringing
about change in the broader society in such a way that education ‘goes’ outwards to incur
social changes. Such change could be spelled out as; Education for Citizenship; Education for
self-reliance; Education for morality.
Curriculum change vis-a vis curriculum improvement.
Shiundu and Omulando (1992) elaborate that change as a term preferred by sociologists while
educationists prefer to use the term development.
Change only occurs where something exists but this is not necessarily so with development,
Developments need planning while change may not necessarily need to be planned.
But for purposeful change in education to occur there is need for some elements of planning
(Otunga, Odero and Barasa 2011); Shiundu and Omulando (1992)
Taba (1962) further emphasizes that improvements especially those in education deal with
certain discrete aspects of the curriculum without incurring changes in design or even
organization of that curriculum.
Curriculum change however means to bring about change (variations) in an institution
touching on several aspects (Shiundu and Omulando, 1992)
In sum, it is pertinent to conclude that change may not necessarily end up in causing
improvement upon Curriculum, in fact some change could even be detrimental.
Shiundu and Omulando, (1992) further reiterate that changes occur at three (3) levels
namely;
1) Minor changes in the curriculum
e.g. Addition of a topic or method of teaching to the instructional programme or ra-arranging
sequence of subject content.
2) Medium level changes
This may involve integration of subjects or infusing a new approach within an already
existing subject
3) Major changes
The effort affects several aspects of the curriculum with regard to content, methods,
approaches, support materials, changes in the entire design and organization of curriculum
resulting the need for an entirely new plan. Change is usually driven towards curriculum
improvement though it is not mandatory (may or may not)
The objective of change is usually to improve the existing programme in the context of the
new environment.
Strategies for curriculum change
Curriculum change is best founded on group dynamics (social science theory). Two
approaches are key in understanding what is involved in curriculum change (Shiundu
&Omulando 1992)
a) Restricted approach
b) Democratic approach
a) Restricted approach
This is centralized in orientation with decision making monopolized by a few especially at the
apex of power. Information is realized from one source targeting the consumers who have no
say on the released curriculum package.
Strategy used in this approach is based on center mastery model of disseminating an
innovation.
Dissemination is controlled and managed.
Innovation is planned and prepared in advance prior to its dissemination.
One way-traffic delivery system is used from the center to the consumers in the periphery.
This approach thrives on the centralization of information
Innovation- the number of destinations in the periphery and their distance from the center
(efficiency-no distortion).
Power- Coercive strategies are used in this approach as a complement.
They involve the use of power to determine conditions within which other people act; by
limiting alternatives for them, shaping the manner in which they act and directly influencing
the outcome of those actions.
This approach has little room to thrive in the contemporary world due to their constraining
nature.
They do not support realization of educational outcomes which require the involvement of
parents, teachers, administrators and learners.
More accommodating approaches are there for advocated.
b) Democratic Approach (open approach)
This is an equivalent of decentralization where entire communities are involved in decision-
making.
This approach is more of an integration of various models of change and revolves around the
idea that the learner occupies the center of education and is active in the entire learning
process.
The strategy supports notion i.e. democratization of education, problem solving approaches,
Active learner participation, Group dynamics and increased freedom.

REACTION TO CHANGE
According to Ornstein &Hankins, (2009) people tend to elicit different forms of reaction in
the face of change. However, three forms of reaction are significant namely;
a) Acceptance – marked by optimism and excitement
b) Resistance – sense of doubt and insecurity
 c) Neutral – unaffected group.

RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
The biggest barrier between people and change efforts is an element called Inertia.
It can be among staff administration and community and can prove to be a huge obstacle to
realization of change even in an institution of learning.
Factors leading to change resistance (Ornstein &Hunkins ,2009)
a) Apprehension about the future
b) Rapidity of change
c) Lack of knowledge &skills on intended change
d) Lack of financial support.

Ornstein &Hunkins ,2009and Synomwene, Nyandusi &Yunguyungu (2017) reiterate that the
following factors are a hinderance to curriculum change;
i. Lack of ownership -especially where change is external
ii. Lack of benefits. Teachers can have down tools if they have nothing to benefit from
new programs e.g. greater recognition and respects
iii. Increased burdens- teachers may be against change that will add work on their already
loaded schedules.
iv. Lack of administrative support – Without support from those responsible the new
programme becomes difficult for the teachers to facilitate change.
v. Loneliness- in isolation of team work, it is challenging for one to innovate
collaborative action which is very essential in order to implement new programs
successfully
vi. Insecurity-it is human nature to resist what appears to be a threat to one’s security.
vii. Norm incongruence-this occurs when assumptions that underlie a new program are
not at per with staff.e. g philosophical orientation.
viii. Boredom – if a program is to be successfully implemented it must be presented in an
enjoyable, interesting and thought-provoking manner.
ix. Chaos – Change that causes control and disorder suffer rejection, hence people tend to
resist such change.
x. Differential knowledge – this occurs when those who bring about change are viewed
as senior, superior than those affected by the incoming change.
 xi. Sudden wholesale changes (rapidity of change)- whenever changes are to be affected
doing so wholesale is not advisable. People tend to reject changes that may mean
complete change of direction.
xii. Unique points of resistance – these include unprecedented events that may set in to
retard change. People may also dampen the efforts of those who are set to effect
change(innovations)

TYPES OF CHANGE
Curriculum scholars namely; Ornstein &Hunkins (2009), Syomwene, Nyandusi
&Yunguyungu (2017) among others seem to agree that the following are the most common
types of change in educational circles.

1) Planned change
Those involved exercise equal power and their functions are clear prescribed. Change process
is organized and intended.
Characteristics of planned change.
(i.) There is context (situational) analysis of the existing curriculum and possibility of
change.
(ii.) Time frame and logistics are properly laid out.
(iii.) Objectives are clearly spelled out.
(iv.) There is strong and informed curriculum leadership.
(v.) Effective communication to all stakeholders concerning the intended change.
(vi.) Participation of all groups in the change process
(vii.) Training the implementers before implementation of change.
(viii.) Preparation of the necessary materials and facilities before implementation of
change.
(ix.) Provision of administrative support during planning and implementation stages of
change.
Advantages of planned change
(i.) Change is thoroughly planned with all roles and procedures clearly indicated.
(ii.) Necessary materials are prepared and provided before implementation
(iii.) Because many stakeholders are involved, this change typology enjoys a lot of
support. Stakeholders have positive attitude.
(iv.) Is systematic and well organized.
 (v.) Implementers acquire the necessary knowledge and skills from training effective
implementation.
(vi.) Planned change encounters minimal resistance.
Disadvantages of planned change
(i.) Takes a long time because of the many aspects that are taken into consideration.
(ii.) Requires personnel with skills (implementers, planners)
(iii.) Heavy financial implications budget and source of funding must be done in
advance.
(iv.) Materials and resources can never be adequate -their production must be
continuous during process of change.
(v.) It needs effective process and channel of communication for effective participation
of all involved.
(vi.) May encounter some resistance especially when personnel self-interest emerges.
COERCION
Decisions are imposed and channeled from a focal point/central point downward. One group
(more superior senior) determines goals retains control and exclude other people from
participating.

Advantages
(i.) Takes short time to be implemented.
(ii.) Change certainly occurs because it is forced.
(iii.) Planning and implementation of change is cheap and easy.
(iv.) Is effective strategy when used to cause minor changes in the curriculum program.

Weaknesses
(i.) Prone to resistance from stakeholders.
(ii.) Open to victimization of opposing forces (groups to person)
(iii.) Prone to haphazard implementation due to communication among those involved.
(iv.) Materials and resources may be in short supply at certain stages due to nature of
planning involved.
(v.) Implementers may lack knowledge and skills in the process of implementation.
(vi.) Many stakeholders may develop negative attitude towards the change hence lack
of commitment.
 (vii.) Lack of continuity may occur especially when an initiator(s) leaves the office i.e
death, tenure, termination.
INTERACTIVE CHANGE
Is characterized by fairly equal distribution of power among groups, who mutually set goals,
there are few procedures which are carefully crafted to guide processes here.
Those involved may however lack deliberateness and be uncertain as to how they should
implement the desired changes (Ornstein &Hunkins,2009).
Advantages
(i.) There is sense of ownership of change process by stakeholders (ideas are their)
(ii.) Commitment to change process-make it happens.
(iii.) Needs and interest of stakeholders are considered.
(iv.) Implementers are motivated from self-driven.
Disadvantages
(i.) Prone to crisis due to lack of power leadership.
(ii.) Planning process can take time because interaction among people can be slow.
(iii.) Too many ideas may be proposed which may not be necessarily implemented due
to time and resource constraint.
(iv.) Those whose ideas are ignored may develop ill-feelings towards intended change.

RANDOM CHANGE
Is quite a unique type of change propounded by Ornstein & Hunkins, (2009)? Occurs without
thought and there is no goal setting. Random change may occur as curricula responds to
unprecedented events from within the school of otherwise i.e. there might be pressure to
change from the community or a given stakeholder that a given method or approach to
teaching needs to be changed in response to the changing times. This sort of change is
normally reactive in nature.
Factors affecting curriculum change
The school curriculum thrives within a socio-physical context that determines the nature of
aspects that would influence changes to be affected upon a curriculum (Shiundu &Omulanda
,1992). According to them, Issus within the curriculum that are vital in the social realm
include,
a) Who teaches what?
b) Who is taught?
c) Where is teaching done?
 d) How is teaching done?
e) What is the objective of teaching?
It is these questions that determine how many curriculum changes will respond to the social
and physical aspects in the environment.
Such change when caused may be negative or positive curriculum change can only be
affected where a strong rationale exists and can affect school conditions learners, teachers,
parents, facilities etc.
Because many environmental factors may influence change there is need for the curriculum
planner to co-ordinate them to avoid many obstacles. Any curriculum change cannot avoid
political and social realities.
Factors are categorized as
a) Social and demographic factors.
The nature of population relates directly to curriculum planning, curriculum planning
development or change. Changes in curriculum may be due to some identified needs among
the current population or change may not be affected due to population problems. Public
organizations, Institutions and private agencies may be a source of change or even support
change economically and normally. Some Institutions can as well resist change if it is
detrimental to their survival.
Public and private agencies, the way they operate has both direct and indirect influence upon
curriculum i.e. the objectives of public examination boards, Universities, NGOs, Religious
organizations will determine curriculum
b) Economic factors.
This is one factor that directly affect curriculum on many fronts.
• Due to economic challenges many innovations have been adopted into school
curriculum i.e. Unemployment has led to change in curricular to provide solution.
• A curriculum that runs in collision with official economic policies cannot succeed.
• Curriculum changes succeed or fail based on the availability of funds.
A new Curriculum will need training of teachers, more facilities, materials production,
textbooks, workshops, seminars, experiments, research.
Education projects must be increased; failure to do;
• Failure in implementation of new curriculum.
• Adequate and proper utilization of funds allocated will result in success of
funds allocated will result in success of curriculum development.
c) Political factors
Two main functions of political framework of a country is control and financing the
education.
A good working relationship must therefore exist between the curriculum specialist and the
existing government.
The government is therefor mandated to provide conducive development and innovation or if
not ignore such efforts altogether.
A big political challenge to any curriculum project is where there is frequent change in the
government, a factor that may stall such efforts in education. The curriculum must therefore
understand the political climate of the time to ensure no contradiction between curriculum
objectives and national policies.
d) Technological factors.
Schools provide excellent forums to pass on latest inventions and innovations to the youth.
Many curriculum projects have however been overtaken by technological changes.
The arrival of the computer age has put a lot of pressure on school programs and activities.
It has become necessary that schools respond to occurrences in the world of technology nut
again carefully set the limits of that interaction.
Such limits would ensure the school does not lose direction and ignore its basic functions.
Issues of concern include;
• What technology is vital foe the school to use
• How school can change in response to technology.
• What implications they have on the functions of the school.
Recent upsurge in technological change has serious consequences for curriculum planning.
This is because it results/effects in kind of knowledge that society wants in the school system.
Technology leads to changes in values and systems in the society hence puts pressure on the
curriculum.
It also raises moral issues i.e. pollution, birth control, absorption, drug use etc. issues that
must be addressed by school curriculum.
(Already schools are under pressure to accommodate the use of electronic machine
(computers and calculators)
e) Epistemological factors.
A key source of curriculum content is knowledge of importance is the nature of knowledge.
Its reality and importance procedures for searching and teaching it.
Selection and organization of knowledge in the curriculum are key activities of the
curriculum specialist.
Emergence of new theories and concepts especially those that burden on the interest of the
learner and length of learning are key in the development of school programme. Due to more
exposure sources of knowledge for both teachers and learners there is need for curriculum
specialist to consider what befits school curriculum.
f) Physical factors.
The ever-changing physical conditions in Kenya i.e. have a great importance upon
curriculum.
Certain subjects i.e. Agriculture that at some point raised a lot of questions about curriculum
in view of its practicality. Questions arose as to how agriculture as a practical subject would
find relevance in -urban schools, or even school in arid areas, perhaps making it challenging
to implement.
Such emerging situations may necessitate curriculum change so as to teach learners new skills
and attitudes of dealing with new physical conditions.
While developing curriculum for school there is need for awareness of the prevailing as well
as possible future physical conditions not only in schools but in country as a whole as the
latter would definitely impact upon the farmer.

PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

There are nine steps in curriculum development process which include;

1) Situational Analysis on needs Assessments.

This is done when a completely new curriculum is being planned. Needs assessment, is done
when curriculum or aspects of it are required to undergo improvement or change.

A need in curriculum field is a situation where there is a discrepancy (an inconsistency

between facts or sentiments) between what is and what ought to be that is there is a gap
between an ideal situation which is acceptable and a current situation or observed state of the
learner.

Consequently, systematic investigation should be carried out to collect data and establish
learners needs in a given area
There are various factors to be considered in order to get a true picture of what exists in the
society. These factors are categorized into two;

Factors within the school system

Includes;

1) Pupils – there attitudes, interests, values, life experiences, Attributes and their
educational needs.
2) Teachers can effectively implement only what they know, understand and are
capable of doing, there is need to be aware of teacher’s skills, Attitudes, Values,
Knowledge, Experiences, Strength and Weaknesses. This will help in finding out
what should be provided in the preservice teachers’ education as well as in service
programs and also determining the number of the teachers is an important
requirement in curriculum development process.
3) School. Implementation of curriculums occurs in school therefor infrastructural
resources and facilities within the school must be considered i.e. Labs equipment,
Textbooks, Classrooms etc.
4) Status of the existing Curriculum
Problems and short coming as well as the success of the existing curriculum
ought to provide information for curriculum change … support systems …Teacher
Training Colleges, Universities, Resource Centers, Examination and Research
Institutions provide prerequisites knowledge for curriculum change of
development.
Factors Outside the school system
Refers to the environment in which the school is situated and from which it draws the
resources and students -immediate society. Include;
1) Changes and trends in the society.
Indicate not only the tracks for the school but as well as how the society may affect the
functioning of the school. Include Industrial and economic developments of the community
and its political and social situation.

2) Culture and ideologies.

A curriculum that is contrary to the cultural norms and practices will be rejected.

3) Community values
Are expectation of the society which must be known in order to avoid future conflicts and
resistant with the curriculum. The product of the school must be able to fit in the society.

4) Changing nature of knowledge

New theories concepts among others emerge constantly through research.

5) The flow of resources into the school

This is based on economic conditions of the society. The community supplies with the
various facilities to the school. Food – Maize, Beans, Stationaries, Students

6) Technological advancements
Inform of Computer skills and other technological materials

2) Formulation of objectives
Objectives are important because they assist curriculum developers and teachers in the
following ways;
• They assist in developing purposeful, Instructional programs
• Justify the needs for providing a particular educational programme
• Guide educational process i.e. Selection of content, learning experiences and
teaching methods
• They provide basis for evaluation of educational process.
• The objectives must satisfy 3 basic elements according to Benjamin Blooms;
cognitive domain, Affective domain, Psychomotor domain. The objectives
should be SMART in nature.
•
3) Setting up of curriculum project.
Refers to the team that is concerned with developing of the curriculum the daily curriculum
activities i.e. Making reviews for effecting minor changes are normally done by full time
curriculum developers. This may include; Members role among the teachers and other
educators representing relevant institutions who will make up the senate panel however, when
major changes have to be affected specific Curriculum development project have to be set up
for this purpose. This will involve full time curriculum developers. Classroom teachers,
Publishers, University lecturers, educational administrations, Religious personnel,
economists. The project team is usually presented to the following Aims, Goals and
objectives of education Terms of reference Objectives of the projects Necessary facilities to
enable them execute their duties effectively.
 4) Curriculum Construction or program building.
It’s the main work of project team and involves writing up a curriculum plan.
The main activities include; Selection of content, Selection of teaching and learning
activities, Selection of relevant facilities and resources and its organizations. All these are
referred to as learning experiences and must meet the following criteria;

• Validity -Must be consistent with the subject area.

• conformity with objectives
• Significance - Must be meaningful to learning process.
• Learners Ability for a particular level of education -Nature of the learner and entry
behavior.
• Interest of the learners
• Relevance Should be relevant to the learners Satisfaction of the learner
• Reinforcement -Should support other experiences.
• Should be economical -The resources prepared at these stages include; Teachers
guide, Student text and Teachers handbook.

5) Piloting of the new program in selected school

The trial is normally done in few schools to test if the program will work. Information from
piloting may be used to improve the curriculum. The information is in terms of how teachers
and students react, students’ performers, Teacher performance, Availability of physical
learning space of facility i.e. Furniture, Materials, Availability of time and general attitude
towards the program.
6) Improving the new program
Is done based on information from piloting. Involves revising and modifying the program. If
necessary several piloting sessions may be carried out to ensure that the program is
satisfactory.

7) Implementation of the new program in all schools.

Involves two important process.
• Changing the attitude of the people who may include; Administrators,
Parents, Teachers, Students and Policy makers.
• Providing materials and administrative of implementation. Include,
Necessary personnel, Equipment’s, Materials and Facilities, Curriculum
 Supportive Materials, Relevant evaluation methods and educating relevant
personnel. The actual implementation can be done gradually through
various methods or at once
8) Evaluation
Used to determine the success of the program. Evaluation results are used to make decisions
on whether to accept, improve or reject the new curriculum. There are two type of evaluation.

Formative evaluation

Begins at the reception of curriculum development project and continuous throughout the
stages.

Summative

Occurs at the end of curriculum implementation to find out overall success of the program.

9) Curriculum maintenance
Continuous process of in cooperation of emerging issues into the curriculum and insuring
effectiveness and worth of the curriculum. Involves monitoring curriculum processes. The
major component of curriculum to be monitored through:
• Objectives
• The school
• The personnel
• Learning environment
• Content

RESEARCH ON:

1) Evaluate the strategies of curriculum change in relation to the 21st Century.

21st century learning skills refer to the knowledge, life skills, career skills, habits and traits
that are critically important for student’s success in todays world.

The 21st century has brought about a number of changes in the world, and education is no
exception. In order to prepare students for the challenges of the 21st century, it is important to
change the way we teach. Some strategies for curriculum change that can support the
development of 21st century skills include:
 1. Incorporating project-based learning/ inquiry-based learning

Project-based learning is an effective way to develop critical thinking, collaboration, and

communication skills. By working on complex projects that require students to solve real-
world problems, they can develop the skills needed to succeed in the 21st century.

2. Integrating technology

Technology is an essential tool for learning and working in the 21st century. Curriculum
change can involve the integration of technology into the classroom in a way that supports the
development of digital literacy, creativity, and problem-solving skills.

3. Promoting creativity and innovation

The ability to think creatively and innovatively is essential for success in the 21st century.
Curriculum change can involve the promotion of creativity and innovation through the
inclusion of activities that encourage students to think outside the box and develop new ideas.

4. Fostering global awareness

In today's interconnected world, it is important for students to develop an understanding of

global issues and perspectives. Curriculum change can involve the inclusion of activities that
promote global awareness and cultural understanding.

5. Developing social and emotional skills

The ability to manage emotions, work collaboratively, and build positive relationships is
increasingly important in the 21st century. Curriculum change can involve the development
of social and emotional skills through the inclusion of activities that promote self-awareness,
empathy, and responsible decision-making.

6. Encourage collaboration
7. Let learners lead in learning that is promote learner centered approach
2) Evaluate curriculum changes in Kenya since independence

Innovation in Curriculum

By the end of the sub strand the teacher trainee should be able to;
 a) Show that curriculum is dynamic and continuously responds to societal needs and
changes.
b) Differentiate Curriculum review from curriculum reform as forms of curriculum
change.
c) Explore curriculum innovations in Kenya and their significance.
d) Embrace curriculum innovation in Kenya to respond to international focus and trends
in education. (Debate on importance of curriculum innovation and how they respond
to international focus and trends in education)

CURRICULUM FRAMEWORKS

CURRICULUM FRAMEWORKS FROM OTHER COUNTRIES

By the end of the sub-strand, the teacher trainee should be able to:

a) Examine the concepts of a curriculum framework in guiding learners.

b) Analyze curriculum frameworks from other countries for comparison
c) Value the needs for a framework in curriculum.

A curriculum framework is a document that outlines the goals, objectives, and content of a
curriculum.

It also refers to the guiding principles for curriculum design as well as materials, instructions
and assessment. It provides a blueprint for teachers and other educators to follow when
planning and delivering instruction. Curriculum frameworks can be used to guide learners in
a number of ways:

• Help learners to understand the big picture of what they are learning. A curriculum
framework can show learners how different topics and concepts are connected to each
other, and how they all contribute to a broader understanding of the world. This can
help learners to see the relevance of their learning and to make connections between
different areas of knowledge.
• Help learners to set goals for their learning. By identifying the key learning outcomes
for a particular topic or unit, learners can develop a plan for how they will achieve
those outcomes. This can help learners to stay focused and motivated, and to track
their progress over time.
• Provide learners with a variety of resources to support their learning. These resources
may include textbooks, websites, online learning modules, and other materials. By
 providing learners with access to a wide range of resources, curriculum frameworks
can help learners to find the resources that are most helpful to them.

The components of a curriculum framework vary depending on the specific framework,

but they typically include the following:

• Vision

The vision statement outlines the overall goals of the curriculum. It describes what learners
should know and be able to do by the end of their education.

• Goals

The goals are more specific than the vision statement. They break down the vision into
smaller, more manageable chunks.

• Objectives

Objectives are statements that describe what learners will be able to do after they have
completed a particular unit of instruction. They are usually measurable, so that teachers can
assess whether or not learners have achieved them.

• Structure of the curricular Content and learning areas.

The content of the curriculum is the information that learners will be taught. It includes the
topics, concepts, and skills that learners will need to master.

Describes the pattern of the subject studied in each stage. A brief description of each subject
and number of hours to be assigned to each subject.

• Structure of education system

Describes the number of years of schooling. Stages of schooling and their duration. Number
of teaching periods in a week.

• Assessment

Assessment is the process of gathering information about learners' progress. It is used to

determine whether or not learners have achieved the objectives of the curriculum.

• Learning experiences
Learning experiences are the activities that learners will engage in to learn the content of the
curriculum. They can include activities such as reading, writing, problem-solving, and
collaborating.

• Instructional strategies

Instructional strategies are the methods that teachers will use to deliver instruction. They can
include strategies such as direct instruction, inquiry-based learning, and project-based
learning.

• Resources

Resources are the materials that learners will need to access the content of the curriculum.
They can include textbooks, websites, online learning modules, and other materials.

• Assessment tools

Assessment tools are the instruments that teachers will use to assess learners' progress. They
can include quizzes, tests, projects, and portfolios.

How Curriculum frameworks guide learning.

• Plan and deliver instruction

Curriculum frameworks can provide teachers with a roadmap for planning and delivering
instruction. They can help teachers to identify the key concepts and skills that learners need to
master, and to develop learning activities that will help learners achieve those goals.

• Assess student learning

• Curriculum frameworks can be used to develop assessment tools that are aligned with
the goals and objectives of the curriculum. This ensures that assessments are
measuring what learners are actually supposed to be learning.
• Guide professional development

Curriculum frameworks can be used to guide professional development for teachers. They
can help teachers to understand the goals and objectives of the curriculum, and to develop the
skills they need to deliver instruction effectively.

The benefits of having a well-defined curriculum framework

• Clarity
A curriculum framework can help to clarify the goals and objectives of the curriculum. This
can help teachers to plan and deliver instruction more effectively, and can help learners to
understand what they are expected to learn.

• Consistency

A curriculum framework can help to ensure that all learners have access to the same content
and learning experiences. This can help to ensure that all learners have the opportunity to
achieve the same level of success.

• Flexibility

A curriculum framework can be adapted to meet the needs of different learners and different
contexts. This can help to ensure that all learners have the opportunity to learn and grow.

• Accountability A curriculum framework can help to hold teachers and schools

accountable for the learning outcomes of their students. This can help to ensure that
all learners are receiving a high-quality education.

RESEARCH

Research and write a paper on curriculum framework from around the world (Asia,
Europe, America and so on)

BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK

By the end of the sub-strand, the teacher trainee should be to:

a.) Analyze the basic education curriculum framework in Kenya.

b.) Apply the Basic Education Curriculum Framework to the learning process in Kenya.
c.) Appreciate the need for Basic Education Curriculum Framework in the current
curriculum

The Basic Education Curriculum Framework (BECF) in Kenya is a comprehensive document

that outlines the vision, goals, and principles of basic education in the country. It was
developed in 2017 through a process of extensive stakeholder engagement, and is aligned to
the Constitution of Kenya, Vision 2030, and the East African Community Curriculum
Harmonization Structures and Framework.

The BECF has four main goals:

• To enable every Kenyan learner to become an engaged, empowered, and ethical

citizen.
• To develop learners who are critical thinkers, problem solvers, and innovators.
• To prepare learners for the world of work.
• To promote lifelong learning.

The BECF is a significant step forward in the development of basic education in Kenya. It is
a more holistic and relevant curriculum that is better aligned to the needs of the 21st century.
The BECF is still in its early stages of implementation, but it has the potential to transform
the education system in Kenya and improve the lives of millions of learners.

Here are some of the key strengths of the BECF:

• It is learner-cantered and focuses on developing the whole child.

• It is relevant to the needs of the 21st century and prepares learners for the world of
work.
• It is flexible and allows for different learning styles.
• It is coherent and provides a clear pathway for learning.
• It is sustainable and can be implemented in all schools in Kenya.

However, there are also some challenges to the implementation of the BECF, such as:

• The need for adequate resources, such as textbooks and trained teachers.
• The need for a change in mindset among parents and teachers.
• The need for continuous evaluation and improvement.

Curriculum Vision

The vision of the basic education curriculum is to enable every Kenyan to become an
engaged, empowered and ethical citizen.

This is achieved by providing every Kenyan learner with world- class standards in the skills
and knowledge that they deserve, and which they need in order to thrive in the 21st century.
This is accomplished through the provision of high-quality instruction, school environments
and resources and a sustainable visionary curriculum that is seamless, competency based that
values every learner.

It is therefore necessary that teachers are highly knowledgeable, reflective professionals that
have additional enhanced skills and confidence in a range of modern pedagogical tools. This
may include coaching, facilitating, and mentoring.

Teachers are role models for learners, caring for and inspiring every child to achieve his or
her potential. Teachers are also flexible in adapting to the requirements of the curriculum to
meet the needs, talents and interests of every child, constantly diagnosing the learner’s needs
and collaborating with other stakeholders that influence the child such as parents, other
professionals, local and wider community.

It implies provision of differentiated, innovative learning experiences that ensures each child
can take their place in the world with confidence and pride as 21st century Kenyans. The new
curriculum ensures that all learning can be made contextually relevant for every learner’s
holistic growth and development so that they can all become independent, confident, co-
operative, and inspired learners. The ultimate aim is to nurture learners who love learning, are
keen, focused and able to apply what is learnt in order to make constructive contributions as
productive, responsible citizens as well as cooperatively with other peers around the world
through enhanced digital literacy and mastery.

In so doing, the reformed curriculum seeks to ensure that the next and future generations of
Kenyan citizens are both patriotic and global, equipped with knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values to thrive in the modern world, confident and proud of their rich cultural heritage to
make the world a better place for everyone.

Curriculum Mission
The mission of the basic education curriculum is ‘nurturing every learner’s potential’.
The curriculum design provides opportunities to identify the potential that every
learner brings to school and nurture the potential through the provision of learning
pathways and tracks at Senior School. The mission ensures that no child is said to be
a failure at the end of basic education.
National Goals of Education
The Framework is anchored on the National Goals of Education. Thus, education in
Kenya should:
1) Foster nationalism, patriotism, and promote national unity
Kenya’s people belong to different communities, races and religions and should be
able to live and interact as one people. Education should enable the learner acquire a
sense of nationhood and patriotism. It should also promote peace and harmonious
co-existence.

2) Promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national

development
Education should prepare the learner to play an effective and productive role in the nation.
a) Social Needs
Education should instill social and adaptive skills in the learner for effective
participation in the family, community, national, regional and international
development.
b) Economic Needs
Education should prepare a learner with requisite competencies that support a
modern and independent growing economy. This should translate into high standards
of living for every individual.
c) Technological and Industrial Needs
Education should develop in the learner necessary competencies for technological
and industrial development for the nation in tandem with global trends.
3) Promote individual development and self-fulfillment
Education should provide opportunities for the learner to develop to the fullest
potential. This includes development of one’s interests, talents and character for
positive contribution to the society.

4) Promote sound moral and religious values

Education should promote acquisition of national values as enshrined in the
Constitution of Kenya. It should be geared towards developing a self-disciplined and
ethical citizen with sound moral and religious values.
5) Promote social equity and responsibility
Education should promote social equity and responsibility. It should provide
inclusive and equitable access to quality and differentiated education; including for
learners with special educational needs and disabilities. Education should also
provide the learner with opportunities to develop and practice shared responsibility
and accountability through community service learning.
6) Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures
Education should instill in the learner appreciation of Kenya’s rich and diverse
cultural heritage. The learner should value own culture while at the same time respect
other people’s cultures. In this way, the learner will embrace positive cultural
practices in a dynamic society.
7) Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes
towards other nations
Kenya is part of the interdependent network of diverse peoples and nations.
Education should empower the learner to respect, appreciate and participate in the
opportunities within the international community. Education should also enable the
learner to operate within the international community with full knowledge of the
obligations, responsibilities, rights and benefits that this membership entails.
8) Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental
protection
Education should inculcate in the learner the value of physical and psycho-social
well- being for self and others. It should promote environmental preservation and
conservation, including animal welfare, for sustainable development.

Basic Education Curriculum Framework pillars

In addition to National Goals of Education, the basic education curriculum framework vision
and mission are supported by three important pillars: values, theoretical approaches and
guiding principles.
 a) Values
These are principles, qualities, beliefs or standards that guide an individual to respond or
behave in a given circumstance or situation.
Values are standards that guide an individual on how to respond or behave in a given
circumstance. Our values influence how we feel, act and make choices in life. Internationally,
there has been a rise in the challenges and issues related with cultural integration, ethnic and
religious diversity.

Core values in the Basic Education Curriculum Framework.

Name them.

b) Theoretical Approaches

A theory is an abstract general explanation of observations or a subject under study that can
provide guidance for practice. It attempts to predict behaviour or reach a reasonable and
general set of explanations for an underlying issue. Several theories underpin the Basic
Education Curriculum Framework. These are:
Instructional Design Theory

This theory offers explicit guidance towards a new curriculum that explains how to help
learners learn and develop in the wake of emerging globalization.

Perkins, (1992) describes the instructional design theory which offers guidance for fostering
cognitive learning as "Clear information, in terms of goals, knowledge needed and
performance expected; Thoughtful practice, in terms of opportunities for learners to engage in
learning actively and reflectively; Informative feedback, in terms of clear and thorough
counsel to learners, and; Strong intrinsic or extrinsic motivation."

Instructional design theory is design-oriented because it focuses on the means to attain given
goals for learning and offers guidelines on methods to use in different situations in curriculum
implementation.

Values play an important role in instructional design theory. They underlie both the goals the
curriculum pursues and the methods it offers to attain the goals.

All these are articulated in BECF, which takes cognizance of the place of values as an anchor
for the pillars of the curriculum.

The BECF also provides a vision for the reform and engages critical stakeholders and policy
makers to identify with it. This provides a strong momentum for change in achieving the
reform vision.

Visible Learning Theory

John Hattie (2012) observes that globally, fundamental changes in education systems have
important implications for curriculum reform.

Learners need to be able to think about and solve problems, work in teams, communicate
through discussions, take initiatives and bring diverse perspectives to their learning. In
addition, learners need to learn more, yet they have little time available to learn it (Lee and
Zemke, 1995). Learners also need to demonstrate the impact of the achievement of national
goals of education.

Visible learning means an enhanced role for teachers as they become evaluators of their own
teaching. Hattie asserts that visible learning and teaching occurs when teachers see learning
through the eyes of learners and help them become their own teachers.
It entails making the learner’s learning visible to teachers so that they can know whether they
are having an impact on learning; an important component of becoming a lifelong learner.
This resonates with the Sustainable Development Goals. The ‘learning’ part of visible
learning is the need to think of teaching with learning in the forefront and with the idea that
we should consider teaching primarily in terms of its impact on learner learning.

When the teaching is visible, the learner knows what to do and how to do it. When the
learning is visible, the teacher knows if learning is occurring or not.

Teaching and learning are visible when the learning goal is not only challenging but is
explicit. Furthermore, both the teacher and the learner work together to attain the goal,
provide feedback, and ascertain whether the learner has attained the goal.

Evidence shows that the greatest effects on learner learning come when not only the learners
become their own teachers (through self-monitoring, and self-assessment), but when the
teachers become learners of their own teaching.

In successful classrooms, both the teaching and learning are visible. This theory is important
in designing a competency-based curriculum. It provides directions on the nature of
engagement in the learning process between the teacher, the learner and the environment. It
also provides a basis for designing a formative and criterion referenced assessment, which is
the bedrock of a competency-based curriculum.

Constructivism Theories

Different proponents of the constructivist theory have opined that human beings construct all
knowledge while participating in different mental and physical experiences. In
constructivism, the learner builds a personal interpretation of the world based on experiences
and interactions and learning is a process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring or
communicating it. Among its proponents are Dewey, Vygotsky, Piaget, Brunner, and more
recently Gardner and Hattie.

Dewey’s Social Constructivism

Dewey argued that the curriculum should ultimately produce learners who would be able to
deal effectively with the modern world.
Therefore, curricula should not be presented as finished abstractions, but should include the
child’s preconceptions and should incorporate how the child views his or her own world.

Dewey uses four instincts, or impulses, to describe how to characterize children’s behavior

The four instincts according to Dewey are social, constructive, expressive, and artistic.

Curricula should build an orderly sense of the world where the child lives. He hoped to use
occupations to connect miniature (small) versions of fundamental activities of life with
classroom activities.

The way Dewey hoped to accomplish this goal was to combine subject areas and materials.
By doing this, he made connections between subjects and the child’s life.

According to Dewey, education is growth and not an end in itself. Therefore, the curriculum
should arise from learners' interests, be hands-on and experience based rather than abstract.
The theory underscores the need for continuous, participatory and experiential learning, with
an emphasis on the practical aspect of the basic education curriculum.

Vygotsky’s Social-Cultural Development Theory

Vygotsky’s social-cultural theory emphasized that teaching and learning are highly social
activities and that interactions with teachers, peers and instructional materials influence the
cognitive and affective developments of learners (Kim and Baylor, 2006).

The theory argues that learning takes place when learners interact with each other, or have
other social contact. Learners negotiate meanings with people in the environment, and they
achieve goals through interacting, both explicitly and implicitly, with the teacher, peers,
materials, and atmosphere embedded in the context.

The theory underpins the basic education curriculum framework in terms of conceptualizing
and designing the necessary paradigm shifts that facilitates creating rich learning
environments which stimulates all learners and help them to fulfil their potential.

Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes that while adults may learn independently, children require
mediation from others before they can learn on their own. He called this process of moving
from being mediated by others to learning independently as scaffolding.

Within scaffolding, he identified an optimal point where learning takes place and called this
the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The concepts of scaffolding and ZPD will be
useful in designing the pedagogical shifts that teachers can be trained on to facilitate adoption
of a competency-based curriculum in basic education. Activities in the classroom includes
journaling, experiential activities, collaborative and co-operative learning.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory

Gardner’s theory grew out of constructivism. It states that learners possess different kinds of
minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different ways.

He argues that we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical
analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, use of the body to solve problems or to
make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves.

Recognizing this enables learners to leverage their strengths and purposively target and
develop their weaknesses. Pedagogical approaches under this theory emphasize the
importance of a learner cantered classroom, self-directed learning and delivery of instruction
via multiple media.

Individuals differ in the strength of intelligences (profile of intelligences) and in the ways in
which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse
problems, and progress in various domains.

Gardner says that these differences challenge an educational system which assumes that
everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure
suffices to test student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our educational system is
heavily biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat
lesser degree, toward logical-quantitative modes as well.

Given the need to identify, develop and nurture the talents of learners in the reformed
curriculum, Gardner's argument that learners can leverage their strengths is more likely to be
educationally effective since learners learn in ways that are identifiably distinct.

The broad spectrum of learners – and perhaps society as a whole – would be better served if
disciplines could be presented in a number of ways and learning could be assessed through a
variety of means.

Criterion referenced assessment that is aligned to a learner’s competencies can be situated

within Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory. This type of assessment is emphasized in the
BECF.

Piaget’s Theory Cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory deals with how humans gradually come to acquire, construct, and use
knowledge.

He looked at the impact a person's childhood had on their development, and the ways in
which maturation affect a child's increasing capacity to understand their world.

Piaget asserted that children cannot undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically
mature enough to do so.

According to this theory, there is progressive reorganization of mental processes resulting

from biological maturation and environmental experience.

It is important to note that children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly, instead,
there are certain points at which it "takes off" and moves into completely new areas and
capabilities.

These points are in four stages of cognitive development: sensory motor (0-2 years), language
development and conceptual thought (2-7 years), concrete operations (7-11 years) and formal
operations (11 years and above).

This has been taken to mean that before these ages, children are not capable (no matter how
bright) of understanding things in certain ways, and has been used as the basis for scheduling
the school curriculum.

Parents are encouraged to provide a rich, supportive environment for their child's natural
propensity to grow and learn. Parent involvement in learning is an active element in
reforming the basic education curriculum.

Bruner’s Cognitive Development Theory

Bruner's constructionist theoretical framework is based on the theme that learners construct
new ideas or concepts based upon existing knowledge.

According to Brunner (1976) the facets of the learning process include selection and
transformation of information, decision making, generating hypotheses, and making meaning
from information and experiences.

The theory emphasises the significance of categorization in learning as "to perceive, to

conceptualize, to learn, to make decisions." Interpreting information and experiences by
similarities and differences is a key concept. The theory identifies four key themes:

a) The role of structure in learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure
 refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques.
b) Readiness for learning and spiral curriculum. Bruner believed that any subject could
be taught at any stage of development in a way that fit the child's cognitive abilities.
Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas over and over, building
upon them and elaborating to the level of full understanding and mastery.
c) Intuitive and analytical thinking should both be encouraged and rewarded. He
believed the intuitive skills were under-emphasized and he reflected on the ability of
experts in every field to make intuitive leaps.
d) Motivation for learning. He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best
stimulus for learning. Bruner was against external competitive goals such as grades or
class ranking.
Just like the other constructivists, Bruner placed emphasis on learning instruction that allows
learners to discover principles for themselves and knowledge being structured in a way that is
readily grasped by learners.

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

This theory attempts to describe personality development throughout the entire lifespan of an
individual in eight distinct stages.

Erikson proposed a lifespan model of development that entails five stages in childhood (from
birth to the age of 18 years) and three stages in adulthood.

According to Erikson, there is plenty of room for continued growth and development
throughout one’s life.

The theory is underpinned by the epigenetic principle that presupposes that personality
develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage.

Application of this theory serves to ensure that education tasks given to the child are in
alignment with their stage of development thereby minimizing learner frustration.

Erikson assumes that a crisis occurs at each stage of development. These crises are of a
psychosocial nature because they involve the psychological needs of the individual (i.e.
psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e. social).

Successful negotiation of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of
basic virtues. Failure to complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further
stages and therefore an unhealthier personality and sense of self.
To help each learner achieve the expected learning outcomes, a competence-based
curriculum will ensure that outcomes are commensurate with the learner's stage of
development.

The following table gives a summary of the tasks or crises a human being is expected to
negotiate in order to move to the next stage of development:

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1. Trust vs Mistrust Hope Infancy (0 to1 ½)

2. Autonomy vs Shame Will Early Childhood (1 ½ to 3)

3. Initiative vs Guilt Purpose Play Age (3 to 5)

4. Industry vs Inferiority Competency School Age (5 to 12)

5. Ego Identity vs Role Confusion Fidelity Adolescence (12 to 18)

6. Intimacy vs Isolation Love Young Adult (18 to 40)

7. Generativity vs Stagnation Care Adulthood (40 to 65)

8. Ego Integrity vs Despair Wisdom Maturity (65+)

According to Erikson (Mcheod, 2016), the curriculum aims at fostering both lower and high-
level skills concurrently where the teacher remains a guide or facilitator while learners
construct their own knowledge through exploration and experiential learning.

Learners are active participants in the learning process through collaborating with others
through hands-on exploration and group projects. Learning goals are stated in terms of
growth and increased ability to work independently and collaboratively.Pedagogy and
assessment therefore as discussed in this theory are inclined towards the 21st century skills
and competencies, which the basic education curriculum aspires to achieve in the curriculum
reforms

c.) Guiding Principles

Opportunity

In order to achieve the reform vision and mission, the curriculum provides learners with a
variety of opportunities to enable them to identify their needs, talents and potential. This
enables them to participate in the world of work and the development of the nation. The
emphasis is on equal access to education for all that enables learners to enjoy learning and
reduce wastage in terms of dropping out of school because the curriculum is not relevant to
their needs.

Excellence

Learners are nurtured to excel in their areas of greatest interest and ability. The Framework
values excellence and competitiveness rather than raw competition for examination grades,
thereby reducing the challenge of malpractice in examinations because learners are guided to
excel in their areas of interest and ability.

Diversity and Inclusion

There are two dimensions in the guiding principle of diversity and inclusion. The first
dimension offers learners the opportunity to appreciate Kenya’s diversity in terms of race,
ethnicity, gender, language, culture, and religion. The second dimension relates to the fact
that learners are different in terms of their learning needs and abilities and these differences
need to be respected and valued within an inclusive learning environment. Inclusion entails
ensuring that all learning institutions accommodate all learners regardless of their physical,
emotional, intellectual, or any other need. It involves provision of reasonable accommodation
characterized by flexibility, responsiveness and support. The Framework recognizes that not
all learners are academically gifted but considers every learner’s social and cognitive
capabilities, his/her needs and desires, and respects the differences in the way children learn.
The ultimate aim is to guarantee basic education for every learner according to his/her
abilities and needs.

The curriculum reform addresses the needs of children, youth and adults who are out of
school, to increase their access to and participation in education, and hence, raise their
literacy levels for personal and national social economic development.

Differentiated Curriculum and Learning

Differentiated curriculum and learning builds on the principle of diversity and inclusion. It
ensures that the curriculum content and instructional approaches are appropriate for each
learner. It provides space for teachers to adapt the curriculum to suit the learner. It does not
demand that every learner learns the same content in the same way, in the same number of
hours and at the same time.

Parental Empowerment and Engagement

Parents play a very important role in determining the success of a child’s education. They
have a shared responsibility with schools to provide an enabling environment that is
conducive to learning and, which motivates children to achieve their full potential. The
Framework provides opportunities for schools to empower parents to contribute to the
learning outcomes for their children and to be engaged at all tiers and levels of basic
education.

Community Service Learning

Involving learners in community service is a form of experiential education that enables

learners to apply their knowledge and skills in a different setting. Teachers then support
learners to analyse what they have learned by taking part in this activity and how it might be
applied to their academic and personal development.

Community service learning entails a balanced emphasis on both learners’ learning and
addressing real needs in the community. Learning outcomes are linked to meaningful human,
safety, educational, and environmental needs that are co-determined with community partners
and service recipients. The service experience is brought back to the classroom to enhance
learning. Learners work on real problems that make academic learning relevant while
simultaneously enhancing their social skills, analytical ability, civic and ethical responsibility,
self-efficacy, and career development.

TEACHER EDUCATION CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK.

By the end of the Sub-strand the teacher trainee should be able to:
 a.) Analyze the teacher education Curriculum Framework in Kenya.
b.) Apply the Teacher Education Curriculum Framework to the learning process in
Kenya.
c.) Appreciate the need for Teacher Education Curriculum Framework to the current
curriculum.

A teacher education curriculum framework is a document that outlines the goals, content, and
learning outcomes of a teacher education program. It provides a blueprint for how teachers
are prepared to teach effectively in the classroom.

The teacher education curriculum framework in Kenya is based on the Competency-Based

Curriculum (CBC), which was introduced in 2017. The CBC is a learner-centred approach to
education that focuses on the development of core competencies in learners. The teacher
education curriculum framework is designed to ensure that teachers are prepared to teach in a
CBC environment.

The teacher education curriculum framework in Kenya is a comprehensive document that

provides a clear vision for teacher education in the country. The framework is aligned with
the CBC and is designed to ensure that teachers are prepared to teach in a competency-based
environment.

Elements of the framework

• Goals

The goals of the teacher education program, such as preparing teachers who are
knowledgeable about the content they will teach, who are skilled in pedagogy, and who are
committed to equity and social justice.

• Content

The content that will be covered in the teacher education program, such as the subject areas
that teachers will teach, pedagogy, and professional development.

• Learning outcomes

The knowledge, skills, and dispositions that teachers will be expected to demonstrate upon
completion of the program.
 • Assessment

The methods that will be used to assess teachers' learning and to ensure that they meet the
learning outcomes of the program.

Benefits of a teacher education curriculum framework

• It provides a clear and consistent vision for teacher education.

• It helps to ensure that all teachers are prepared with the knowledge, skills, and
dispositions they need to be effective in the classroom.
• It can help to improve the quality of teacher education programs.
• It can help to ensure that teachers are prepared to meet the needs of the students they
teach.

The framework outlines the following goals for teacher education

• To prepare teachers who are knowledgeable about the content they will teach.
• To prepare teachers who are skilled in pedagogy.
• To prepare teachers who are committed to equity and social justice.

The framework also includes the following content areas

• The subject areas that teachers will teach.

• Pedagogy.
• Professional development.

The framework specifies the following learning outcomes for teachers

• Knowledge of the content they will teach.

• Skills in pedagogy.
• Dispositions such as equity and social justice.

challenges facing the teacher education curriculum framework in Kenya.

 • The framework is relatively new and has not yet been implemented in all teacher
education institutions in Kenya.
• There is a lack of qualified teachers in Kenya, which makes it difficult to implement
the framework effectively.
• There is a need for more resources to support the implementation of the framework.

Recommendations for improving the teacher education curriculum framework in

Kenya

• The framework should be implemented in all teacher education institutions in Kenya.

• More resources should be made available to support the implementation of the
framework.
• There should be a focus on developing the capacity of teacher educators to implement
the framework effectively.

The Teacher Education Curriculum Framework in Kenya can be applied to the

learning process in a number of ways i.e.

• Using the framework to develop lesson plans

The framework can be used to develop lesson plans that are aligned with the CBC and that
focus on the development of core competencies in learners. For example, a lesson plan on
mathematics could be developed that focuses on the core competency of problem-solving.
The lesson plan would include activities that allow learners to apply their knowledge of
mathematics to solve real-world problems.

• Using the framework to assess student learning

The framework can also be used to assess student learning. The assessment methods used
should be aligned with the learning outcomes of the program. For example, a student's
knowledge of mathematics could be assessed by asking them to solve a problem. The
problem should be aligned with the core competency of problem-solving.

• Using the framework to provide professional development for teachers

The framework can also be used to provide professional development for teachers. The
professional development should focus on helping teachers to implement the CBC and to
develop the skills and dispositions they need to be effective in a competency-based
environment. For example, a professional development workshop could be held on how to
use inquiry-based learning in the classroom.

• Using the framework to create a learner-centred classroom

The framework emphasizes the importance of creating a learner-centred classroom. This

means creating a classroom where learners are actively engaged in the learning process and
where they have opportunities to learn at their own pace.

• Using the framework to promote equity and social justice

The framework also emphasizes the importance of promoting equity and social justice in the
classroom. This means creating a classroom where all learners feel welcome and valued,
regardless of their background or abilities.

• Using the framework to develop lifelong learners

The framework aims to develop lifelong learners. This means helping learners to develop the
skills and dispositions they need to continue learning throughout their lives.

CURRICULUM DESIGN

By the end of the sub-strand, the teacher trainee should be able to:

a.) Discuss the attributes of a curriculum design in curriculum development.

b.) Apply the principles of curriculum design in curriculum development
c.) Examine curriculum designs from other countries.
d.) Analyze the components of a curriculum design in Kenya.
e.) A curriculum design implementation.

A curriculum design is the process of creating a curriculum that aligns with the goals,
objectives, and learning outcomes of a course. It is a systematic approach to planning and
organizing the content, activities, and assessments that will be used to help students achieve
their learning goals.

The curriculum design process should be informed by the needs of the students, the content to
be covered, and the resources available. It should also be flexible enough to allow for changes
as the course progresses.
Elements curriculum

• Goals

The goals of the course, such as what students should know and be able to do by the end of
the course.

• Objectives

The specific learning outcomes that students should achieve by the end of the course.

• Content

The topics that will be covered in the course.

• Activities

The activities that students will participate in to learn the content.

• Assessments

The methods that will be used to assess student learning.

Benefits of a curriculum design

• It provides a clear and consistent vision for the course.

• It helps to ensure that all students are learning the same content.
• It can help to improve the quality of instruction.

Attributes of a curriculum design in curriculum development

• Clear and consistent vision

The curriculum design should provide a clear and consistent vision for the course. This means
that the goals, objectives, content, activities, and assessments should all be aligned with the
overall vision for the course.

• Flexibility
The curriculum design should be flexible enough to allow for changes as the course
progresses. This is important because the needs of the students and the content to be covered
may change over time.

• Relevance

The curriculum design should be relevant to the needs of the students. This means that the
content should be meaningful to the students and that the activities should be engaging.

• Equity

The curriculum design should be equitable. This means that all students should have the
opportunity to learn and succeed, regardless of their background or abilities.

• Accuracy

The curriculum design should be accurate. This means that the content should be accurate and
up-to-date.

• Assessment

The curriculum design should include a plan for assessment. This means that there should be
a way to measure student learning and to make sure that they are meeting the learning
outcomes of the course.

Principles of curriculum design that can be applied to curriculum development

• The curriculum should be learner-centred.

This means that the curriculum should be designed to meet the needs of the students and to
help them learn in a way that is meaningful to them. For example, the curriculum might
include activities that allow students to work collaboratively or to use technology to explore
topics.

• The curriculum should be relevant to the real world.

This means that the content of the curriculum should be relevant to the lives of the students
and should help them to develop the skills they need to be successful in life. For example, the
curriculum might include topics such as financial literacy or entrepreneurship.

• The curriculum should be challenging but achievable.

This means that the goals and objectives of the curriculum should be challenging but within
reach of the students. For example, the curriculum might include a mix of easy, medium, and
challenging tasks.

• The curriculum should be equitable.

This means that all students should have the opportunity to learn and succeed, regardless of
their background or abilities. For example, the curriculum might include accommodations for
students with disabilities or for students who are learning English as a second language.

• The curriculum should be flexible.

This means that the curriculum should be able to adapt to changes in the needs of the students
and the content to be covered. For example, the curriculum might include a list of suggested
activities that can be added or removed depending on the needs of the students.

Components of a curriculum design in Kenya:

• Goals and objectives

The goals and objectives of the curriculum should be clear and specific. They should state
what students are expected to learn by the end of the course.

• Content

The content of the curriculum should be relevant to the needs of the students and should be
aligned with the goals and objectives. It should be organized in a way that makes sense and
that is easy for students to follow.

• Learning experiences
The learning experiences in the curriculum should be engaging and meaningful. They should
provide opportunities for students to apply their knowledge and skills in real-world contexts.

• Assessment

The assessment in the curriculum should be aligned with the goals and objectives. It should
measure student progress and provide feedback to students and teachers.

• Learning Resources

The curriculum should identify the resources that will be needed to implement it. These
resources may include textbooks, materials, and technology.

Roles of values in a society

Values are the principles that guide our behaviour and help us to make decisions. They are the things
that we believe are important and that we strive to uphold.

In a society, values play a number of important roles. They:

• Provide a sense of common purpose. Values help to create a shared sense of identity and
purpose for a society. They provide a framework for people to make decisions and to interact
with each other.
• Help to maintain order. Values help to maintain order in society by providing a set of
guidelines for behaviour. They help to ensure that people's actions are consistent with the
expectations of the group.
• Promote social cohesion. Values help to promote social cohesion by providing a common set
of beliefs and principles that people can share. They help to create a sense of belonging and to
foster a sense of community.
• Guide individual behaviour. Values guide individual behaviour by providing a framework
for people to make decisions. They help people to determine what is right and wrong and to
make choices that are consistent with their beliefs.
• Help to shape the future of society. Values help to shape the future of society by influencing
the way that people think and act. They provide a framework for people to make decisions
about the future and to shape the way that society evolves.

The specific values that are important in a society will vary depending on the culture and history of
that society. However, some common values that are important in many societies include:
 • Respect for others. This includes respecting the rights and dignity of others, even if they are
different from us.
• Honesty and integrity. This includes being truthful and trustworthy, and acting in accordance
with our values.
• Cooperation and teamwork. This includes working together with others to achieve common
goals.
• Responsibility and accountability. This includes taking responsibility for our actions and
being accountable for our decisions.
• Fairness and justice. This includes treating others fairly and justly, regardless of their
background or circumstances.

The concepts of values-based education in learning

Values-based education is an approach to education that focuses on the development of students'

values as well as their academic skills. It is based on the belief that values are essential for a well-
rounded education and that they can help students to become more successful in life.

Values-based education typically includes the following elements:

• Exploring core values: Students are introduced to a set of core values, such as respect,
honesty, and responsibility. They learn about the meaning of these values and how they can be
applied in their own lives.
• Learning about different cultures: Students learn about different cultures and how they
view values. This helps them to develop an understanding of how values can vary from
culture to culture.
• Reflective activities: Students engage in reflective activities that help them to explore their
own values and how they can be applied in their lives. These activities can include journaling,
discussion, and role-playing.
• Service learning: Students participate in service learning activities that allow them to apply
their values in the real world. This can involve volunteering, working with a community
organization, or participating in a social justice project.

Values-based education has a number of benefits for students. It can help them to:

• Develop a strong moral compass: Values-based education can help students to develop a
strong moral compass that will guide them throughout their lives.
• Become more self-aware: Values-based education can help students to become more self-
aware and to understand their own values.
 • Make better decisions: Values-based education can help students to make better decisions by
giving them a framework for evaluating their options.
• Be more successful in life: Values-based education can help students to be more successful
in life by giving them the skills and knowledge they need to be ethical and responsible
citizens.

Values-based education is a valuable addition to any school curriculum. It can help students to
develop the values they need to be successful in life and to make a positive contribution to society.

Here are some examples of how values-based education can be incorporated into the learning process:

• In a history class, students could learn about the values that were important to different
cultures throughout history. They could then discuss how these values have influenced the
way that these cultures have developed.
• In a science class, students could learn about the ethical implications of scientific
research. They could then discuss how they would apply their values to make decisions about
scientific research.
• In an English class, students could read literature that explores different values. They
could then discuss how these values are relevant to their own lives.

Values-based education can be incorporated into any subject area. The key is to find ways to connect
the subject matter to the development of students' values. By doing this, we can help students to
become more well-rounded individuals who are prepared to make a positive contribution to society.

Principles of value-based education in relation to the whole school approach

The whole school approach to values-based education means that all aspects of the school community
are working together to promote the values that are important in the school. This includes the
curriculum, the school climate, and the relationships between students, teachers, and staff.

When the whole school is committed to values-based education, it can have a positive impact on
students' lives. Students are more likely to develop strong moral compasses, to make better decisions,
and to be more successful in life.The principles include:

• Values should be explicitly taught and modelled. This means that teachers should explicitly
teach students about the values that are important in the school community, and they should
model these values in their own behaviour.
• Values should be integrated into the curriculum. This means that values should be
incorporated into all aspects of the curriculum, not just in separate lessons on values. For
 example, teachers can use stories, poems, and other literature to explore values, or they can
use current events to discuss the application of values in the real world.
• Values should be assessed. This means that students should be assessed on their
understanding of values and their ability to apply them in their own lives. This can be done
through formal assessments, such as tests, or through informal assessments, such as
observations and discussions.
• Values should be supported by the school community. This means that all members of the
school community, including teachers, staff, students, and parents, should be committed to the
values that are important in the school. This means that they should support the values in their
own behaviour and they should hold each other accountable for upholding the values.

Implementation of the whole school approach

• The school can develop a set of core values that are shared by all members of the school
community. These values can be displayed throughout the school and they can be used as a
guide for decision-making.
• The school can create a positive school climate that is supportive of the values that are
important in the school. This can be done by creating a sense of belonging, by promoting
respect for all members of the school community, and by providing opportunities for students
to learn and grow.
• The school can provide professional development for teachers on values-based
education. This can help teachers to learn how to teach values in the classroom and how to
create a values-rich school environment.
• The school can involve parents in the values-based education process. This can be done by
providing parents with information about the values that are important in the school and by
inviting them to participate in activities that promote these values.

The concept of community service learning in enhancing learning

• Community service learning is a teaching and learning strategy that integrates meaningful
community service with academic curriculum. It engages students in real-world experiences
that address community needs while providing opportunities for students to learn and apply
academic concepts.
• Community service learning can enhance learning by:
o Connecting academic learning to real-world experiences. This helps students to
see how the concepts they are learning in the classroom can be applied to solve real-
world problems.
 o Developing students' civic engagement skills. This helps students to learn about
their community and to develop skills that they can use to make a positive impact on
the world.
o Promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills. This helps students to learn
how to think critically about problems and to develop solutions that are effective.
o Enhancing students' self-confidence and self-esteem. This helps students to feel
good about themselves and to believe that they can make a difference in the world.
o Building relationships between students, teachers, and community members.
This helps to create a sense of community and to foster a sense of belonging.
• Community service learning can be implemented in a variety of ways, depending on the
needs of the students and the community. Some examples include:
o Volunteering at a local soup kitchen or homeless shelter.
o Tutoring students at a local elementary school.
o Working on a community garden or environmental project.
o Advocating for a cause that is important to the students.
• When implemented effectively, community service learning can be a valuable tool for
enhancing learning and promoting civic engagement. It is important to choose projects that
are meaningful to the students and that are aligned with the academic curriculum. It is also
important to provide students with opportunities to reflect on their experiences and to apply
what they have learned in the classroom.

Benefits of community service learning for students

• Develop a sense of civic responsibility and engagement.

• Gain practical skills and knowledge that they can use in their future careers.
• Develop problem-solving and critical thinking skills.
• Learn to work effectively with others.
• Improve their self-esteem and confidence.
• Develop a better understanding of different cultures and perspectives.
• Make a positive difference in their community.

Distinguish between community service learning and community service

Community service is any activity that benefits the community, such as volunteering at a soup
kitchen, tutoring younger students, or cleaning up a local park. Community service can be done by
individuals or groups, and it can be done for a variety of reasons, such as to help others, to learn new
skills, or to meet new people.
Community service learning is a type of community service that is integrated with academic
curriculum. It engages students in real-world experiences that address community needs while
providing opportunities for students to learn and apply academic concepts. Community service
learning can be done in a variety of settings, such as schools, community organizations, and
businesses.

Examples of community service learning

• A group of students in a science class volunteer at a local environmental organization to learn

about and help with environmental conservation.
• A group of students in a history class volunteer at a local museum to learn about and help with
historical preservation.
• A group of students in a math class volunteer at a local soup kitchen to learn about and help
with budgeting and financial literacy.

Rationale for community service learning

• To connect academic learning to real-world experiences. Community service learning

allows students to see how the concepts they are learning in the classroom can be applied to
solve real-world problems. This can help students to better understand the material and to be
more engaged in their learning.
• To develop civic engagement skills. Community service learning helps students to learn
about their community and to develop skills that they can use to make a positive impact on the
world. This includes skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and teamwork.
• To promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Community service learning
challenges students to think critically about problems and to develop solutions that are
effective. This can help students to become better problem-solvers and to be more creative in
their thinking.
• To enhance students' self-confidence and self-esteem. Community service learning can help
students to feel good about themselves and to believe that they can make a difference in the
world. This can boost their self-confidence and self-esteem.
• To build relationships between students, teachers, and community members. Community
service learning can help to build relationships between students, teachers, and community
members. This can create a sense of community and to foster a sense of belonging.
Principles of community service learning in the learning process

• Connecting academic learning to real-world experiences. Community service learning

allows students to see how the concepts they are learning in the classroom can be applied to
solve real-world problems. This can help students to better understand the material and to be
more engaged in their learning.
• Developing civic engagement skills. Community service learning helps students to learn
about their community and to develop skills that they can use to make a positive impact on the
world. This includes skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and teamwork.
• Promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Community service learning
challenges students to think critically about problems and to develop solutions that are
effective. This can help students to become better problem-solvers and to be more creative in
their thinking.
• Enhancing students' self-confidence and self-esteem. Community service learning can help
students to feel good about themselves and to believe that they can make a difference in the
world. This can boost their self-confidence and self-esteem.
• Building relationships between students, teachers, and community members. Community
service learning can help to build relationships between students, teachers, and community
members. This can create a sense of community and to foster a sense of belonging.

Specific examples of how these principles can be applied to the learning process

• Connecting academic learning to real-world experiences: In a science class, students could

learn about the water cycle and then volunteer at a local watershed organization to help with
water conservation efforts.
• Developing civic engagement skills: In a history class, students could learn about the civil
rights movement and then volunteer at a local civil rights organization to help with voter
registration drives.
• Promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills: In a math class, students could
learn about linear equations and then volunteer at a local soup kitchen to help with food
distribution.
• Enhancing students' self-confidence and self-esteem: In an English class, students could
write about their experiences with community service and then share their writing with the
class.
 • Building relationships between students, teachers, and community members: In a foreign
language class, students could volunteer at a local community center to help with translation
services.

Ways of engaging the community in community service learning

• Partner with local organizations. There are many local organizations that are already doing
great work in the community. By partnering with these organizations, you can tap into their
expertise and resources and make sure that your students' service learning is making a real
impact.
• Reach out to community leaders. Community leaders can be valuable partners in
community service learning. They can help you to identify community needs, connect you
with local organizations, and promote your program to the community.
• Get the word out. Make sure that people in the community know about your community
service learning program. You can do this by creating a website, distributing flyers, or holding
an event to introduce the program.
• Make it easy for people to get involved. Make sure that it is easy for people to get involved
in your community service learning program. This means providing clear information about
the program, making sure that there are opportunities for people of all ages and abilities to
participate, and providing transportation and childcare if needed.
• Be flexible. Be willing to adapt your program to the needs of the community. This may mean
changing the focus of the program, the time of day that it is offered, or the location where it is
held.
• Be appreciative. Be sure to thank the community for their support of your community service
learning program. This can be done through a letter, an event, or simply by saying thank you.

Examine community service learning at various levels of learning

Community service learning (CSL) is a teaching and learning strategy that integrates meaningful
community service with academic curriculum. It engages students in real-world experiences that
address community needs while providing opportunities for students to learn and apply academic
concepts. CSL can be implemented at various levels of learning, from elementary school to college.

Elementary School

At the elementary school level, CSL can be used to teach students about different cultures, to promote
civic engagement, and to develop problem-solving skills. For example, students might volunteer at a
local soup kitchen to learn about hunger and poverty, or they might participate in a recycling project
to learn about environmental conservation.
Middle School

At the middle school level, CSL can be used to teach students about math, science, and social studies
concepts. For example, students might volunteer at a local animal shelter to learn about animal care, or
they might participate in a community garden project to learn about ecology.

High School

At the high school level, CSL can be used to prepare students for college and careers. For example,
students might volunteer at a local hospital to learn about the medical field, or they might participate
in a tutoring program to help younger students.

College

At the college level, CSL can be used to help students develop their critical thinking and problem-
solving skills. For example, students might volunteer at a local homeless shelter to learn about social
work, or they might participate in a research project to learn about public health.

No matter what the level of learning, CSL can be a valuable tool for students to learn and grow. It can
help students to connect their academic learning to real-world experiences, to develop civic
engagement skills, and to make a positive impact on their community.

Here are some examples of CSL projects that can be implemented at various levels of learning:

Elementary School

• Volunteer at a local soup kitchen to learn about hunger and poverty.

• Participate in a recycling project to learn about environmental conservation.
• Create a mural in your school to promote diversity and inclusion.

Middle School

• Volunteer at a local animal shelter to learn about animal care.

• Participate in a community garden project to learn about ecology.
• Organize a food drive to help those in need.

High School

• Volunteer at a local hospital to learn about the medical field.

• Participate in a tutoring program to help younger students.
• Organize a fundraiser to support a local community organization.
College

• Volunteer at a local homeless shelter to learn about social work.

• Participate in a research project to learn about public health.
• Intern with a local non-profit organization to gain work experience.

Explain what pertinent and contemporary issues are in learning

There are many pertinent and contemporary issues in learning. Here are some of the most important
ones:

• The digital divide: The digital divide is the gap between those who have access to technology
and those who do not. This can have a significant impact on learning, as students who do not
have access to technology may be at a disadvantage.
• The rise of social media: Social media has become an increasingly important part of our
lives, and it is also having a significant impact on learning. Students are using social media to
connect with each other, to learn about the world around them, and to access educational
resources. However, social media can also be a distraction, and it can be difficult for students
to focus on their studies when they are constantly connected.
• The need for personalized learning: Personalized learning is an approach to education that
tailors instruction to the individual needs of each student. This is becoming increasingly
important as we recognize that all students learn differently.
• The challenge of preparing students for the 21st century workforce: The 21st century
workforce is very different from the workforce of the past, and this is putting new demands on
education. Students need to be prepared for jobs that require critical thinking, problem-
solving, and creativity.
• The need to address equity and inclusion in education: Equity and inclusion are essential
for all students to succeed. However, these are still challenges in many schools.

Here are some additional pertinent and contemporary issues in learning:

• The importance of social-emotional learning: Social-emotional learning (SEL) is the

process of developing the self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship
skills, and responsible decision-making skills that are essential for success in school, work,
and life. SEL is increasingly being recognized as an essential component of a well-rounded
education.
 • The need for lifelong learning: In today's rapidly changing world, it is more important than
ever for people to be able to learn and adapt to new information and technologies. Lifelong
learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge and skills throughout one's life. It is
essential for people to be able to keep up with the demands of the workforce and to be able to
participate fully in society.
• The impact of technology on learning: Technology is having a profound impact on learning.
It is changing the way that we teach and learn, and it is opening up new possibilities for
education. However, it is also important to be aware of the potential challenges of technology,
such as the distraction it can cause and the need for students to be able to critically evaluate
the information they find online.

pertinent and contemporary issues in learning

Pertinent and contemporary issues in learning are those that are currently relevant and important to the
field of education. These issues can vary depending on the context, but some common examples
include:

• The impact of technology on learning: Technology is having a profound impact on learning.

It is changing the way that we teach and learn, and it is opening up new possibilities for
education. However, it is also important to be aware of the potential challenges of technology,
such as the distraction it can cause and the need for students to be able to critically evaluate
the information they find online.
• The need for personalized learning: Personalized learning is an approach to education that
tailors instruction to the individual needs of each student. This is becoming increasingly
important as we recognize that all students learn differently.
• The challenge of preparing students for the 21st century workforce: The 21st century
workforce is very different from the workforce of the past, and this is putting new demands on
education. Students need to be prepared for jobs that require critical thinking, problem-
solving, and creativity.
• The need to address equity and inclusion in education: Equity and inclusion are essential
for all students to succeed. However, these are still challenges in many schools.
• The importance of social-emotional learning: Social-emotional learning (SEL) is the
process of developing the self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship
skills, and responsible decision-making skills that are essential for success in school, work,
and life. SEL is increasingly being recognized as an essential component of a well-rounded
education.
• The need for lifelong learning: In today's rapidly changing world, it is more important than
ever for people to be able to learn and adapt to new information and technologies. Lifelong
learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge and skills throughout one's life. It is
 essential for people to be able to keep up with the demands of the workforce and to be able to
participate fully in society.

explore the effects of pertinent and contemporary issues on members of the school community

Pertinent and contemporary issues in learning can have a significant impact on members of the school
community, including students, teachers, and administrators. Here are some of the effects that these
issues can have:

• Students: Students may be affected by pertinent and contemporary issues in learning in a

number of ways. For example, they may be more likely to experience anxiety or stress if they
are worried about their academic performance or their ability to get a job after graduation.
They may also be more likely to engage in risky behaviors, such as substance abuse or
violence, if they feel like they are not being supported by their school or their community.
• Teachers: Teachers may also be affected by pertinent and contemporary issues in learning.
For example, they may feel pressure to prepare students for the 21st century workforce, even
if they do not have the resources or training to do so. They may also feel frustrated if they feel
like they are not being supported by their school or their community.
• Administrators: Administrators may also be affected by pertinent and contemporary issues in
learning. For example, they may be responsible for making decisions about how to allocate
resources, such as technology and staff. They may also be responsible for developing policies
and procedures that address issues such as equity and inclusion.

Specific examples of how pertinent and contemporary issues in learning can affect members of
the school community:

• The impact of technology on learning: Students who do not have access to technology may
be at a disadvantage in the classroom. They may also be more likely to experience anxiety or
stress if they are constantly connected to social media.
• The need for personalized learning: Students who are not being taught in a way that meets
their individual needs may become frustrated and disengaged in school. They may also be
more likely to drop out.
 • The challenge of preparing students for the 21st century workforce: Students who do not
have the skills and knowledge that are needed for 21st century jobs may be more likely to be
unemployed or underemployed. They may also be more likely to experience financial
hardship.
• The need to address equity and inclusion in education: Students who feel like they are not
being treated fairly or who do not feel like they belong in school may be more likely to
disengage in school. They may also be more likely to experience bullying or harassment.
• The importance of social-emotional learning: Students who do not have the social-
emotional skills that are needed for success in school and in life may be more likely to
experience problems such as anxiety, depression, and substance abuse.
• The need for lifelong learning: Students who do not develop the skills and knowledge that
are needed for lifelong learning may be more likely to be left behind in the workforce. They
may also be more likely to experience financial hardship.

Demonstrate ways of incorporating pertinent and contemporary issues in different learning

areas

Language Arts

• The impact of technology on communication: Students can explore how technology has
changed the way we communicate, both in person and online. They can discuss the benefits
and challenges of this change, and they can consider how technology can be used to promote
positive communication.
• The need for media literacy: Students can learn about the importance of being able to
critically evaluate the information they find online and in the media. They can discuss how to
identify bias and misinformation, and they can learn how to use media to promote positive
social change.
• The importance of social-emotional learning: Students can explore the importance of
social-emotional skills, such as self-awareness, self-management, and empathy. They can
discuss how these skills can help them to succeed in school and in life, and they can develop
strategies for building these skills.

Mathematics

• The challenge of preparing students for the 21st century workforce: Students can explore
the skills and knowledge that are needed for 21st century jobs. They can discuss how math
can be used to solve problems in the real world, and they can develop projects that
demonstrate their math skills.
 • The importance of data literacy: Students can learn about the importance of being able to
collect, analyze, and interpret data. They can discuss how data can be used to make informed
decisions, and they can develop projects that use data to solve real-world problems.
• The need for lifelong learning: Students can explore the importance of continuing to learn
throughout their lives. They can discuss how math can be used in different contexts, and they
can develop plans for how they will continue to learn math after they leave school.

Science

• The impact of climate change: Students can learn about the science of climate change and its
impact on the planet. They can discuss the challenges of addressing climate change, and they
can develop projects that promote sustainability.
• The need for STEM education: Students can explore the importance of science, technology,
engineering, and math (STEM) education. They can discuss how STEM skills are essential for
solving the challenges of the 21st century, and they can develop projects that use STEM skills
to solve real-world problems.
• The importance of critical thinking: Students can learn about the importance of critical
thinking in science. They can discuss how to evaluate scientific evidence, and they can
develop projects that use critical thinking to solve scientific problems.

Social Studies

• The challenge of preparing students for civic engagement: Students can explore the
importance of civic engagement and how they can make a difference in their community.
They can discuss the different ways to be involved in civic life, and they can develop projects
that promote civic engagement.
• The importance of understanding different cultures: Students can learn about different
cultures and how they have shaped the world. They can discuss the importance of tolerance
and understanding, and they can develop projects that promote cultural understanding.
• The need for global citizenship: Students can explore the importance of being a global
citizen and how they can make a difference in the world. They can discuss the challenges of
global citizenship, and they can develop projects that promote global understanding.

Importance of pertinent and contemporary issues in the learning process

 • Develop critical thinking skills: By engaging with pertinent and contemporary issues,
students are forced to think critically about the world around them. They must evaluate
different perspectives, consider evidence, and form their own opinions.
• Become more engaged in their learning: When students are learning about issues that they
care about, they are more likely to be engaged in their learning. They are more likely to be
motivated to learn more about the issue, and they are more likely to remember what they have
learned.
• Develop a sense of civic responsibility: By learning about pertinent and contemporary
issues, students can develop a sense of civic responsibility. They can learn about the
challenges facing their community and the world, and they can learn how they can make a
difference.
• Become more informed citizens: By learning about pertinent and contemporary issues,
students can become more informed citizens. They can learn about the issues that are
important to their community and the world, and they can learn how to make informed
decisions about these issues.
• Develop problem-solving skills: By engaging with pertinent and contemporary issues,
students can develop problem-solving skills. They can learn how to identify problems, gather
information, develop solutions, and evaluate the effectiveness of their solutions.

Specific examples of how pertinent and contemporary issues can be incorporated into the
learning process:

• In a history class, students could learn about the civil rights movement by examining the
pertinent and contemporary issue of racial injustice.
• In a science class, students could learn about climate change by examining the pertinent and
contemporary issue of environmental sustainability.
• In a math class, students could learn about data analysis by examining the pertinent and
contemporary issue of voter suppression.
• In an English class, students could learn about persuasive writing by examining the pertinent
and contemporary issue of gun control.

Examine the concept of gender as ascribed by society

Gender is a social construct, meaning that it is a set of ideas and expectations about what it means to
be a man or a woman. These ideas and expectations are created by society, and they can vary from
culture to culture.
In many societies, gender is ascribed at birth, based on the child's sex. This means that children are
assigned a gender role based on their biological sex, regardless of their own personal identity. For
example, a child who is born with a penis is typically assigned the gender role of "male," and a child
who is born with a vagina is typically assigned the gender role of "female."

These gender roles can have a significant impact on how children are raised and how they see
themselves. For example, boys may be encouraged to be assertive and active, while girls may be
encouraged to be passive and nurturing. These expectations can also lead to discrimination and
prejudice against people who do not conform to traditional gender roles.

In recent years, there has been a growing movement to challenge traditional gender roles. This
movement has been led by transgender and gender non-conforming people, who argue that gender is
not a binary (male or female) but rather a spectrum. This means that there are many different ways to
be a man or a woman, and that people should not be limited by traditional gender roles.

The concept of gender as ascribed by society is a complex and evolving one. There is no one right
way to be a man or a woman, and people should be free to express their gender identity in any way
that feels authentic to them.

some of the ways that gender is ascribed by society

• Names: Names are often gendered, with different names being used for boys and girls. This
can start at birth, when babies are given gendered names.
• Clothing: Clothing is also often gendered, with different types of clothing being considered
appropriate for boys and girls. This can start at a young age, when children are encouraged to
wear clothing that is considered appropriate for their gender.
• Toys: Toys are also often gendered, with different types of toys being considered appropriate
for boys and girls. This can start at a young age, when children are given toys that are
considered appropriate for their gender.
• Activities: Activities are also often gendered, with different activities being considered
appropriate for boys and girls. This can start at a young age, when children are encouraged to
participate in activities that are considered appropriate for their gender.
• Language: Language is also gendered, with different words and phrases being used to refer to
men and women. This can start at a young age, when children learn to use gendered language.
Assess and argue the place of the boy and girl in the home, classroom and society for
appropriate intervention

The place of boys and girls in the home, classroom, and society is a complex and evolving issue.
Traditionally, boys have been expected to be more assertive and active, while girls have been expected
to be more passive and nurturing. These expectations have been reflected in the way that boys and
girls are raised, the toys they are given, and the activities they are encouraged to participate in.

However, in recent years, there has been a growing movement to challenge traditional gender roles.
This movement has been led by feminists, transgender and gender non-conforming people, and others
who argue that gender is not a binary (male or female) but rather a spectrum. This means that there are
many different ways to be a man or a woman, and that people should not be limited by traditional
gender roles.

This shift in thinking has had a significant impact on the way that boys and girls are raised. Parents are
now more likely to encourage their children to explore their interests and talents, regardless of their
gender. Toys and activities are also becoming more gender-neutral, and there is a growing recognition
that boys can be nurturing and girls can be assertive.

In the classroom, teachers are also becoming more aware of the need to challenge traditional gender
roles. They are now more likely to use gender-neutral language and to offer a variety of learning
experiences that appeal to both boys and girls.

In society, there is also a growing movement to challenge traditional gender roles. This movement has
been led by businesses, organizations, and individuals who are working to create a more inclusive
society. For example, some businesses are now offering gender-neutral bathrooms, and some
organizations are offering gender-neutral leadership training.

There are a number of reasons why it is important to challenge traditional gender roles. First,
traditional gender roles can be limiting. They can prevent boys and girls from exploring their interests
and talents, and they can lead to discrimination and prejudice against people who do not conform to
traditional gender roles.

Second, traditional gender roles are often based on outdated stereotypes. For example, the stereotype
that boys are more assertive than girls is often based on the fact that boys are more likely to engage in
rough-and-tumble play. However, this does not mean that girls are not assertive. It simply means that
they express their assertiveness in different ways.

Third, traditional gender roles can be harmful to both boys and girls. For example, the stereotype that
girls are more nurturing than boys can lead to girls being discouraged from pursuing careers in STEM
fields.

There are a number of things that can be done to challenge traditional gender roles. Parents can start
by talking to their children about gender and challenging stereotypes. They can also encourage their
children to explore their interests and talents, regardless of their gender.

Teachers can also challenge traditional gender roles by using gender-neutral language and offering a
variety of learning experiences that appeal to both boys and girls. They can also talk to their students
about gender and challenge stereotypes.

Businesses, organizations, and individuals can also challenge traditional gender roles by offering
gender-neutral products and services. They can also work to create a more inclusive workplace and
society.

Challenging traditional gender roles is an important step towards creating a more just and equitable
society. By challenging stereotypes and offering more opportunities for boys and girls to explore their
interests and talents, we can create a world where everyone has the chance to succeed.

Evaluate the effects of gender stereotyping in education

Gender stereotyping in education can have a number of negative effects on students. It can lead to:

• Lower academic achievement: Students who are stereotyped may be less likely to be
encouraged to pursue certain subjects or careers, which can lead to lower academic
achievement. For example, girls who are stereotyped as being less interested in math and
science may be less likely to take these subjects in school, which can limit their future
opportunities.
• Reduced self-esteem: Students who are stereotyped may develop low self-esteem, believing
that they are not good at certain subjects or activities because of their gender. This can lead to
anxiety and depression, and it can make it difficult for students to reach their full potential.
• Increased anxiety and stress: Students who are stereotyped may feel anxious and stressed
about meeting the expectations of their gender. This can make it difficult for them to focus on
their schoolwork and to participate in class discussions.
• Discouraged from pursuing their interests: Students who are stereotyped may be
discouraged from pursuing their interests because they feel like they do not fit the mold for
 their gender. This can lead to students giving up on their dreams and settling for less than they
are capable of.

There are a number of things that can be done to address gender stereotyping in education. Teachers
can start by being aware of their own biases and by using gender-neutral language in the classroom.
They can also provide opportunities for students to explore a variety of subjects and activities,
regardless of their gender. Schools can also adopt policies that promote gender equity, such as single-
sex classes or gender-neutral bathrooms.

Parents can also play a role in addressing gender stereotyping by talking to their children about gender
and challenging stereotypes. They can also encourage their children to pursue their interests,
regardless of their gender.

Design gender main streaming mechanisms both at school and in the community

Gender mainstreaming is the process of incorporating gender perspectives into all aspects of policy
and practice. This includes ensuring that the needs and interests of both women and men are
considered, and that gender equality is promoted.

There are a number of ways to design gender mainstreaming mechanisms both at school and in the
community. Here are some examples:

At School

• Train teachers on gender mainstreaming: Teachers need to be trained on gender

mainstreaming so that they can understand the importance of incorporating gender
perspectives into their teaching. This training should cover topics such as gender stereotypes,
gender-based violence, and gender equality.
• Review school policies: School policies should be reviewed to ensure that they are gender-
neutral and that they do not discriminate against either girls or boys. For example, dress codes
should be gender-neutral, and there should be equal opportunities for girls and boys to
participate in extracurricular activities.
• Provide gender-neutral resources: Schools should provide gender-neutral resources, such as
books, toys, and games. This will help to challenge gender stereotypes and to create a more
inclusive environment for all students.

In the Community
 • Work with community organizations: Community organizations can work with schools to
promote gender mainstreaming. This could involve providing training to teachers and parents,
or developing gender-neutral programs and activities.
• Create gender-neutral spaces: Community organizations can create gender-neutral spaces,
such as playgrounds and libraries. This will help to challenge gender stereotypes and to create
a more inclusive environment for all community members.
• Advocate for gender-sensitive policies: Community organizations can advocate for gender-
sensitive policies at the local, state, and federal levels. This could involve working to change
laws that discriminate against women or to increase funding for gender-equality programs.

Illustrate the effects of sexual and gender-based violence on learners and families
Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) is a serious issue that can have a devastating impact on
learners and families. It can lead to a number of short-term and long-term effects, including:

Short-term effects:

• Physical injuries: SGBV can cause physical injuries, such as bruises, cuts, and internal
injuries.
• Psychological trauma: SGBV can cause psychological trauma, such as anxiety, depression,
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and self-harm.
• School absenteeism: SGBV can lead to school absenteeism, as learners may be afraid to go
to school or may not feel safe there.
• Dropout: SGBV can also lead to dropout, as learners may feel that they cannot cope with the
emotional and psychological effects of the violence.

Long-term effects:

• Reduced educational attainment: SGBV can lead to reduced educational attainment, as

learners may not be able to focus on their studies or may not feel safe in school.
• Economic hardship: SGBV can lead to economic hardship, as learners may not be able to
work or may have to take time off work to deal with the effects of the violence.
• Social isolation: SGBV can lead to social isolation, as learners may withdraw from their
friends and family or may be afraid to leave their homes.
• Revictimization: SGBV survivors are at increased risk of revictimization, as they may be
more likely to be targeted by perpetrators.

SGBV can have a devastating impact on learners and families. It is important to be aware of the
effects of SGBV and to provide support to survivors. There are a number of organizations that provide
support to survivors of SGBV, including:
 • RAINN: The Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network (RAINN) is the largest anti-sexual
violence organization in the United States. They provide support to survivors of sexual
violence and their loved ones.
• The National Sexual Assault Hotline: The National Sexual Assault Hotline is a confidential,
free, and 24/7 resource for survivors of sexual violence. They can be reached at 1-800-656-
HOPE (4673).
• Child help USA: Child help USA is a national organization that provides support to children
who have been abused or neglected. They can be reached at 1-800-422-4453.

Discuss the effects of Female Genital Mutilation in society

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a harmful practice that can have a devastating impact on girls and
women. It is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve partial
or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-
medical reasons."

FGM is most commonly practiced in Africa, but it also occurs in other parts of the world, including
Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America. It is estimated that over 200 million girls and women alive
today have undergone FGM.

The effects of FGM can be both physical and psychological. Physical effects can include pain,
bleeding, infection, and complications during childbirth. Psychological effects can include anxiety,
depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and low self-esteem.

FGM can also have a number of negative social and economic consequences. It can lead to school
absenteeism, dropout, and early marriage. It can also increase the risk of HIV infection and other
sexually transmitted infections.

There are many reasons why FGM is practiced. Some of the most common reasons include:

• Cultural beliefs: In some cultures, FGM is seen as a rite of passage into womanhood or a
way to preserve a girl's virginity.
 • Religious beliefs: Some religious groups believe that FGM is required by their faith.
• Social pressure: In some communities, FGM is seen as the norm, and girls may be pressured
to undergo the procedure in order to fit in.

FGM is a violation of human rights. It is a form of violence against women and girls, and it has no
health benefits. There is no medical justification for FGM.

There are a number of things that can be done to address FGM. These include:

• Education: Raising awareness about the harmful effects of FGM is essential to ending the
practice.
• Empowerment: Providing girls and women with access to education, employment, and other
opportunities can help them to resist the pressure to undergo FGM.
• Legislation: Countries can pass laws that criminalize FGM and provide support for survivors.
• Community-based programs: Community-based programs can help to change cultural
attitudes about FGM and provide support to families who are considering not having their
daughters undergo the procedure.

Defend the reasons for the interventions to end FGM in society

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a harmful practice that can have a devastating impact on girls and
women. It is a violation of human rights and has no health benefits. There is no medical justification
for FGM.

There are a number of reasons why interventions to end FGM in society are important. These include:

• To protect the health and well-being of girls and women: FGM can cause a number of
physical and psychological problems, including pain, bleeding, infection, and complications
during childbirth. It can also lead to anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), and low self-esteem.
• To promote gender equality: FGM is a form of violence against women and girls. It is a way
to control women's bodies and sexuality. Ending FGM is essential to promoting gender
equality and ensuring that all girls and women have the same rights and opportunities.
• To protect children's rights: FGM is a form of child abuse. It is a violation of the rights of
children to be protected from harm. Ending FGM is essential to protecting children's rights
and ensuring that all children are safe from this harmful practice.
• To promote social and economic development: FGM can have a number of negative social
and economic consequences. It can lead to school absenteeism, dropout, and early marriage. It
 can also increase the risk of HIV infection and other sexually transmitted infections. Ending
FGM is essential to promoting social and economic development and ensuring that all girls
and women have the same opportunities.

There are a number of interventions that can be used to end FGM in society. These include:

• Education: Raising awareness about the harmful effects of FGM is essential to ending the
practice. Education programs should be provided to communities, families, and individuals.
• Empowerment: Providing girls and women with access to education, employment, and other
opportunities can help them to resist the pressure to undergo FGM. Empowerment programs
should be provided to girls and women.
• Legislation: Countries can pass laws that criminalize FGM and provide support for survivors.
Legislation should be passed to criminalize FGM and provide support for survivors.
• Community-based programs: Community-based programs can help to change cultural
attitudes about FGM and provide support to families who are considering not having their
daughters undergo the procedure. Community-based programs should be provided to
communities.