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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA Analysis of Discrimination Towards the Mental Health of Women COVID-19 Survivors
NOR FARIDAH BINTI DAHALAN MA AUGUST 2022
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA Analysis of Discrimination Towards the Mental Health of Women COVID-19 Survivors
NOR FARIDAH BINTI DAHALAN Analysis of Discrimination Towards the Mental Health of Women COVID-19 Survivors
NOR FARIDAH
BINTI DAHALAN
Feedback 4_FIGHTING FAKE NEWS_ EXPLORING YOUTH

49% MATCHING BLOCK 1/13
...
(D126592769)
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts (Media and Information
Warfare) Faculty of Communications and Media Studies Centre of Media and Information Warfare Studies AUGUST
2022 CONFIRMATION BY PANEL OF EXAMINERS I certify that a Panel of Examiners has met on 4th August 2022 to
conduct the final examination of Nor Faridah Binti Dahalan on her Masters of Arts thesis entitled “Analysis of
Discrimination Towards the Mental Health of Women COVID-19 Survivors”. in accordance with Universiti Teknologi
MARA Act 1976 (Akta 173). The Panel of Examiners reccommends that the student be awarded the relevant degree. The
Panel of Examiners was as follows:
XXX Senior Lecturer Faculty of

Communication and Media Studies Centre of Information and Media Warfare Studies
2020238342_ NUR FATIN NADHIRAH BINTI ABDUL RAH ...

(D126907481)
Universiti Teknologi MARA PROFESSOR IR DR ZUHAINA

HAJI ZAKARIA Dean Institute Pengajian Siswazah (IPSis)
Universiti Teknologi MARA Date: February 2022 AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I declare that the work in this research
project was carried out in accordance with the regulations of Universiti Teknologi MARA. It is original and is the result
of my own work, unless otherwise indicated or acknowledged as referenced work. This thesis has not been submitted
to any other academic institution or non-academic institution for any other degree or qualification. I, hereby,
acknowledge that I hve been supplied with the Academic Rules and Regulations for Post Graduate, Universiti Teknologi
MARA, regulating the conduct of my study and research. Name of student:
Nor Faridah Binti Dahalan Programme: Master of

Arts (Media and Information Warfare Studies) -

...
(D126592769)
MC701 Faculty: Faculty of Communication and Media Studies Thesis Title:
Analysis of Discrimination Toward the Mental Health of Women COVID-19 Survivors Signature Student Date: August
2022
ABSTRACT Discrimination towards COVID-19 survivors were high in 2021. Despite the sentiments went down in 2022,
no studies have explored this phenomenon. Hence, this study attempts to understand the causes and effects towards the
mental health of women COVID-19 survivors. This qualitative research employed in depth interview and thematic
analysis to determine the causes and effects towards the mental health of women COVID-19 survivors. To arrive at the
result, researcher interviewed six COVID-19 survivors purposively from civilian, media and medical practitioners. The
result in the study discovered four themes namely ‘Public Reaction Towards COVID-19 Survivors’, ‘Survivors’ Behavior
During the Mistreatment’, ‘Mental Health of Survivors facing Public Discrimination’ and ‘Causes of the Discrimination
according to the Survivors’- all of which answered the research question developed. Each theme consisted of two sub
themes which further elaborated the findings. The concluding section of this paper provides recommendations to
concerned parties, including the government, media, and society to combat discrimination against COVID-19 survivors.
Keywords: Discrimination, Mental Health, Women, COVID-19
ACKNOWLEDGMENT First and foremost, Alhamdulillah, praise to Allah for giving me the chance to complete this
research. It hasn’t been the easiest path, however with the time and aid He handed, I am finally able finish this research
successfully. The completion of this research could have not been made possible without the support of many people
who have contributed their insights and aids. Although not all names will be mentioned, their contributions of
information and insight is highly appreciated and acknowledged. I extend my gratitude to my Supervisor, Dr. Khairudin
Murad for guiding and aiding me with his support, patience and ideas, from the beginning until the end of this paper, with
his help, I have been cleared off many confusions and burdens. Secondly, special thanks to Syafiq Samer for his
unconditional understanding, encouragement and infinite support throughout this journey. Finally, to all the participants
who agreed to share their insights, I humbly give my thanks to all that have cooperated in regards to the realization of
this study. I could have not managed to complete this research without the encouragement and assistance from
everyone. I gratefully thank
you.
DRAFT DISSERTATION_WAN NUR AFIQAH MAHYUDDIN (2

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PANELS OF EXAMINERS I AUTHOR’S DECLARATION II ABSTRACT III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IV TABLE OF CONTENT V LIST OF TABLES VII LIST OF FIGURES VIII
2 Pages CHAPTER 1 :
INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 : Background of the Study 2 1.2 : Problem Statement 2 1.3 : Research Objective 3 1.4 : Research
Questions 3 1.5 : Scope
and Limitations of
the Study 4 1.6: Significant of The Study 4
CHAPTER 2 : SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEWS 6 2.0 : Conceptual Definition 6 2.1 : Systematic Literature Review 7 2.2 :
Criterion for Selection of Past Researchers 7 2.3 : Stigma and Discrimination Faced by Patiens of Infectious Diseases 8 2.4
: Stigma COVID-19 Survivors Faced in Other Countries 11 2.5 : Mental Health of Elderly and Adult COVID 19 Survivors 13
2.6 : Summary of Systematic Literature Review (SLR) 15 2.7 : Theories and Theoretical Framework 17 CHAPTER 3 :
METHODOLOGY 19 3.1 : Research Framework 19 3.2 : Qualitative Method 19 3.3 : Sampling Technique 20 3.4 : Sample
Size 21 3.5 : Method of Data Collection 21 3.6 : Method of Data Analysis 29 3.7 : Types of Data 30 3.8 : Pilot Study 31
CHAPTER 4 : RESULT AND DISCUSSION 33
3 4.0 : Overview of Data Analysis Procedure 33 4.1 : Findings of the Study 34 4.2 : Discussion on the Findings 42 4.3 :
Summary of the Findings 47 CHAPTER 5 : LIMITATIONS,RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 50 5.1 : Introduction
50 5.2 : Limitations of the Study 50 5.3 : Recommendations 51 5.4 : Conclusion 55 Appendixes 58
4 List of Table Table Titles Page Table 2.1 Criteria for Selecting Journal Paper for SLR 8 Table 3.2 Thematic Analysis
Procedures 29-30 Table 4.1 Participants Background 33 Table 4.1 Themes, Subthemes and Example Excerpts from the
Transcript 34-41
5 List of Figure Figure Title Page Figure 2.1 Theoretical Framework. 18 Figure 3.1 Research Framework 19
6 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Background of the Study Historically, infectious disease patients have
always been shunned by society such as HIV, AIDS, TB and Leprosy. According to CDC, HIV patients (Human
Immunodeficiency Virus) often faced discrimination such as people refusing casual contact and social isolation from
community due to the stigma people held. This discriminatory actions have a detrimental effect the HIV patients’
emotional and mental health. They often internalize their experiences of discrimination and develop a poor self-image
which results in emotions of shame, anxiety, loneliness, and depression. These emotions may discourage individuals
from seeking HIV testing and treatment. They may fear discrimination or harsh treatment from society if their HIV status
is exposed. The effect is reported to other infectious diseases also such as COVID-19. The COVID-19 pandemic is a
major world health crisis that has impacted millions of people worldwide. This disease started in late December 2019 in
the Chinese city of Wuhan and is a contagious disease that can be transmitted between humans. All governments
employed quarantine and lockdown measures in response to this worldwide health pandemic in order to reduce the
virus's fast spreading. Other measures taken by governments are shutting down borders, airline cancellations, prohibition
of big gatherings, mandatory face mask usage in a number of nations, social isolation, working remotely and online
classes. While all efforts are focusing on curbing the spread of COVID-19, other problems arise which are various public
stigmas. Incorrect knowledge, insufficient information, and confusion about COVID-19 resulted in negative reactions
such as stigma among the public in general. This stigma is often directed towards people who are close to this disease
such as healthcare workers, COVID-19 patients and survivors, and their families. The result of this stigma resulted in
discriminatory behavior towards the group of people mentioned above especially COVID-19 survivors.
7 1.2 Problem Statement Despite the relatively long period of the pandemic in Malaysia and given the advent of
technology, the mentality of some people in this country, whether in rural or urban areas, remains backward. Numerous
COVID-19 survivors in Malaysia have expressed concern that they are perceived as a threat by the public. Although
COVID-19 survivors have recovered, people are still afraid to approach them for the fear of being infected. As a result,
COVID-19 survivors face discrimination from family, friends, neighbors, coworkers, and other members of society. The
government had played their role by informing and educating the public to reduce the stigma and discrimination.
Director General of Health, Tan Sri Dr Noor Hisham Abdullah stressed that survivors who have recovered cannot infect
others. Sabah Chief Minister Datuk Hajiji Noor, who is also a COVID-19 survivor, urges the public to refrain from
alienating COVID-19 survivors in order to aid in their full recovery, particularly in terms of mental health. Ministry of
Health (MOH) also implemented the Mental Health and Psychosocial Support Program (Program Kesihatan Mental dan
Sokongan Psikososial) with the aim to avoid stigma and negatively label those infected with COVID-19 as it can
discriminate and prevent the others from seeking screening test and treatment. While these efforts were beneficial, they
are certainly insufficient in light of the fact that discrimination continues to occur. Additionally, programmes aimed at
dispelling misconceptions against COVID-19 survivors are also scarce. While media outlets like as Berita Harian, Metro,
Sinar Harian, Utusan Malaysia, and Malaysia Kini have contributed to the reduction of this stigma by reporting on
discrimination faced by COVID-19 survivors, such coverage is nevertheless extremely scarce. This is presumably because
the are other incidents occurring in Malaysia that is more newsworthy than the effect of discrimination towards the
mental health of COVID-19 survivors such as Sabah, Melaka and Johor State Elections, appointment of new Prime
Minister Datuk Ismail Sabri and national environtmental crisis such as floods. The government has neither conducted any
new effective strategy to lessen these discrmination. Media also lacks coverage on COVID-19 survivors' perspectives on
being discriminated against. This may be due to their inability to understand the causes and effects towards the mental
health of COVID-19 survivors. Other than that, existing studies also reported that lack of knowledge of mental health
consequences on COVID-19 survivors in Malaysia context. Therefore, this study aimed address that gap by analyzing the
causes and effect of the
8 public discriminatory acts towards the mental health of COVID-19 survivors. Towards the end of the study, the causes
and effects of discrimination towards the mental health of COVID-19 survivors were elaborated. 1.3 Research Objectives
i. To determine the discriminating behavior of the public towards COVID-19 survivors (keyword discrimination) ii. To
examine that actions taken by women COVID-19 survivors upon infection (keyword women) iii. To study the effect of
being discriminated towards women COVID-19 survivors on their mental health (keyword mental health) iv. To analyzed
the causes of public discrimination against COVID-19 survivors from the women survivors’ perspectives (keyword
COVID-19) 1.4 Research Questions ⅰ. What are the discriminating behavior of the public towards COVID-19 survivors?
(keyword discrimination) ⅱ. What are the action taken by the women COVID-19 survivors upon infection (keyword
women) ⅲ. What are the effect of those discriminating behavior towards the mental health of women COVID-19
survivors? (keyword mental health) ⅳ. What are the causes of public discrimination against COVID-19 survivors from the
women survivors’ perspectives? (keyword COVID-19)
9 1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study While the negative mental health effects of the COVID-19 pandemic towards the
public have been extensively reported, the negative mental health effects for women COVID-19 survivors are poorly
understood. As such, this paper focused on analysis of discrimination towards the mental health of women COVID-19
survivors. The research took place in Klang Valley. The study covered the causes and effects of being discriminating
towards the mental health of women COVID-19 survivors. Chosen participants must be women and were infected with
COVID-19 in the past. 10 participants were chosen and interviewed in April 2022 to gather significant data to achieve the
research objectives. This study had a few limitations. First limitation is the difficulty of finding samples. Researcher must
find women who had been infected with COVID-19 in the past living in Klang Valley. Second is time constraint. The
availability of time for the participants are different. Besides that, researcher must complete the study in under five
months. Thirdly, researcher had challenges gaining access to MOH data. The MOH's Covid Now website does not
include information on the number of COVID-19 cases by age group or gender. If these details are given, the research
will proceed more smoothly. 1.6 Significant of the Study 1.6.1 Policy This study provides valuable insights to the
government and future researchers. The government such as MOH may use this study to educate people about the
importance of mental health. MOH may do so by conducting awareness programs such as tale signs of depression so
family and friends can be more alert toward people around them who might show signs of anxiety and depression. This
could help prevent many unwanted incidents such as self harm. Besides MOH, the Ministry of Communications and
Multimedia (KKMM) may use their official media outlets to correct the public about the disinformation that they read
online such as alienating COVID-19 survivors could prevent them from being infected. By correcting their misconception
KKMM can help to build a harmonious society who support and help each other during trying times. This disease
infected anyone regardless of their age including students. Therefore, schools and academic institutions may use this
research to advocate for policies and programs that assist
10 students who have been infected with COVID-19 and are facing public stigma. Moreover, future researchers in mass
media, psychology and social science may benefit from this study. This study can be used as a reference for future
researchers to expand related fields. 1.6.2 Practice This research is also beneficial towards mental health advocates such
as Mental Illness Awareness and Support Association (MIASA) and Malaysian Mental Health Association plus society. The
findings of this research aid mental health advocates in furthering their effort to raise knowledge about how to deal with
various mental health problems related to COVID-19 survivors. Other than that, mental health advocates may have some
ideas on how to curb the discrimination towards COVID-19 survivors by the public. Additionally society may benefit from
this study since it gives them insights from the perspectives of COVID-19 survivors who are often being discriminated
against. This situation will help society to be more empathetic, supportive and compassionate in other people’s
circumstances. Finally, this research may persuade parents to enroll their children in anxiety management programmes
to cope with the aftermath of being discriminated against for being infected with COVID-19, as these children are
financially dependent on their parents and have underdeveloped mental capabilities.
11 CHAPTER 2: SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEWS 2.0 Conceptual Definition This subtopic provides terminologies
related to this study as defined by dictionaries and previous studies. ⅰ.Stigma: Stigma is defined as an undesired
difference: a pejorative attribute that implies intolerance, and that when related to mental illness generates fear of the
unknown, exclusion, and a set of false beliefs born from the lack of knowledge and understanding about mental
disorders (Santos, 2016). The society that unfamiliar with mental problems contributes to stigma and discrimination.
ⅱ.Discrimination: Discrimination is the behaviors that resulted from false beliefs (Centre of Disease Control and
Prevention, 2021). Discrimination is most visible at the level of interpersonal relationships, but it also exists at the
institutional level such as workplace environment. ⅲ. Mental health: According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
mental health is "a condition of well-being in which a person recognises his or her own potential, is capable of coping
with typical life pressures, is productive and fruitful at work, and is able to contribute to his or her society.". Positive
emotions and positive functioning were concepts used in various studies on mental health, including the WHO definition
(Galderisi, 2015). Emotional well-being, psychological well-being, and social well-being are the other three components
of mental health. Happiness, interest in life, and fulfillment all fall under the category of emotional well-being.
Psychological well-being entails loving the majority of one's own personality, being adept at handling daily obligations,
maintaining positive interpersonal connections, and being content with one's own life. Social well-being is a term that
relates to good functioning. It entails having something to give to society, feeling a sense of belonging to a community,
thinking that society is improving for all individuals, and believing that the way society operates makes sense to them. ⅳ.
COVID-19 survivors: People who had been infected with COVID-19 but survived. 2.1 Systematic literature review
Systematic literature review (SLR) is a vital step of any academic studies. Any new research must build on previous studies
in order to advance existing knowledge. Previous papers related to this study are examined to understand the existing
knowledge. By reviewing relevant
12 past literature, we understand the depth of the existing studies to identify gaps in which will be applied to this study.
2.2 Criterion for Selection of Past Researches This section presents the criteria in past literature selection. Researchers
used platforms such as Connected Papers, Scite and Google Scholar. Scite is used by many researchers since it provides
studies that support or contradict the evidence which is great for researcher to compare data. Connected Papers is
similar to Scite however, the platform provides data in visual clusters. Connected Papers is using Co-citation and
Bibliographic Coupling which means two papers that have highly overlapping citations and references are presumed to
have a higher chance of treating a related subject matter. Meanwhile Google Scholar, enables researchers access to a
variety of material such as conferences and proceedings. It is also convenient and easy to use. Henceforth, researchers
used Connected Papers, Scite and Google Scholar platforms to search for relevant past studies. Researcher used specific
keywords for finding the past literatures. The keywords used were related to this study such as “Stigma on Infectious
Diseases Survivors”, “Stigma on COVID-19 Survivors in Workplace and Social Setting”, “Stigma COVID-19 Survivors Faced
in other Countries” and “Managing Stigma of Infectious Diseases & COVID-19”. The title of each journal article was used
to determine whether the paper is related to this study. After screening the title, researcher read the abstract since it
contained research objectives, methodology used and findings. These details enabled the researcher to decide whether
or not to use the article for SLR.. Moreover, to ensure that this paper used recent data, researcher set a timeline to the
publication. Only publications 10 years backwards are included from the year 2011 to 2021. Such timeline is often set by
scholars due to technological advancement and changing methods for archiving and retrieving information (Watson,
2017). Other relevant information collected from this step - screening of past researches are authors’ names and list of
references. Employing this step, researcher collected 20 past studies relevant to this research for further evaluation. Table
2.1 below shows the criteria for selecting journal paper for SLR
13 Table 2.1 Criteria for Selecting Journal Paper for SLR Item Condition Platform Used Connected Papers, Scite, Google
Scholar Keywords Used ⅰ. Stigma on Infectious Diseases Survivors ⅱ. Stigma on COVID-19 Survivors in Workplace and
Social Setting ⅲ. Stigma COVID-19 Survivors Faced in other Countries ⅳ. Managing Stigma of Infectious Diseases &
COVID-19 Timeline 10 years prior – 2011 until 2021 Software Used to Analyzed Atlas.Ti Version 9.1.3 The 20 journal
articles were analyzed using Atlas. Ti Version 9.1.3 Atlas .TI has become a basic tool for qualitative researchers to analyze
data. According to Atlas.Ti website, the software helps facilitate the processes of segmenting, categorizing, annotating,
retrieving, and searching within and across documents and categories. SLR process includes identifying and organizing
data about past studies – all of which features available in Atlas. Ti. From the analysis, researcher constructed four
subtopics below suitable to the data analyzed from past studies using Atlas.Ti. The outcome of SLR were divided into four
subtopic below: 2.3 Stigma and Discrimination Faced by Patients of Infectious Diseases The study by Craig (2016)
explained the stigma faced by tuberculosis (TB) patients. TB cases are particularly prevalent among socially and
economically marginalized people in low-
incidence, high-income nations namely Western Europe, the USA, Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand. This disease often affects people who have difficulties accessing healthcare due to social
stigma such as homeless people, drug addicts, alcoholics and immigrants. As such this Craig’s study aimed to identify
stigma related to TB using systematic mapping review. Craig's study
14 discovered that while the infection rate of TB is high among immigrants, they avoid screening tests due to
unwelcoming policies of healthcare facilities that will deport them. From this we know that, stigma may not be a barrier
to health care access but rather discriminatory policies that are not patient-centered, which may promote stigma. Other
patients of infectious diseases that are often stigmatized are leprosy patients. Leprosy remains a symbol of stigma owing
to observable characteristics such as deformities, damage, and disability. Examples of visible indications of leprosy such
as wet blisters and ulcers. The stigma attached to leprosy affects many aspects of patients’ life, including marriage, social
contact, and work according to Marahatta (2018). Consequently, the purpose of this research was to examine the level of
stigma associated with leprosy among community members residing near a specialist leprosy hospital and health care
personnel who offer services to leprosy patients in Lalitpur district, Central Nepal. Marahatta (2018) used a cross-
sectional focus group discussion involving 46 participants Marahatta’s study found that participants in FGDs reported that
leprosy awareness had risen in recent years. Nonetheless, many highlighted that leprosy patients need continued support
from the community. Numerous participants said that they had committed no unpleasant behaviors against leprosy
patients. Participants were aware of such societal prejudice but mostly felt that that was a “thing of the past”. However,
the same participants also discussed how nervous they would feel visiting the home of a leprosy patient if they had
visible deformities. Some participants were hesitant to visit due to concerns about infection. While others were aware
that infection was unlikely, many were reluctant to visit because of the community's unfavorable attitude of leprosy.
Besides that, Wariness and concern about purchasing food from leprosy patients were mentioned in all FGDs. Fear of
possible transmission was often cited as a reason for reluctance to purchase food from leprosy patients. Purchasing food
from leprosy patients was often avoided because community members did not want their food touched by leprosy
patients. Certain members of the community were less inclined to support businesses run by leprosy patients.
Additionally, participants noted that individuals living with leprosy were hesitant to disclose their illnesses to the
community probably due to reasons mentioned above. Concealment of the medical state influenced their health seeking
behavior. Individuals with leprosy were considered to reveal their illness to close friends or family members. However,
concealing the disease was believed to be more typical in the past. Other than that, participants believed that
15 leprosy patients would have little difficulty finding work provided they were competent, qualified, and physically
capable. Other participants said that leprosy patients will be denied employment if they had a physical abnormality.
Employment was not based just on the ability to do the labor, but also on the larger repercussions of community shame,
such as how customers could be stopped from visiting their shops. So far the participants' responses were quite
contradictory. This is presumably because they did not want to admit openly that they stigmatized leprosy patients. Of
course the most common infectious diseases that are often stigmatized are HIV patients. According to Kimera (2020)
over half of all new HIV infections occurring in youth aged 15–24 years in Sub-Saharan African countries such as Uganda
due to limited access to prenatal health care services. In Uganda, little focus has been paid to the stigma faced by youth
living with HIV impact on everyday life. This scenario is worsened further by the fact that youth have less influence over
their living surroundings as a result of their high reliance on adults. They also are often unaware of their rights in
comparison to adults. Henceforth, Kimera’s study aimed to understand experiences and effects of HIV-related stigma
towards youth with HIV. This study used a qualitative method which is photovoice involving 11 youth HIV patients.
Kimera’s study found that youth HIV patients internalized stigma experiences. Participants revealed being devalued,
experiencing fear, lacking future perspectives, experiencing injustice and feeling lonely everyday. The patients experience
these feelings at homes, school settings and the community. Youth HIV patients are targeted by bullies in schools
because they often self-isolate and have poor physical condition. This might be a result of deep rooted societal beliefs
and attitudes that have remained unaffected by schooling. Moreover, awareness programmes in school tailored for
youth HIV patients are lacking. From this we know that stigma thrives in schools. School awareness programs are needed
to combat HIVstigma and to encourage youth HIV patients to seek medical help. Beside schools, youth HIV patients also
experience mistreatment at home by their caretakers. Some of them were denied to go school and treated like a slave at
home by their caretakers. This mistreatment by the caretakers results from societal stigma. The caretakers also feel that
there is no future for these youth and believe that investing their time and physical resources in them is wasteful. As a
result, they feel deeply wronged by their caretakers who are supposed to support, care, and love them but these youth
cannot do anything since they depend financially on their caretakers. Youth HIV patients also feel lonely due to cultural
views and
16 attitudes around HIV. They felt that they had no future since they were going to die soon, and posed a danger to
others. Not to mention that, youth are more emotionally vulnerable than adults due to their age and their mental
capacities are still developing. Thus they experiences of stigma are higher than adults. This internalisation of stigma
resulted in voluntary self-isolation and concealing their health status to evade discrimination. 2.4 Stigma COVID-19
Survivors Faced in other Countries Using qualitative methods, specifically literature review and thematic analysis, Banot
(2020) revealed that many stigmas appeared during the pandemic. Stigma is always directed to the infected or the
people who are suspected of COVID-19. Banot (2020) argued that the stigma aroused due to the fear of the unknown
plus death and attitude better be safe than sorry. Banot’s study revealed three themes: stigmatization of the infected and
suspected individuals, stigmatization based on race which directed towards Northeast India and stigmatization towards
medical and police personnel. In terms of stigma towards the infected and suspected of COVID-19, these people are
often accused of being ignorant and careless. The society in India often treated the infected and suspected negatively
such as making derogatory social media postings about them, barring them from residential neighborhoods, and
spreading lies about them based on their religion, class, and caste. Even COVID-19 survivors who had recovered from
the diseases received such hits. They are alleged to be regarded as untouchables, subjected to humiliating remarks, and
having their fingers pointed at them and their family; their street has been dubbed "corona wali gali" (corona street).
Those hardships made them tempted to move someplace else. Banot (2020) also found that the society in India also
stigmatized based on race which directed towards Northeasterners, Northeasterners have typical mongoloid
characteristics, which resemble those of Chinese folks who are also widely demonized as the cause of this pandemic.
Society in India often treated Northeasterners with bigotry, prejudice, and claimed them as illegal immigrants of India.
Northeasterners were referred to as "corona," spit upon, socially shunned, assaulted, suspended from job, or had
difficulty acquiring health care. Another than that, Banot also discovered in India health care and police personnel who
are risking their lives are also stigmatized. They were shunned by their neighbors, landlords, taxi drivers, and even family.
Nurses and doctors became homeless after being ridiculed, assaulted,
17 and blamed by their landlords. Thus, they had to sleep in the staff rooms of the hospitals. The stigma against COVID-
19 is worse in India since it involves people who are not a part of the initially stigmatized group but these people still
become a target due to their exposure to the disease for their occupation. Even the dead were not excluded from the
stigmatization in India. Funeral and burial ceremonies of the COVID-19 fatalities were disturbed. Funeral officials refused
to perform last rites for the fatalities and some who did, were beaten up by the society. The family members of the death
were ridiculed if they publicly mourned. As a result of this predicament, some next of kin refuse to accept that they have
any biological links to death, thus depriving the dead a proper funeral. Therefore, NGO in India had to take action and
perform the funeral ceremony for the abandoned death. In India, there has a lengthy history of Hindu-Muslim religious
prejudice and discrimination, which has resulted in less intergroup tolerance. This situation resulted in stigmatized based
on religion specifically Muslim. Stigma towards Muslim regarding COVID-19 were at its peak after a meeting by Tablighi
Jamaat, an international Islamic missionary and reformist organization, met in Nizamuddin Markaz Center in Delhi. Most
of the members were COVID-19 positive and spread the disease back in their hometown. Thus, Muslim community was
dubbed by society and political leaders in India as the corona spreader, corona jihad, corona terrorism, and enemies of
humanities. Meanwhile in China, infected people are subjected to social stigma which causes them to be embarrassed of
themselves, engage in self-deprecating acts, or cut ties with family and friends according to Yuan (2021). COVID-19
stigma can result in a variety of bad outcomes, including mental distress, prejudice, and worst of all suicide. COVID-19-
related stigma may pose an obstacle to COVID-19 prevention and control because individuals who are stigmatized are
less likely to reveal their health condition, and refuse to do COVID-19 testing.
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The aim of Yuan’s study was to examine COVID-19-related stigma among COVID-19 survivors and healthy controls
residing in the same region of China, as well as to uncover correlates of stigma experiences in these groups. The
cross-sectional, comparative study conducted
in Chongqing Mental Health Center (CMHC) The study found that COVID-19 survivors have considerably higher social
rejection, financial insecurity, internalized shame, and social isolation when compared to healthy controls. Increased
levels of perceived stigma among COVID-19 survivors might be linked to concerns 18 about spreading the virus to
family members, acquaintances, and
coworkers, as well as fear of discrimination or mistreatment. Yuan also found that people who suffered larger economic
losses as a result of the COVID-19 experienced higher degrees of stigma. 2.5 Mental Health of Elderly and Adult COVID-
19 Survivors The current state of knowledge on COVID-19 patients' psychological well-being after recovery is
insufficient. Thus, Mowla (2021) objective is to examine the psychiatric symptoms experienced by elderly COVID-19
survivors two weeks after hospital release. This study involved a comparative control group. Sample of Mowla’s study
included 69 elderly COVID-19 patients and 60 elderly residents aged 65 or older in Shiraz city who were not infected
with COVID-19. Both elderly groups reported to have high depression and anxiety during the pandemic. Psychological
reasons such as dread of death as a result of the illness's possibility for fatality, concerns about infecting family members,
and stigma associated with the disease all contribute to anxiety, sadness, and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms.
Apart from that, societal factors such as quarantine, isolation, social distancing, and financial problems also contributed
to the depression. With the development of the internet and smartphones, people are bombarded with information,
which results in increased misconceptions about the disease, excessive worry, and unnecessary anxiety. Another cause
of anxiety is a lack of effective medications, which contributes to high depression in COVID-19 patients. Ekumi (2020)
aligned with Mowla in the sense that there is still little data on the mental health difficulties and psychiatric morbidity
associated with COVID-19 infection. COVID-19 patients have characteristics similar to SARS patients in 2003 such as
mental health disorders namely PTSD, anxiety, and depression, even after they have been treated and released from the
hospital. Ekumi's study intends to add to a growing body of research in the field of elderly psychiatry by examining
changes in psychological distress symptoms and their associated effects over the lifetime of COVID-19 survivors using
mixed methods. Ekumi’s study discovered that psychological distress is significant in the early recovery stage of COVID-
19 patients. This is due to COVID-19 being highly contagious, no definitive medication, fears, horrors, and concerns. The
second reason is, the internet and smartphones become more of a trend therefore, people are overwhelmed with
information, resulting in increased misconceptions about the disease, excessive worries, and unnecessary fears. Third
reason is
19 distance from family and friends exacerbates feelings of powerlessness and loneliness. Idleness throughout the
isolation time is likely to enhance negative mood states and concern for one's physical health. The pandemic also
impacts the employment and earnings of the majority of families, contributing to psychological anguish. Fifth, sorrow
and concern about the infection of family members and close relatives contribute to more negative emotions. Lastly, the
majority of survivors expressed fear of being stigmatized as a result of their infection and were overwhelmed by the
prospect of being treated differently in the future. COVID-19's adverse mental health effects, including anxiety and
depression, have been widely expected but not yet quantified. COVID-19 has a variety of physical health risk factors,
however it is unknown if it also has psychological risk factors. Hence, Taquet (2020) purpose was to determine if a
COVID-19 contributed to increase mental health issues later in life and whether individuals with a history of psychiatric
disease are more likely to be diagnosed with COVID-19. To discover his result, Taquet used quantitative methods,
specifically electronic health record network cohorts and gathered 69 million adult respondents, 62354 of whom have
been diagnosed with COVID-19. Taquet found that COVID-19 survivors had a greatly increased risk of developing
psychological illnesses, dementia, and sleeplessness. Additionally, Taquet revealed that a history of mental disease is
related with a higher chance of COVID-19 infection. His findings indicate a rise in diagnosis in all major anxiety disorder
types and it is unknown if COVID-19 survivors who have developed PTSD. Moreover, rates of insomnia diagnosis were
significantly increased. The need for an accessible therapist and treatment is needed due to COVID-19's effect on anxiety
is consistent with predictions. 2.6 Summary of Systematic Literature Review From the above SLR, researchers found that
the stigma and discrimiation of infectious diseases often occurred towards marginalized groups compared to other
people. This stigma and discrmination often affect the patient's lives such as marriage, work and socially. The public
denies that they discriminated against infectious disease patients, despite the fact that their actions demonstrated
otherwise. Additionally, the infectious diseases patients often internalized the stigma they experienced. The infectious
diseases patients expressed feelings of devaluation, dread, a lack of future views, injustice, and loneliness on a daily basis
as a result of the stigma. From the SLR,
20 researchers found that youth infectious disease patients internalized the stigma caused by society’s actions more than
adult infectious diseases patients due to their emotional vulnerabilities. In other countries such as India, China and
Indonesia, stigma is always directed at those who are infected, recovered or suspected of being infected with COVID-19,
minorities, healthcare providers, and police personnel. The factors of this stigma are the fear of the unknown combined
with a better-be-safe-than-sorry attitude, exposure to the disease because of their occupation, demonization of race
minorities that share physical resembles to Chinese folks and long history of religious discrimination towards Muslims.
Recent studies regarding the mental health of elderly and general adult COVID-19 patients and survivors found that they
experience high depression as a result of fear of death as a result of the illness's potential for fatality, concerns about
infecting family members, and the disease's stigma all contribute to anxiety, sadness, and post-traumatic stress disorder
symptoms. Apart from that, societal factors such as quarantine, isolation, social alienation, and financial difficulties all
played a role in the depression. People are inundated with information as a result of the internet and smartphones, which
results in increased misconceptions about the disease, excessive worry, and unnecessary anxiety. Furthermore,
individuals who had been diagnosed with mental health problems prior to COVID-19 infection reported higher levels of
depression than COVID-19 patients or survivors who had not been diagnosed with mental health problems. Thus, from
the summary SLR aforementioned, researcher found gap in term studies of causes of discrimination and its effects
towards COVID-19 survivors in Malaysia context. Other than that, the gap is also found in the dicrimination often faced
by marginalized groups. Previous research has established the causes and effects of COVID-19 discrimination against
marginalised racial and religious groups. None have examined the causes and effects of COVID-19 discrimination against
marganalized group based on gender such as women and transgender. Considering these gaps, researchers decided to
studied the discrimination towards the mental health of women COVID-19 survivors in Malaysia. 2.7 Theories and
Theoretical Framework 2.7.1 Social Learning Theory This study is relatable to Social Learning Theory. This theory suggests
that social behavior is learned by observing and imitating the behavior of others. Assumptions based on Albert
21 Bandura's theory include that people learn through observation. Learners can acquire new behavior and knowledge
by merely observing a model. The discriminating behavior of public towards women COVID-19 survivors is learned by
figures around them such as friends, family and public figures. The second assumption of the theory is the importance of
mental state when learning. The creator of this theory, Albert Bandura recognized that external and environmental
reinforcement was not the only element affecting learning and behavior. People’s mental state drives a major impact
whether they want to adopt the behavior or not. In the case of this study, people are afraid of being infected with
COVID-19 due to the disease's lethal nature. Coupled with disinformation and fear, people are prone to avoid COVID-19
survivors out of fear of infection. Upon examining the theory, it was determined that this theory is appropriate for this
research because the theory's assumptions line up to the study. 2.7.2 Cultivation Theory Another theory that can be used
in the study is Cultivation Theory. This theory explained the effects of television on audiences. TV viewing is positively
correlated with negative beliefs about the greater interpersonal mistrust (Shrum, 2017). In the sense of the study, TV often
shows news and updates regarding COVID-19 since the issue has a high impact on society. The constant COVID-19
updates on TV might have contributed to mistrust among society. Media and Public Service Announcement (PSA) in tv
reported that the infected people might be asymptomatic, therefore the public were taught to keep social distancing as a
precaution everywhere they go. The public has been educated to maintain social distance even from those who have not
been diagnosed with COVID-19. Naturally, when the public comes into contact with those who have been diagnosed
with COVID-19 in the past, they become more vigilant. According to Mosharafa (2015), cultivation theory assumes that
audiences who are heavily exposed to TV are more likely to be affected by TV. A study conducted by R. Hirschmann
(2020) showed that TV viewing in Malaysia has increased significantly from 49% to 61% with the implementation of the
MCO on March 18, 2020. Therefore, it can be deduced that people who are discriminated against COVID-19 survivors
watched TV more frequently. The long exposure to TV which encouraged them to be vigilant when they are outside
contributed to the alienation of the COVID-19 survivors. Thus, considering the suitability of these theories with this study,
22 researchers used Social Learning theory and Cultivation theory to relate to the study and developed a theoretical
framework. Figure 2.1: Theoretical Framework
Social Learning Theory Cultivation Theory Analysis of Discrimination
Towards the Mental Health of Women COVID-19 Survivors
23 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3.0 Methodology 3.1 Research Framework The discrimination act toward women
COVID-19 survivors effects their mental health. Examples of public discrimination are alienating, spreading lies, verbal
harassment, humiliation and denying them entry to enter public places such as mosques, school and business premises.
These derogatory behaviors have an effect on the survivors' mental health namely anxiety, depression, feeling unworthy
and guilty. Thus, the discriminating behaviors toward women COVID-19 survivors contributed to their mental health. As
such, the current study is guided by the below research framework.
Figure 3.1: Research Framework 3.2 Qualitative
Method Qualitative research refers to study about persons’ lives, lived experiences, behaviors, emotions, and feelings as
well as about organizational functioning, social movements, cultural phenomena, and interactions between nations
(Rahman, 2017). He also said that a qualitative approach holistically understands the human experience in specific
settings. The area of this study is the experience of discrimination faced by COVID-19 survivors in their lives be it in
workplace or social setting. Thus, this method is relevant to this study since it seeks to interpret human experience. In the
past, studies about stigma on infectious diseases by Des Jarlais (2006) on AIDS & SARS and Sujan Babu Marahatta (2019)
on Leprosy used qualitative methods such as telephone interviews, in-depth interviews and focus groups. Studies by
Kabunga Amir (2021) from Uganda and Wahyu Sulistiadi (2020) from Indonesia regarding stigma towards COVID-19
survivors or patients in their respective countries also used qualitative methods. By assessing the strengths and
weaknesses of prior studies, researcher can ensure that they are using the most appropriate methods, data sources, and
analytical techniques for their own work. Ergo, considering the Independent Variable (Cause): Discrimination Towards
Women COVID-19 Survivors Dependent Variable (Effect): Its Effect Toward the Mental Health Women COVID-19
Survivors
24 methodology of related previous studies to this current study, researcher decided to employ a qualitative approach as
well. 3.3 Sampling Technique Sampling is the method of selecting a representative subset of the population called
sample (Parveen, 2017). There are two sampling techniques which are probability sampling and non-
probability
sampling. Probability sampling means that every sample has an equal chance of being selected. As such, researcher
would not employ this technique since this paper involved analyzing COVID-19 survivors and not everyone in Malaysia
got infected with COVID-19. Another sampling technique is non probability sampling where the sample population is
selected in a non-systematic process that does not guarantee equal chances for each subject in the target population
(Elfil, 2014). This technique is significantly more relevant to the research topic since it is aligned with the study's objective
because not all of Malaysia is infected with COVID-
19. There are four types of non probability sampling such as
convenience sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling. Purposive sampling involved
identifying and selecting individuals or groups of individuals that are especially knowledgeable about or experienced with
a phenomenon of interest (Cresswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Since phenomenon of interest researcher is investigating the
discrimination against women COVID-19 survivors, their standpoints are needed to complete the study. Researcher
choose women COVID-19 survivors since the SLR outcome concluded that there is no study being done about causes
and effect of discrimination towards the mental health of gender marganalized group namely women. Researcher
studies women COVID-19 survivors that reside in Klang Valley. These areas have the most number of survivors - 886,354
according to Covid.now as of 31st October 2021. Not only that Klang Valley is the most densely populated city in
Malaysia, this area is also the epicenter of COVID-19 cases. Therefore, purposive sampling was used in this study. 3.4
Sample Size The sample size is a terminology used in research for specifying the number of participants included in a
sample size. By sample size, we comprehend a group of individuals that are picked from the general population and is
regarded a representation of the actual population for that particular research. Morgan (2002) suggested five to six in
depth interview to develop
25 concept, Guest (2006) recommended six in depth interviews to reach 70% saturation while Francis (2010) said that
themes can be generated with five to six interviews. Following these experts’ consideration, researchers decided to
interview six participants for this study. 3.5 Method of Data Collection 3.5.1 In Depth Interview Researcher used in-depth
interviews as a method for data collection. In-depth interviewing is a qualitative research technique that involves
conducting intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a
particular idea, program, or situation (Carolyn Boyce, 2006). According to Boyce, in-depth interviews are advantageous
for obtaining thorough information about a person's beliefs, experiences, behaviors and actions or when delving deeply
into new concerns. Given the subject matter of this study is discrimination, an in-depth interview is most relevant since it
enables the researcher to ascertain the causes behind the said negative behavior according to survivors’ perspectives.
According to Communication For Research, in depth interviews provide rich data. Researcher have a larger opportunity
to probe for further information,

...
(D126592769)
and circle back to crucial questions later in the interview to build a
comprehensive knowledge of attitudes, perceptions, and motives on the topic. The topic of discrimination is subjective
due to each individual have different beliefs, attitudes and mindset. Hence, the type of discriminating actions received by
the COVID-
19 survivors are different to one another. In-depth interview aides in gathering insights about one's
experiences and perspectives via follow up questions and nonverbal cues from participants. Therefore, researcher
choose in-depth interviews to gather data. There are two types of in depth interviews which are semi structured and
unstructured. In semi structured interview, the objectives and questions are relatively set, but the researcher is free to
follow the participants’ train of thought and to explore tangential areas that may arise (Bolderston, 2012).Depending on
the participants, the researcher may rephrase the questions and how they were asked which allows probing and
clarification of issues that are raised. Henceforth, researcher constructed a semi structured interview to explore
participants thoughts’ on the subject. Additionally the in depth interview was conducted in GMeet platform due to
pandemic physical constraint. Researcher used the GMeet platform because it is a part of Google’s feature and also for
its convenient interface (Dahalan, 2021). Other than that, according to Muller (2021)
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the number of smartphone users in Malaysia was estimated to reach about 29 million.
Those
26 smartphones come with a built-in Google feature that includes GMeet hence participants can join the interview easily
via their smartphones. Therefore researchers used GMeet as the platform to conduct the interviews. 3.5.2 Instrument
Researcher developed a semi structured interview using interview protocol by Kula (2018). The interview protocol set by
Kula (2018) ensure that the interview questions align with research questions. The researcher thoroughly brainstorms and
evaluates interview questions. The interview protocol was reviewed by the researcher’s supervisor. Table 3.1 shows the
interview protocol for this study. The table includes this study’s research questions, related questions and probing
questions for the participants. TABLE 3.1 Interview Protocol Interview Protocol Script Before the In Depth Interview: I
want to express my gratitude for agreeing to participate in the interview section of my research. As I earlier mentioned,
my research tries to understand public discrimination towards the mental health of women COVID-19 survivors. Prior to
this interview you were infected with COVID-19 therefore you are the suitable sample for my study. Your experiences
and thoughts are needed to complete this paper. You had returned to me the consent form I gave before the interview
indicating that I have your permission to record our session. Today’s interview will be recorded using GMeet. You may
turn off your camera if you wish. The interview is expected to take around 30 minutes. Before we start, do you have any
questions for me? ___Yes ___No If you have any questions or concerns throughout this research, you may address them
at any
27 time. I'd be happy to help. Let’s start. Rationale Questions Probe / Follow up Questions RQ1: What are the
discriminating behaviors of the public towards COVID-19 survivors? English: 1.Please tell me how and when you got
infected with COVID-19? Malay: Sila ceritakan bagaimana dan bila anda dijangkiti COVID-19 1. Where did you receive
treatment for COVID-19? 2. How was the treatment you received in the medical institution? English: 2. Please describe
the discriminating behavior that you encounter? Malay: Sila terangkan tingkah laku diskriminasi yang anda hadapi. 1. Do
you remember when and where this occurred? 2. Do you know these people? 3. How would you categorize these
people? Strangers/ friends/ close friends/ neighbors/ colleagues / relatives? 4. Does their tone of voice, facial
expressions, or body language also indicate their discrimination? 5. Please describe their actions that you deemed as
discriminating? English: 3. Where does the discriminating behavior usually occurs ? 1. Does it occur in the workplace or
social setting? 2. Does it occur in digital space
28 Malay: Di manakah tingkah laku diskriminasi biasanya berlaku? such as Whatsapp and social media? English: 4.What
did you do after the discriminating behavior? Malay: Apakah yang anda lakukan selepas tingkah laku diskriminasi itu?
1.Did you calmly clarify the situation or yell at them or be sarcastic or ignore them? 2. How did they react to your
reaction? RQ2: What are the effect of those discriminating behavior towards the mental health of COVID-19 survivors?
English: 5. How you feel during and after the discriminating encounter? Malay: Apakah perasaan anda semasa dan
selepas pertemuan yang bersifat diskriminasi? 1. Did you feel numb, angry, or scared? 2. Do you feel that those people
will talk bad about you or your family to others? English: 6.Does the discriminating behavior affect your relationship with
them? Malay: Adakah tingkah laku diskriminasi menjejaskan hubungan anda dengan mereka? 1. Given the choice, would
you cut ties with them? 2. If you maintain a cool demeanor toward them, do they ever inquire why? English: 7. Do you
know other COVID-19 1. If you can, please share their details and story
29 survivors that received the same treatment? Malay: Adakah anda tahu mangsa COVID-
19 lain yang menerima
rawatan yang sama? English: 8. How do you think other survivors cope with this discrimination? Malay: Pada pendapat
anda, bagaimanakah mangsa COVID-19 yang lain yang menghadapi diskriminasi? 1. Did they ever share information on
how they cope with the situation? Please share. English: 9. Are you aware that there are many support groups for
COVID-
19 survivors on social media? Malay: Adakah anda sedar bahawa terdapat banyak kumpulan sokongan untuk
mangsa COVID-19 di media sosial? 1.Do you join any of them? 2. How do you know these groups? 3. What kind of
information are you looking for in this group? Support? Post care for COVID-19? To share experiences? RQ3: What are
the effect of those discriminating behavior towards the English: 10. Do you think the women COVID-19 survivors had it
worse than men COVID-19 survivors? 1.Why do you think so? 2.Do you know any women COVID-19 survivors? 3.Did
they share their
30 mental health of women COVID-19 survivors? Malay: Adakah anda fikir mangsa COVID-
19 wanita mengalami
diskriminasi lebih teruk dari mangsa COVID-19 lelaki? experiences with you? English: 11.Do you think women COVID-19
survivors can bounce back from this? Malay: Adakah anda fikir mangsa COVID-
19 wanita boleh bangkit daripada ini? 1.
How do you cope with this situation? 2. How do you think other women COVID-19 survivors cope? English: 12. Please
describe what other factors that can help women COVID-19 to recover from this situation? Malay: Sila terangkan apakah
faktor lain yang boleh membantu mangsa COVID-19 COVID-19 pulih daripada situasi ini? 1.Does support from friends,
family help? 2. What do you think they can do to help? RQ4: What are the causes of public discrimination against English:
13. Why do you think the public behave this way to COVID-19 1.Is it because of the lack of information from the
government, media and family
31 COVID-19 survivors from the women survivors’ perspectives? survivors? Malay: Pada pendapat anda, mengapakah
orang ramai berkelakuan begini kepada mangsa yang terselamat daripada COVID-19? teaching or because the public are
scared of the disease? English: 15. Does the dicrimination you faced lessen then than now? Malay: Adakah diskriminasi
yang anda hadapi dahulu lebih teruk dari sekarang? 1. Why do you think that? English: 14. How do you think the
government, media and society can play a role to reduce this discrimination? Malay: Pada pendapat anda, bagaimanakah
kerajaan, media dan masyarakat boleh memainkan peranan untuk mengurangkan diskriminasi ini? 1. What is the best way
and platform to educate the public? Script After the In Depth Interview: This concludes our interview session. Thank you
for your time and participation. The result will help me to determine the effect of discrimination towards the mental
health of women COVID-
32 19 survivors 3.6 Method of Data Analysis 3.6.1 Software Used For Data Analysis -
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Atlas.Ti ATLAS.Ti is a qualitative research tool that can be used for coding and analyzing transcripts and field notes,
building literature reviews, creating network diagrams, and data visualization
according to NYU (2020) Hence, since Atlas.TI provides coding and coding groups features, the software is the perfect
tool to analyze thematic analysis which is the method that researcher used. According to Lewis (2016), Atlast.Ti provides
the ability to make chains of multiple codes and linking of quotations to create network diagrams, which was vital for the
outcome of this study. These network diagrams provided qualitative visual representations of the data, including themes,
subthemes, patterns, and concepts. The software is consistent and transparent hence it saves time and minimizes errors.
It also enables the researcher to make and preserve notes and comments throughout the analysis process. Henceforth,
due to its conveniences and usefulness, researcher used Atlas.Ti version 9.1.3 to analyze data. 3.6.2 Procedures Used for
Data Analysis This study used thematic analysis procedures set by Braun and Clarke to analyze data.. Thematic analysis is
a method for detecting, evaluating, and reporting on recurring themes in data. Braun and Clarke (2006) defined it as a
descriptive technique that allows for flexible data interpretation. To achieve the research objectives of this study,
researcher analyzed the transcribed interview of the sample using thematic analysis approach. Table 1 described the
thematic analysis procedures used in this paper. TABLE 3.2 Thematic Analysis Procedures Steps Descriptions 1. The first
step in any qualitative analysis is reading, and re-reading the sample to familiarize yourself with the data (Maguire, 2017)
In the context of this study, researcher
33 read the transcribed interview multiple times. 2. Afterwards, researcher assigned preliminary codes to the data in Atlas.
Ti. Coding allows researchers to organize data in a meaningful and systematic way. This stage involved separating similar
and contracting data to avoid redundancy and repetition of codes. 3. Following that, researcher reviewed, evaluated and
modified the codes should the need arise while ensuring that the codes were relevant to research objectives. 4. Then,
researcher developed themes. Theme is a pattern that captures something significant or interesting about the data
and/or research objectives (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The interconnected and related codes were categorized under one
theme. 5. The themes developed were reviewed and researcher assigned them with suitable titles to describe it. This
stage also involved ensuring the themes answered the research questions 6. Finally, relevant examples were assigned to
the themes and subthemes for better understanding. The results were organized into tables which contained themes,
subthemes and several examples were provided for each sub themes 3.7 Types of Data The subtopic disused the types of
data used in the paper to accomplish its research objectives. Before information can be presented and interpreted, it
must first be collected and analyzed. Data is information in the form of facts or numbers from which conclusions may be
derived (Ajayi, 2017). Researchers may collect data from primary and secondary data. In the context of this study,
researcher used both primary and secondary data because its analysis are critical components of every research
outcome. Primary data means the information collected directly by the researchers for specific research purposes
(Ramallal, 2018). Primary data includes data gathered in surveys, in depth
34 interviews, experiments, observations etc. For the context of this study, research derived primary data from in depth
interviews of the samples. Additionally, researchers also used secondary data to support the outcome of this study.
Secondary data comprise information that has been obtained before and is being considered for reuse to accomplished
new research objectives for which the data was not initially collected (Martins, 2018) For this study, researcher used
journal articles, books, reports from government agencies, news articles from media and social media posting from
COVID-19 survivors as secondary data. Mental health issues and problems related to COVID-19 survivors are scarce
since the majority of study is currently underway. During a pandemic, hospitalized patients are isolated for lengthy
periods of time, with significantly restricted social connections. Patients must remain in their rooms with limited social
contact among patients, groups, family and caregivers. As a result, patients experience emotions of loneliness and self-
isolation and stigma during hospitalization. Scarpina (2021) study used a mixed method and involved 60 adult
participants of COVID-19 patients to explore their mental health state. 3.8 Pilot Study The pilot study is an initial, small-
scale "practice run" in which researchers test the methodologies they intend to use in the research work. The findings
that will inform the researchers on feasibility of the methodologies on a large scale. Pilot study was also undertaken to
assess the credibility, validity, and reliability of the data that would be obtained from their answers to the interview
questions. According to Kothari (2004), a pilot survey is a replica and rehearsal of the main survey designed to identify
any flaws in the interview questions and methods. One of the benefits of performing a pilot study is that it may forewarn
where the main research project may fail, where research procedures may not be adhered to, or if planned
methodologies or instruments are unsuitable or too complex (Hundley, 2002). Therefore, by doing a pilot research prior
to the main interview session, improvement may be achieved via the experience obtained. It also lowers the researchers'
and participants' unneeded work and the waste of study resources (Junyong, 2017). According to Junyong (2017), the
outcomes of the pilot research are characterized according to one of the following four circumstances:
35 1) The end of the research (cannot proceed with the main study). 2) may continue with the primary study after altering
the research design. 3) It is not essential to adjust the research's design, but extensive monitoring during all study
processes is required. 4) Can continue without modification to the research design. Hence, the outcome for this pilot
study can be classified in condition 2) may continue with the primary study after altering the research design. The
alteration made was reducing 15 questions to 13 questions with the elimination of question number 9 and 11. This
decision was made because participant in the pilot study was not aware of any support groups for COVID-19 survivors in
any social media platform. The participant also copes with the discrimination without external support. Meanwhile
question 11 was eliminated due to the redundancy with question 12. The probing questions in question 11 were included
in question 12 probing questions. Thus, the subsequent interviews were conducted with 13 questions.
36 CHAPTER 4: RESULT AND DISCUSSION 4.0 Overview of Data Analysis Procedures As aforementioned in Chapter 3, six
participants were interviewed and recorded via Google Meet reside in Klang Valley. The backgrounds of the participants
include working class civilians, media and medical professionals. All of the participants were infected with COVID-19 at
least once prior to the interview. Their identities were kept secret to safeguard their privacy. Table 4.1 shows the
participants’ background. TABLE 4.1 Participants Background Participants Age Occupation Education Date of COVID-19
Infection Civilian 1 (C1) 25 IT Officer Diploma June 2021 Civilian 2 (C2) 28 IT Manager Master June 2021 & June 2022
Media 1 (M1) 33 Reporter RTM Master June 2022 Media 2 (M2) 36 Editor Media Selangor Master April 2022 Nurse (N1) 25
Radiographer at Private Hospital Bachelor Degree March 2022 Nurse (N2) 30 Radiographer at Private Hospital Bachelor
Degree May 2021
37 4.1 Findings of the Study Using the above mentioned method, researcher were able answered all of the research
objectives which are: i. To determine the discriminating behavior of the public towards COVID-19 survivors ii. To examine
that actions taken by women COVID-19 survivors upon infection iii. To study the effect of being discriminated towards
women COVID-19 survivors on their mental health iv. To analyzed the causes of public discrimination against COVID-19
survivors from the women survivors’ perspectives As a result, this study has classified four main themes that aligned with
the above research objectives. Hence, Table 4.2 below shows the themes, sub themes and examples excerpts from the
transcript. TABLE 4.2 Themes, Subthemes and Example Excerpts from the Transcript Research Objectives Themes
Subthemes Example Excerpt Transcript i. To determine the discriminating behavior of the public towards COVID-19
survivors (keyword discrimination) Public Reaction Towards COVID-19 Survivors Initial Public Response to the Survivors
Discriminating behavior that I received was from neighbors and friends and family - C1 I was infected twice. First on June
2021 and second on June 2022. When I got it June 2021, not many people got Covid. So people were not as forgiving as
they are now. I updated my status
38 on Mysejahtera and Whatsapp group family and neighbours. That's where this behavior begins. Some of my extended
family and neighbours being noisy and claimed that I got Covid because I went out and about without purposes. - C2 I
was tested positive at my workplace before going in to work. We were doing our daily routine RTK test. The patient
standing there were giving me the stare and started to go away from me when they heard I was tested positive - N1
Platform where Discrimination Occurred We updated on mama's FB that mama infected with Covid and we asked
people to pray for mama to get well soon. From there, people started gossiping. Some people publicly tagging us and
blaming us about our infection. - C1 Mostly on Whatsapp. But I also noticed my friends received the same treatment I did
on FB - C2 For me it didn’t happened on
39 social media. It happened live at my workplace. My coworkers questioned why I was on leave for a long time. I had to
take AL after the mandatory quarantine because I was still recovering. - N2 ii. To examine that actions taken by women
COVID-19 survivors upon infection (keyword women) Survivors’ Behavior During The Mistreatment Survivors’ Actions
Upon Infection 70% of RTM were infected with Covid at that time. So MOH came and sanitized the office. We updated
Mysejahtera and quarantine at home, obliged all the SOP. - M1 The first time I got Covid I was admitted to Hospital
Sungai Buloh because I was pregnant. The second time, I just quarantined at home. My husband quarantined at home
both times. - C2 My whole family was infected except my niece and my brother. So we told them to stay at hotel a few
days. After the mandatory quarantine we hired sanitation service to sanitzed our house. Of course, we updated our
Mysejahtera on the very first day.
40 - N1 Survivors’ Explanation to Public when facing the Discrimination In my case, there were two issues. They accused
our family going out on purpose and they accused arwah mama intentionally get vaccine late. Arwah mama had
diabetes, at that time MOH and doctors have not given green light to vaccines jab. Immediately MOH and doctor
confirmed that it ok, arwah mama immediately took the vaccine but it was too late. Covid found her first - C1 Some
people accused me for being antivax for getting the vaccine late but I was pregnant at that time. There wasn’t enough
studies conducted on the effect of vaccines on pregnant moms. I had to take so many leave plus maternity leave. Even
three months after Covid I still have sore throat which my coworkers saw as m trying to fish for sympathy. I did explained
my situation but their behavior is still the same. - C2 No use. They would just say, next
41 time be more careful. - N2 iii. To study the effect of being discriminated towards women COVID-19 survivors on their
mental health (keyword mental health) Survivors’ Reaction During The Mistreatment Subtheme 1: Survivors’ Mental State
Facing the Discrimination I felt hurt honestly, because it’s not something that I want to be infected with yet it’s part of my
work that I simply can’t avoid. I kinda feel angry and feel like people are intolerant and unkind towards people’s suffering
and plight. - N2 The first time it happened was really bad because I was worried about my pregnancy. I didn’t have time
to asked about my husband’s condition quarantine at home. - C2 That time I feel hopeless. My mom was incubated
Doctor told us to be ready that she might not survived and she didn’t. We were at our lowest point. All five of us got
Covid with no support from people around. It's hard to buy food. We were quarantining in kampong area so there was
no runner service. - C1 Effect with Other Relationship I have cut ties with some people, to my family members who kept
42 being irrational. I would say I’m going to have less interactions with them in the future. - N2 I was glad that I found
another job. A company that have supportive and open policy compared to my last employment where its people
accused me of begging sympathy. - C2 The discrimination happened to me in kampung. You know how villagers are like.
Although I am angry at them I can’t stay that way for a long time since communal spirit is a part of kampung style. Plus, I
known these people since I was born. So I just forgive and forget. - C1 iv. To analyzed the causes of public discrimination
against COVID-19 survivors from the women survivors’ perspectives (keyword COVID-
19) Causes of the Discrimination
according to the Survivors Insufficient Information by the Government and Mainstream Media Only after mid 2021 we
saw PSA anti dicrimination. Even then I think I saw less than 10 PSA combined in all social media. Also, the info on
government social media does not tally. Meaning they use the same visual on FB and Twitter but caption are different.
On FB they said you need to wash hands. But on
43 Twitter they say don’t discriminate. - C2 The villagers have less exposure on this issue. Some government PSA doesn’t
even reach the villagers at times. The PSA contained big words that they didn’t understand - C1 Yes whatever PSA you
see on social media, you would see even less than mainstream when they should have more. The PSA also should be
more dense with info to address the lack of understanding in society. Not to mention the frequency broadcast also even
less than social media - M2 Misinformation on Social Media The main cause because society is paranoid and fear of
death and unknown spread widely on social media. I consider myself lucky because I was infected in 2022. This year
since many people were infected the discrimination rate were lesser. - M1 I think because the villagers are narrow
minded. They are not very
44 open. For them, if you got Covid meaning you bring bad luck to the village. They have this mindset from informations
that they got in Facebook. - C1
45 4.2 Discussion on the Findings 4.2.1 Theme 1: Public Reaction Towards COVID-19 Survivors Subtheme 1: Initial Public
Response to the Survivors All participants agreed that they experience some level of discrimination from extended family,
neighbours, strangers, and coworkers, despite the fact that half of the participants, specifically C2, M1, M2, and N1, were
infected in 2022, a year in which the rate of discrimination was lower than in 2021. C1 explained some of her neighbors
would not even come near her house’s yard. Although PSAs government appreciating the frontliners such as medical
practitioners, PDRM and courier riders, they are not exempted from such discrimination. Even among their peers, both
N1 and N2 faced discrimination, which should not have occurred given that their peers should have been more aware of
the risks and nature of the COVID-19 due their medical background. N1 and N2 were labeled as irresponsible and
careless after getting positive result in their daily RTK test before going to work. Besides that, C2 also confirmed that she
was infected at a government hospital, indicating that despite all precautions, everyone is susceptible to COVID-19
infection. The public reaction towards the survivors is similar to medical personnel. Some of them instantly blame the
infection on the survivors. This condition was reported by all participants with the exception of M1. This is likely because
the majority of her coworkers who reported news in PRN Johor for RTM were diagnosed with COVID-19. Thus, this
confirmed that the more people were infected with COVID-19, the lesser the discrimination faced. Other than that, it is
clear that the public has little knowledge on the risks of vaccines towards the high risk groups such as pregnant women,
cancer and diabetic patients. These high risk groups, if infected they were accused as anti vax immediately. Despite the
fact that there were numerous government PSAs at the time discouraging these high risk individuals from receiving
vaccinations, the public did not investigate why these groups were late in receiving the immunizations before passing
judgment. The easiest approach for the public to confirm the COVID-19 survivors' condition would have been to contact
them via phone, but they did not do so.
46 Subtheme 2: Platform where Discrimination Occurred With the exception of N1 and N2, other participants concurred
that the discrimination often occcured in online platform such as Whatsapp and Facebook. This is due to the higher rate
of misinformation and fake news in Facebook than other social media platforms (Reifler, 2020). The predicament in
Whatsapp is also no different. It is common for individuals to communicate news and use the forward feature through
WhatsApp groups and statues, particularly news about COVID-19 (Ahmad, 2021). Therefore, once an individual in the
neighborhood is infected with COVID-19, everyone in the community will know, as people like to be informed about
COVID-
19 cases surrounding them. This situation also opens more speculation and gossip regarding how and where the
individual was infected which could lead to discrimination. On other note, N1 and N2 stated that they encounter these
discriminating behavior face to face in their medical workplace rather than in social media. This is owing to the fact that
both of them are medical officers who are expected to physically report to work, as opposed to those who work
remotely from home. N1 and N2 are subjected to discrimination on a regular basis at work, which has rendered their
working environment unpleasant. The researcher drew the conclusion that if C1 and C2 were required to work physically
at the office, they would face the identical difficulties as N1 and N2. 4.2.2 Theme 2: Survivors’ Actions During and Post
COVID-19 Infection Subtheme 1: Survivors’ Actions Upon Infection The participants updated their Mysejahtera
application, quarantined and obliged other SOPs during the mandatory quarantine either at home or hospital. A
participant, namely N1 took extra precaution and sanitized her house although it was not mandated in the SOPs. Another
important note to remark is that, the participants were infected with COVID-19 due to mandatory life obligations such as
going to work and hospital visits as opposed to the public's assumption that they went out for leisure. All and all,
researcher can sum up that all participants took the responsible actions upon confirming infection of COVID-19.
Furthermore, some employers such as Radio TV Malaysia (RTM) also took the right initiative and closed down its office to
give way for proper sanitation to take place. Meanwhile, the workplace of N1 and N2 conducted daily RTK tests for early
COVID-19 detection. From this, researchers can conclude that generally Malaysians are aware of the government SOPs
in
47 combating COVID-19 and obliged most of the time. Employers, particularly government sector and medical
institutions, have a strong adherence to SOPs as a form of support and a model for the private sector and public.
Subtheme 2: Survivors’ Explaination to Public when facing the Discrimination Since several studies, such as Caelho
(2020) and Gomez (2021), have established that the discrimination of COVID-19 patients stems from a fear of the
unknown. Henceforth, researchers questioned participants if they had explained their predicaments to people who had
discriminated against them. Most of the participants except for N2 explained their situation to people who inquired but
the participants noticed that the public continued to blame them regardless. For example, despite C1 and C2 justification
that they cannot get vaccinated during the earlier phase of National COVID-19 Immunization Programme due to their
high risk medical state (C1’s mother was a diabetic patient and C2 was pregnant), people still discriminated against them.
This indicates that people’s fear of COVID-19 outweighs their rational thinking or child’s logic as coined by Golden (2016)
whereby emotions trump rationality or when the logical brain is unprepared to counteract the emotional rush which
resulted in poor judgment. Inner pain, such as fear, anxiety, shame, hopelessness, and powerlessness aroused irritation
and outbursts (Golden, 2016). Apart from that, participant N2 who was discriminated against by her medical peers stated
that even if she explained her situation, she would still be blamed. This scenario indicated a high level of discrimination
even among medical practitioners. This finding is aligned with Golden (2016) where the public acted irrationally in hope
to avoid COVID-19 infection such as refusing to step foot to the survivor’s house yard. 4.2.3 Theme 3: Survivors’ Reaction
During The Mistreatment Subtheme 1: Survivors’ Mental State Facing the Discrimination Being accused as bringing bad
luck to the community by people who known you for a long time made the participants feels lonely, hopeless and angry.
The participants claimed that they had absolutely no control over the infection. The COVID-19 symptoms are painful and
unbearable that they need support from everyone but they received hate and judgment. All participants admitted that
they were pushed to their limit mentally and physically in all aspect of life during the time of infection.
48 C2 disclosed that when the opportunity for another job at a new employer presented itself, she jumped at it because
she claimed that her previous employment was too toxic. She was constantly reminded and ridicule because she was on
leave for a prolonged period in 2021 due to COVID-19 and maternity leave. Moreover, her coworkers mocked her post
COVID symptoms which is cough and sore throat, believing that she was seeking pity. Additionally, C1 and C2, who were
infected at a period of heightened discrimination related to COVID-19, reported feeling a wave of animosity towards
them until August 2021, three months after recovering from the disease. Despite having recovered, they noted that their
neighbors and community avoided them often over the course of three months. C1, who lost her mother as a result of
the pandemic, revealed that her family held an online tahlil via Google Meet for her mother and only few people
participated due to the public discriminating behavior. The public action’s deeply affected her since she knows them
since she was a child. Subtheme 2: Effect with Other Relationship N2 mentioned she is now seeking employment
opportunities at other private clinics while C2 accepted a new job offer as soon as she received it. Researcher concluded
that C2 and N2 are describing a toxic workplace since they were being bullied and ridiculed. Toxic workplace may
include control freaks, narcissists, manipulators, bullies, poisonous individuals, or humiliators, toxic managers (Holloway,
2009). According to Anjum (2018), a toxic environment in the workplace deals with a high turnover rate due to emotional
burnout. Researchers drew the conclusion that this discrimination has impacted their careers and working lives In social
lives aspect, all participants chose to disregard the hostility and condemnation of the public. C2 noted that the same
individuals who were irritated with her for being infected with COVID-19 were the same ones that sought her out for
advice on managing COVID-19 symptoms and long-term COVID in 2022 since Malaysia saw a surge of infection cases at
that time.. She provided them with her tips and advise and wished them a swift recovery. C1 also did the same since she
lives in kampung where community spirit and unity is encourage and fighting is frown upon. 4.2.4 Theme 4: Causes of
the Discrimination according to the Survivors Subtheme 1: Insufficient Information by the Government and Mainstream
Media
49 The scarcity and inadequate of PSAs addressing discrimination against COVID-19 survivors was highlighted by all
participants. The anti discrimination PSAs was not developed until cases of discrimination were fiercely debated on social
media which is in mid 2021. Not to mention the message of the PSAs also was not effective. The PSAs should have
involved emotion and perspectives since this issues effect the mental state of the COVID-19 survivors. The participants
agreed that these are elements that were missing from the government’s PSA. This finding is supported by Otamendi
(2020), who claimed that the efficacy of advertising is assessed by the unconscious emotional reactions of people. Since
PSAs is also a form advertisement it should have emotional elements which is strongly correlated with human’s attention,
understanding decision-making, and memory (Le Blanc et al., 2014). Besides that, C2 made the observation that
government PSAs on social media are inconsistent. For example, PSAs on Facebook and Twitter utilised the same visual
but the captions are different. Captions on Facebook explained the mandatory SOPs imposed by the government for
instance wearing mask and using hand sanitizers whereas Twitter captions discussed more on COVID-19 discrimination.
The government PSAs should consistent all platforms to avoid misinformation and confusion by the public. Furthermore,
as C1 and C2 stated that they experienced more discrimination on Facebook than on other social media platforms, anti-
discrimination PSAs should be often posted on Facebook. Should this suggestion implemented at the time it could lessen
time the discrimination behaviors slightly. Subtheme 2: Misinformation on Social Media This sub theme aligned with the
findings found of Chapter 2 Systemetic Literature Review.. Social media is the breeding ground for misinformation during
COVID-19 (Gabarron, 2021). Due to the advancement of technology, the misinformation spread like wildfire and faster
than ever (Žiga Turk, 2018). Participants agreed that not all people verified the information they read on social media. This
situation facilities confusion which drives doubt and mistrust, creating the ideal setting for dread, anxiety, rejection,
stigma and discrimination - all of which may result in loss of life. Another than that since the social media have the power
to amplify news; it also amplify misinformation. This situation become an added problem in combating COVID-19
50 4.3 Summary of the Findings Under ‘Theme 1: Public Reaction Towards COVID-19 Survivors’ have two sub themes
namely ‘Initial Public Response to the Survivors’ and ‘Platform where Discrimination Occurred’. Women COVID-19
survivors were discriminated against public upon infection in 2021 and 2022, although in the latter year the
discrimination were less severe. The circle of people who discriminated against the women COVID-19 survivors were
family, neighbors, coworkers and strangers. This discrimination effected all COVID-19 survivors, regardless of age,
gender, status, employment, education background and etc. The platform in which women COVID-19 survivors dealt
with discriminating behavior are on online platforms specifically Whatsapp and Facebook as well as face-to-face in the
workplace. Thus, this theme and its subtheme answered ‘RO1: To determine the discriminating behavior of the public
towards COVID-19 survivors’. Meanwhile, ‘Theme 2: Survivors’ Actions During and Post COVID-19 Infection’ is the
incorporation of two sub themes specifically ‘Survivors’ Actions Upon Infection’ and ‘Survivors’ Explanation to Public
when facing the Discrimination’. Upon infection, female COVID-19 survivors behaved responsibly by following SOPs,
updating MySejahtera, and enforcing quarantine. Contrary to popular belief, the women COVID-19 survivors were
infected due to necessary life commitment, not because they went out for recreation. The survivors explained their
situation however some people refused to belief them out of irrational fear. Hence, this theme and its sub themes
tackled ‘RO2: To examine that actions taken by women COVID-19 survivors upon infection’. ‘Theme 3: Survivors’
Reaction During The Mistreatment’ and its sub themes ‘Survivors’ Mental State Facing the Discrimination’ and ‘Effect with
Other Relationship’ elaborated that women COVID-19 survivors feels lonely, hopeless and angry at being mistreated by
members of the community such as their own extended family, neighbours, even coworkers. In comparison to 2022, the
attitude of discrimination is predominant from the middle of 2021 through August of 2021. Public at the time even
avoided attending communal programs such as online tahlil which is out of character for villagers and rural areas. The
discriminating behavior faced by women COVID-19 survivors did not change neighbourhood, familial, friend
relatiosnhop, however it did effect their workplace. The survivors switched jobs as soon as the opportunity presented
itself to avoid working in a toxic culture where those who are recovering from sickness were mocked.
51 Consequently, this theme and its sub themes explained "RO3: To study the effect of being discriminated towards
women COVID-19 survivors on their mental health". The last ‘Theme 4: Causes of the Discrimination according to the
Survivors’ and its sub themes ‘Insufficient Information by the Government and Mainstream Media’ and ‘Misinformation on
Social Media’ discussed that the root of public discrimination towards women COVID-19 survivors are lack of
government PSAs regarding anti discrimination and inconsistent PSAs across cocial media platforms. Besides that,
misinformation itself becomes its own pandemic which was magnified by social media. All social media has share,
retweet and repost features which made this possible. Resultantly, this themeand its subthemes covered "RO4: To
analyzed the causes of public discrimination against COVID-19 survivors from the women survivors’ perspectives". With
that, all of the research objectives were fulfilled.
52 CHAPTER 5: LIMITATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Introduction Based on the prior chapter of
data findings, the closing remarks of the study are presented in the last section of this academic paper. The researcher
will finalize all research objectives in order to ensure that the outcome of this study is crystal clear. This chapter presents
the limitations faced during the study, appropriate recommendations for all parties involved and conclusion for the study.
5.2 Limitation of the Study To guarantee the safety of both the participants and the researcher in light of the unavoidable
COVID-19 circumstance, the researcher was required to conduct interviews online rather than in person. This poses a
barrier anytime there is a lag in the internet connection, since participants' voices may not always be heard, and they may
not always hear the researcher's questions well. Researcher also cannot detect non verbal cues from the participants
such as facial expression, hand gestures, eye contact, etc. Nonverbal communication has been recognised as an addition
and a significant source of information to the study of human verbal activities (Denham, 2013). Therefore, due to the
pandemic, researcher was unable to gain rich inclusion data that comes human’s non verbal communication. Another
set back in this study was getting Research Ethics Committee UiTM approval (REC). According to the REC website, the
committee was established in 2004, hence the organization had ample time which is 18 years to develop efficient, low
time consuming procedures for researchers to get approval. Due to the time consuming process by REC, all researchers’
time was cut to a month to collect and analyze data instead of two months. Nevertheless, researcher understood the
importance of ethical approval for the safety of human participants and compliance with existing laws and regulations.
However, REC should have known its time consuming procedures and request researchers to submit their research
proposal early, for example, during semester break or the prior semester since most researchers had completed their
proposal when they underwent the Research Methodology course. Due to the shortened data collection and analysis
period of one month, it was challenging for researchers and participants to set interviews because of conflicting
schedules. Given the fact that some participants had unavoidable commitments and had to reschedule their interviews,
the
53 researcher had even less time to conduct the pilot study, data collecting, and analysis. Researchers found it difficult to
analyze data due to the shorter timeframe. The quality of this study will also improve if more time were given should REC
take the suggestion explained in the preceding paragraph. Two months period is a more logical time to conduct a study;
researchers may spend the first month collecting data and the second month analyzing data. Other than that, researcher
faced personal issues which were national environmental disasters. The researcher suffered flooding in the housing area
twice in the span of four months. Although the disaster did not destroy electronic devices used in the study, it did
however affect researcher’s mental health and motivation. The first flood, which occurred in December 2021, damaged
the tiles and flooring, which were then repaired at the cost of four digits before being damaged again by the second
flood in April 2022. Shahrul (2021) revealed that flood victims often encounter psychological problems including stress,
persistent anxiety, difficulty sleeping etc - all of which were consistent with what researcher and her family experienced.
5.2 Recommendations 5.2.1 Government Taking into consideration of the discrimination that COVID-19 survivors faced,
the government should have taken constructive steps to stop its growing tide in 2021. The discriminating sentiment
against COVID-19 survivors are low in 2022 due to the increased number of cases. Nonetheless, the Malaysian
government should have a mitigation strategy should comparable issues emerge in the future. First, the government
must pay particular attention to emerging expressions of discrimination and intolerance that vulnerable groups may be
subjected to. After identifying the probable discrimination and its target group, the next stage will be to build a
nationwide awareness and education campaign on measures and action points for combating discrimination. The
campaign must be meticulously planned otherwise it is a waste of time and resources. Next, government leaders and
representatives must provide a positive example for the public to emulate. It is important to note that the Malaysian
government has agencies that address misinformation which is the root cause of COVID-19 survivors discimination. The
agencies in question are the Ministry of Communications and Multimedia and Malaysian Communications and
Multimedia Commission (MCMC). These agencies should address all types of misinformation
54 pertaining COVID-19 so that the information in public is aligned. Sebenarnya.my, a website under MCMC dedicated to
dispelling misinformation, failed to do so in the light of abundant misinformation among the public regarding COVID-19.
The failure presumably because the website itself is not well-known among the public. Sebenarnya.my only had 10.6K
followers on Twitter and 18K followers on Facebook. That represents only 3% and 5% of the Malaysian population
respectively. The efforts by MCMC is applaudable, however Sebenarnya.my needs promotional measures to become the
go-to website for fact checkers by Malaysians. Moreover, the Ministry of Communications and Multimedia and MCMC
can work together with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) to develop tools that can identify
fake news conveniently without needing an external website that requires extra clicking like Sebenarnya.my. This is due
to the fact that most Malaysian public only read headlines rather than clicking and reading the whole article. Case in
point; in March 2021, Harian Metro (HM) published a news article with the headline 'Jururawat Terima Vaksin Meninggal
Akibat Sakit Jantung'. The news is actually about the nurse who died because of a heart attack not due to COVID-19
vaccine. The news caused distrust toward the vaccines and government who are supplying the vaccine to the public. It
was not until the Minister of Science, Technology and Innovation, Khairy Jamaluddin dispelled and condemned HM for
irresponsible reporting via his Twitter account, that the misinformation stopped. 5.2.2 Media Based on Peace Science
Digest, audiences exposed to Peace Journalism elements have been found to demonstrate increased levels of hope and
empathy, decreased levels of anger and fear and lower likelihood to view conflicts in polarized good vs bad. Therefore,
media should adopt Peace Journalism elements in their reporting to maintain harmony such as sticking to news values
and capturing a variety of perspectives. Sticking to news values meaning responsibly reporting events and incidents.
Journalists should report incidents as it is and not sensationalized the incidents by adding fabrication and falsehood.
Some mainstream media engages with this practice to increase audiences which translate to more revenue. This is due
to the fact that mainstream media which encompassed of print media having difficulties in staying afloat. The
mainstream media struggle to adapt their business models to the new online world which eliminate the need of physical
newspaper.
55 The next element of Peace Journalism that the media can practice is covering all perspectives in news articles. By
covering a range of perspectives in their reporting, it will give audiences insight into the dread of COVID-19 survivors
being implicated with the surge of COVID-19 cases. Such reporting raises audiences' empathy and inspires them to be
more understanding of others' situations. As a result, it gives birth to a kinder and more patience society. According to
the Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ), the media's code of ethics is to minimize damage. In order to do this,
journalists must treat sources, issues, colleagues, and public with respect, including COVID-19 survivors. This is due to
the fact that nobody can predict how anyone would respond to the news. Due to the judgmental tone of the media,
which faulted COVID-19 survivors for the surge in COVID-19 cases, the public responded to the news by discriminating
the survivors 5.2.3 Society Majority of the people when they go online, particularly on social media, it is for
entertainment, interaction, or even diversion. It is not always a top concern to be accurate. Before sharing postings to
WhatsApp groups and other social media, stop to consider the post's credibility. Consider the content beyond the
headline and verify its accuracy. As a mature and civilized society in a respected democratic nation that we are, we need
to evaluate the probable repercussions of sharing the information towards the harmony of the society. Besides that,
since discrimination towards COVID-19 survivors often occured in social media, the society should speak out against it
when confronted the behavior online. Silence can be dangerous because it indicates approval (AFSC, 2018). This entails
that the society should address any incidents and sharing of misinformation published on social media. Holding
accountability to people who created and spread misinformation will indicate that disseminating false information is
frowned upon by the society. Silence in the face of misinformation might indicate that the misinformation is accurate,
leading to disaster. Permitting the distribution of misinformation increases the possibility of acceptance. More people will
begin to accept it as true which is why speaking out is important. During this time of uncertainty, where the constant are
tension, stress, depression, and suicide, society must reject all kinds of discrimination that encourage animosity and
hostility against one another. Malaysians should demonstrate to the world that they are tolerant and practice mutual and
understanding with everyone. The best way to treat someone in this time of crisis is
56 mutual respect. Respect inspires altruism and altruism in infectious or the academic term moral elevation. Those who
saw kindness tended to emulate it themselves. This implies that demonstrating a helpful and kind attitude has a positive
effect on the spread of goodwill in a society. Unfortunately this also means that exhibiting negative actions also have a
negative impact. Therefore, society must be mindful of how they treat others and choose to be kind in interactions
because it can be a significant act of kindness since it has a domino effect. 5.2.4 Future Research As discussed in Chapter
2 Systematic Literature Review, there are insufficient studies on the causes and effects of discrimination against COVID-
19 survivors. While the emphasis of this study was on women COVID-19 survivors, future researchers may be able to
examine other populations, such as males, people with disabilities (PWD), children, and the elderly which will expand the
knowledge. Although the causes of COVID-19 discrimination towards each population may be similar, the effect may
vary amongst the populations. The more the population being studied, the greater knowledge and understanding we
have on the root of issues and with this insight we will be able to raise public awareness in order to address the
underlying problems. Next, future researchers might build on this work by investigating and collecting data or samples
from other methods such as social media content analysis in Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Tiktok or by quantitative
methods involving large respondents. Social media content analysis enables direct assessment of a user's textual
communication and interaction with other users, resulting in proximity data and result. Researchers use content analysis
to assess the messages, objectives, and impacts of communication. Subsequently, its analysis provides insight into
human's complicated cognitive and linguistic frameworks. The upside of this method over the one chosen for this study
is that future researchers may examine online human interaction. On one hand, the quantitative method enables future
researchers to collect a larger sample size of COVID-
19 survivors, making it simpler to test hypotheses and make
accurate generalizations. The large data provided by this method lends more confidence to the conclusion since the
statistical analysis is more comprehensive. Henceforth its findings may strengthen the result of this study. Other than
conducting qualitative, quantitative methods or even studies of other populations, future researchers may opt to conduct
comparative studies. Comparative research methods have been used extensively in cross-cultural studies to uncover,
analyze, and explain similarities and differences across populations. Comparisons facilitate the development of social
57 phenomenon categories and the determination of whether shared phenomena may be explained by the same
factors. Thus, by conducting comparative study, it allows future researchers to examine two or more populations at the
same time. For example, future researchers may elected to study the effect of discrimination towards elderly and
teenagers COVID-19 survivors. The findings of the study can illustrate the connections and contrast of being
discriminated against towards the elderly and teenagers COVID-19 survivors. 5.3 Conclusion The purpose of this study is
to understand the causes and effects towards the mental health of women COVID-19 survivors. Henceforth, this study
employed qualitative analysis specifically in depth interviews of six women COVID-19 survivors to collect data. To
analyze the data, this study used thematic analysis to determine the causes and effects towards the mental health of
women COVID-19 survivors. As a result, the study was able to classify four main themes. Each theme consists of two sub
themes that further elaborated the findings, - all of which accomplished the research objectives set in the beginning of
the study. The four mains themes developed were: i. Public Reaction Towards COVID-19 Survivors ii. Survivors’ Behavior
During The Mistreatment iii. Mental Health of Survivors facing Public Discrimination iv. Causes of the Discrimination
according to the Survivors Afterwards, researcher prepared appropriate recommendations for all parties that have the
power to make this situation better for the COVID-19 survivors. The parties in question are the government, media and
society. Government may remedy this situation and other possible forms of discrimination by developing an indicator
that detects early warning systems of possible signs of unrest. Following that, the government may then build a
productive, efficient, and impactful national awareness campaign to resolve the issue. Then, government entities such as
MCMC, MOSTI, and the Ministry of Communications and Multimedia should coordinate to debunk misinformation and
provide tools for the public to easily identify fake news. The next party that could assist in discrimination faced by
COVID-19 survivors is media. Journalists and reporters must instill Peace Journalism elements in their work to foster
social
58 stability by sticking to news values and presenting diverse society viewpoints. The media also must abide by the
Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ) code of ethics, which is to minimize harm in order to prevent negative public
response. Society also needs to play their duty by reading the entirety of the news and validating its sources. Society
should also refrain from disseminating misinformation and speak out against discrimination to prevent their prevalence.
Since moral behaviors are often replicated by others, it is crucial that society treat each other with respect,
understanding, and compassion. Given that there is a knowledge gap regarding the effect of discrimination against
COVID-
19 survivors, researchers propose expanding the body of knowledge by investigating more populations and
methods in the future. Considerable populations include men, the elderly, adolescents, and children. Future researchers
could study these population using quantitative survey, social media content analysis or even conducting comparative
studies
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Hit and source - focused comparison, Side by Side

Submitted text As student entered the text in the submitted document.
Matching text As the text appears in the source.
1/13 SUBMITTED TEXT 126 WORDS 49% MATCHING TEXT 126 WORDS
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the
for the degree of Master of Arts (Media and Information degree of Master of Mass Communication Faculty of
Warfare) Faculty of Communications and Media Studies Communication and Media Studies February 2022
Centre of Media and Information Warfare Studies CONFIRMATION BY PANEL OF EXAMINERS I certify that a
AUGUST 2022 CONFIRMATION BY PANEL OF Panel of Examiners has met on 3rd February 2022 to
EXAMINERS I certify that a Panel of Examiners has met on conduct the final examination of Abu Bakar bin
4th August 2022 to conduct the final examination of Nor Zulkarnain on his Master of Mass Communication thesis
Faridah Binti Dahalan on her Masters of Arts thesis entitled “ Fighting News: Exploring Youth Social Media
entitled “Analysis of Discrimination Towards the Mental Literacy During COVID-19 Pandemic in accordance with
Health of Women COVID-19 Survivors”. in accordance Universiti Teknologi MARA Act 1976 (Akta 173). The Panel
with Universiti Teknologi MARA Act 1976 (Akta 173). The of Examiners recommends that the student be awarded
Panel of Examiners reccommends that the student be the relevant degree. The Panel of Examiners was as
awarded the relevant degree. The Panel of Examiners was follows:
as follows:
Feedback 4_FIGHTING FAKE NEWS_ EXPLORING YOUTH SOCIAL MEDIA LITERACY DURING COVID-19
PANDEMIC ERA.pdf
(D126592769)
Universiti Teknologi MARA PROFESSOR IR DR ZUHAINA Universiti Teknologi MARA (Panel 2) PROFESSOR IR DR
HAJI ZAKARIA Dean Institute Pengajian Siswazah (IPSis) ZUHAINA HAJI ZAKARIA Dean Institute of Graduates
Universiti Teknologi MARA Date: February 2022 Universiti Teknologi MARA Date: February 2022
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I declare that the work in this AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I declare that the work in this
research project was carried out in accordance with the dissertation was carried out in accordance with the
regulations of Universiti Teknologi MARA. It is original and regulations of Universiti Teknologi MARA. It is original and
is the result of my own work, unless otherwise indicated is the results of my own work, unless otherwise indicated
or acknowledged as referenced work. This thesis has not or acknowledged as referenced work. This thesis has not
been submitted to any other academic institution or non- been submitted to any other academic institution or non-
academic institution for any other degree or qualification. academic institution for any degree or qualification. I,
I, hereby, acknowledge that I hve been supplied with the hereby, acknowledge that I have been supplied with the
Academic Rules and Regulations for Post Graduate, Academic Rules and Regulations for Post Graduate,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, regulating the conduct of my Universiti Teknologi MARA, regulating the conduct of my
study and research. Name of student: study and research. Name of Student :
2020238342_ NUR FATIN NADHIRAH BINTI ABDUL RAHMAN_CORRECTED THESIS.pdf

(D126907481)
MC701 Faculty: Faculty of Communication and Media MC770 Faculty : Faculty of Communication and Media
Studies Thesis Title: Studies Thesis Title :
PANDEMIC ERA.pdf
(D126592769)
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PANELS OF EXAMINERS I TABLE OF CONTENTS CONFIRMATION BY PANEL

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION II ABSTRACT III EXAMINERS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT IV TABLE OF CONTENT V LIST OF ................................................................................................... i
TABLES VII LIST OF FIGURES VIII
2 Pages CHAPTER 1 : AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 : Background of the Study 2 1.2 : ............................................................................................................
Problem Statement 2 1.3 : Research Objective 3 1.4 : ........... ii ABSTRACT
Research Questions 3 1.5 : Scope ............................................................................................................
................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
............................................................................................................
................ iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
............................................................................................................
................... v LIST OF TABLES
............................................................................................................
.......................... vii LIST OF APPENDICES
............................................................................................................
.................. CHAPTER ONE
............................................................................................................
............................. 1 1.1 BACKGROUND
....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
............................................................................................................
3 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
...........................................................................................................
4 1.4 RESEARCH SCOPE
............................................................................................................
........ 4 1.5
DRAFT DISSERTATION_WAN NUR AFIQAH MAHYUDDIN (2020214822) Rev 0.1.pdf

(D141543915)
and circle back to crucial questions later in the interview and circle back to key questions later in the interview to
to build a gain a
PANDEMIC ERA.pdf
(D126592769)
The aim of Yuan’s study was to examine COVID-19- the aim of this study was to compare COVID-19-related
related stigma among COVID-19 survivors and healthy stigma between COVID-19 survivors and healthy controls
controls residing in the same region of China, as well as living in the same region of China and to identify
to uncover correlates of stigma experiences in these correlates of stigma experiences in these groups.
groups. The cross-sectional, comparative study Methods
Study setting and participants
This was a cross-
conducted sectional, comparative study conducted
https://globalizationandhealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12992-021-00705-4
levels of perceived stigma among COVID-19 survivors levels of perceived stigma in COVID-19 survivors could
might be linked to concerns 18 about spreading the virus be attributed to about transmitting the virus to family
to family members, acquaintances, and members, friends and
the number of smartphone users in Malaysia was the number of smartphone users in Malaysia was
estimated to reach about 29 million. estimated to reach about 29 million.
Atlas.Ti ATLAS.Ti is a qualitative research tool that can be ATLAS.ti Software Access ATLAS.ti is a qualitative research
used for coding and analyzing transcripts and field notes, tool that can be used for coding and analyzing transcripts
building literature reviews, creating network diagrams, & field notes, building literature reviews, creating network
and data visualization diagrams, and data visualization.
•
https://guides.nyu.edu/QDA/atlasti
Number of smartphone users in Malaysia from 2010 to Number of smartphone users in Malaysia from 2010 to
2020 and a forecast up to 2025. Retrieved from Statista: 2020 and a forecast up to 2025 (in millions) Statista,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/494587/smartphone- https://www.statista.com/statistics/494587/smartphone-
users-in-malaysia/ users-in-malaysia/ (
COVID-19-related stigma and its sociodemographic COVID-19-related stigma and its sociodemographic
correlates: a comparative study. Globalization and Health, correlates: a comparative study | Globalization and
54 . Health |
Amir, K. (2021). COVID-19- Related Stigma in COVID-19 Amir, K. COVID-19-related stigma in COVID-19 survivors
Survivors in Kampala, Uganda: A Qualitative Study. in Kampala, Uganda: A qualitative study.
https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4698/11/4/130/html
April 7). Distribution of TV viewers during the COVID-19 April 17, 2020). Distribution of TV viewers during the
pandemic in Malaysia as of March 2020, by type of COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia as of March 2020, by
viewer. Retrieved from Statista : type of viewer [Graph]. In Statista. Retrieved July 18, 2022,
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1112639/malaysia- from
share-of-tv-viewers-during-covid-19-by-
type/ https://www.statista.com/statistics/1112639/malaysia-
share-of-tv-viewers-during-covid-19-by-type/
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1112639/malaysia-share-of-tv-viewers-during-covid-19-by-type/

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XXX Senior Lecturer Faculty of

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Universiti Teknologi MARA PROFESSOR IR DR ZUHAINA

Nor Faridah Binti Dahalan Programme: Master of

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MC701 Faculty: Faculty of Communication and Media Studies Thesis Title:

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