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Optics and Telescopes 6

This chapter describes laws of optics and astronomical telescopes. The major components of
refracting and reflecting telescopes are presented with a description of basic optical imperfections.
The roles of charge-coupled devices (CCD) and spectrographs in astronomy are discussed. Radio
astronomy instruments are described, and a survey of the more important satellite observatories is given
with some discussion of their advantages and impact on our understanding of the nature of celestial
objects.

6-1 A refracting telescope uses a lens to concentrate incoming light at a focus

Refracting telescopes gave humans the first close-up views of the Moon and planets.

Box 6-1 Magnification and Light-Gathering Power

Examples are given to illustrate the magnification and light-gathering powers of telescopes.

6-2 A reflecting telescope uses a mirror to concentrate incoming light at a focus

All of the largest professional telescopes—and most amateur telescopes—are reflecting telescopes.

6-3 Telescope images are degraded by the blurring effects of the atmosphere and by light
pollution
Adaptive optics produces sharper images by “undoing” atmospheric turbulence.

6-4 A charge-coupled device is commonly used to record the image at a telescope’s focus
The same technology that makes digital cameras possible has revolutionized astronomy.

6-5 Spectrographs record the spectra of astronomical objects

The spectrum of a planet, star, or galaxy can reveal more about its nature than an image.

6-6 A radio telescope uses a large concave dish to reflect radio waves to a focus
Observing at radio wavelengths reveals aspects of the universe hidden from ordinary telescopes.

6-7 Telescopes in orbit around the Earth detect radiation that does not penetrate the
atmosphere
Space telescopes make it possible to study the universe across the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
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Teaching Hints and Strategies

When discussing refracting telescopes (Section 6-1) like the one shown in Figure 6-5, point out that
incoming parallel rays indicate light coming from a single point in space due to the great distances of
celestial objects. Note also that these rays are bent to form the image. Light from a second point in space
is detected as a second set of parallel rays that approach the telescope from a different direction.
Consideration of the two sets of parallel rays can show that all points of the objective lens, or primary
mirror in the case of a reflecting telescope, contribute light to all points in the image. Obstructions in
and near the telescope do not block a specific part of the field of view but only decrease the amount
of light that ultimately forms the image.

To help students understand their misconceptions about image formation, project an image onto a
viewing screen in a darkened room. Ask the students what will happen if half the lens is covered.
Most of them will say half the image will disappear. Cover half the lens and let them see that the
image simply grows dimmer!

The role of the eyepiece in a telescope is demonstrated by allowing the converging rays from a point
source to diverge and refract at the eyepiece to emerge as a parallel group of rays again. Our eyes would
normally see light from this point source as a parallel group of rays without the telescope. The role
played by the eyepiece in determining the magnification should be explained here as well. The variation
in the amount of refraction with variation in wavelength, or dispersion, leads naturally to a discussion
of chromatic aberration and to a general discussion of the technical and economic limitations of
refracting telescopes.

The precise nature of refraction and reflection (Sections 6-1 and 6-2) can be demonstrated using a
low-power laser and a fish tank half filled with water. A cover for the tank permits the trapping of smoke
in the top to facilitate viewing of the refracted laser beam as it approaches and leaves the water.
Place a mirror on the bottom to produce clear, simple reflection.

It should be noted here that modern reflecting telescopes (Section 6-2) are designed with several
secondary mirrors so that different focus locations can be used. Changing the focal length of a telescope
changes its basic characteristics and permits greater flexibility in its use for astronomical research. The
information about major reflecting telescopes provides for some interesting observations.
Explain why having telescopes in the southern hemisphere is important.

The adaptive optics of modern large telescopes (Section 6-3) can eliminate the effects of slowly varying
seeing because the frequency of the corrections is high enough. Rapid variations cannot be followed.
Fortunately, most distortion is from the slower variations due to the movement of large cells of air
with different optical characteristics. The limitations on resolving power of large telescopes on
the Earth are generally not determined by the optical quality or diameter of the telescope but
are controlled by the disturbances in the atmosphere due to variable refraction.

The Palomar Sky Survey is one of the last great photographic projects and is one of the most valuable
references that astronomers have. Every observatory has a set of sky survey prints along with transparent
overlays marked with coordinate grid lines and the location and identification of thousands of
objects. The new sky survey plates have been scanned and digitized for computer use. Because of
improvements in photographic emulsions and processing, the new sky survey extends to much fainter
levels.

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Most students visualize the modern astronomer looking through the telescope. Emphasize that the
telescope merely gathers light and forms an image. Many astronomers are not even present at the
telescope, but are using a computer at their home or office to control a telescope thousands of miles
away.

CCD cameras and spectrographs (Sections 6-4 and 6-5) are examples of the auxiliary instruments
used by astronomers. Most of the advances in the study of faint objects that have taken place since
completion of the 200-inch telescope on Mount Palomar have been due to improvements in the auxiliary
instruments and detectors. Small telescopes today can do many projects that required much larger
telescopes in the past. It is interesting to discuss the problems associated with storage of large volumes
of digital data compared to the simplicity of photographic plates.

The wavelength dependence of angular resolution should be noted and discussed in the context of the
sizes of radio telescopes (Section 6-6). Compute and compare typical angular resolutions for the
largest radio and optical telescopes. Make it clear that radio dishes working together have an angular
resolution related to the separation distance between the antennas, while the light-gathering power is
determined by adding the areas of the antennas involved.

The need for space astronomy is discussed in the last Section (6-7) of this chapter. Note that gamma-
ray, X-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared observatories in space are required to overcome the absorption of
these types of radiation by the Earth’s atmosphere, while orbiting optical telescopes are needed to
improve resolving power, which is limited by atmospheric seeing.

Students should learn that despite the earlier often-publicized defect in the optics of the HST, this
telescope continues to provide an unprecedented view of the universe since its repair. The news
media seem to prefer failures rather than successes. Astronaut-astronomers have participated in HST
repair and upgrade missions. These servicing missions extended and improved the observatory's
capabilities.

Review Questions
1. Refraction refers to the bending of light rays as they pass from one medium to another. Reflection
is light bouncing off of a reflecting surface. By curving the glass surfaces to form lenses and mirrors,
the refracted or reflected light can be made to pass through a point of focus.

2. When light passes through a flat piece of glass, like a window, the light is refracted at both
surfaces, but the exiting ray of light is parallel to the entering ray and hence the light’s path is not really
changed.

3. Compared to the dimensions of the telescope, the object is at an infinite distance.

4. The diagram for a refracting telescope may be found in Figure 6-5. The diameter of the objective
lens determines the telescope’s light-gathering power. The ratio of the focal lengths of the objective and
eyepiece lenses determines its magnification.

5. The telescope’s eyepiece acts as a magnifier to examine the image at the focal plane. It converts
the diverging rays into the parallel rays required by the eye. When film or a CCD is placed at the
focal plane, the eyepiece is not used.

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6. Professional astronomers do not look through their telescopes because film or CCDs are much
more sensitive than the eye and produce “hard copies” of the image.

7. Magnifying power is not a good criterion for evaluating telescopes. If a telescope has poor
resolution, making the resultant blurry image larger does not help.

8. Chromatic aberration refers to the fact that refractors do not focus different wavelengths of light at
the same focal point. It can be corrected by designing compound objective lenses that have two or
more lenses made of different kinds of glass.

9. Diagrams for various reflecting telescopes may be found in Figure 6-11, where four ways of
accessing the focal plane are shown.

10. The major disadvantage of a refracting telescope is chromatic aberration. In addition, large lenses
are difficult to grind.

11. To make a color photograph entirely free of chromatic aberration, you should use a reflecting
telescope at the prime focus so that light does not have to pass through any glass.

12. A Cassegrain reflector is shorter than other types of reflectors because the converging light is
reflected twice down the length of the tube.

13. For a large telescope the Newtonian focus is located at an awkward position, especially since the
end of the telescope has to move by large amounts. This is a popular design for amateur telescopes,
which are much smaller, because the user can simply stand next to the telescope and peer into the
eyepiece.

14. Spherical aberration refers to off-axis light reflected from a spherical surface not focusing at the
same point as axial light. It can be corrected by using a parabolic surface rather than a spherical one.

15. Diffraction in a telescope results in a spreading out of the light waves and a corresponding
blurring of the image. A larger objective lens or mirror reduces the amount of diffraction and
improves the angular resolution. Due to atmospheric turbulence and distortion, Earth-based telescopes
never actually achieve their theoretical resolution.

16. Active optics is a continuous refocusing and aiming of the telescope. Adaptive optics is a
continuous changing of the shape of the mirror to compensate for atmospheric turbulence. Both of these
techniques produce better images. Neither would be relevant for telescopes in orbit.

17. The angular resolution for multiple-mirror telescopes is better because of the larger effective
diameter of the system and the large separation of the mirrors.

18. Any human-made light that interferes with astronomical observations is light pollution. It reduces
the number of faint objects that can be seen. The use of special streetlights and locating observatories
in remote areas are two solutions.

19. A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a semiconductor device that is sensitive to light. Data are
recorded digitally for easy enhancement with a computer. A CCD is about 35 times more sensitive to
light than typical photographic film is.

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20. A spectrograph allows light from a celestial object to be divided into the individual wavelengths
present. This permits a determination of the chemical composition of the object.

21. Blue and violet portions of the spectrum are spread out more than the red portion. Because the
blue and violet wavelengths pass through more of the prism’s glass than do the red wavelengths, light
is absorbed unevenly. A glass prism is opaque to near ultraviolet light. For these reasons, diffraction
gratings are preferred.

22. An optical reflecting telescope and a radio telescope use the same optical principles in their
design. They both use a curved reflecting surface to produce a focus. They are different in the
wavelengths used and the construction materials.

23. Because radio telescopes are not sensitive to visible light, they can be used in the daytime as well
as at night, rain or shine.
5 λ . Because the wavelength of radio emissions
24. The angular resolution is given by θ = 2.5 ×10
D

(e.g., 21 cm) is so much larger than visible light (e.g., 550 nm), the resolution is much worse. Using a
large reflecting dish can improve the resolution. Interferometers like the VLA provide very high
resolution.

25. The optical window and the radio window are wavelength regions where our atmosphere is
transparent. There are no X-ray or ultraviolet windows because our atmosphere is not transparent to
these wavelength regions, which of course is necessary for life to exist on Earth.

26. The detector in an infrared telescope would record “noise” from the blackbody radiation of its
surroundings if it was not kept cold.

27. Images made by an X-ray telescope are focused images of the source, while medical X rays are
shadows cast by the more dense bones onto the film.

28. Because X rays and gamma rays are absorbed high in Earth’s atmosphere, instruments to observe
these radiations must be placed in orbit above the atmosphere.

Advanced Questions
29. Looking at Figure 6-5 we see that rays entering the objective lens near the top emerge from the
eyepiece near the bottom and vice versa.

30. The focal length of a telephoto lens is longer than a normal camera lens. Magnification varies
directly with the focal length of the objective.

31. The area of a circle is proportional to the square of its diameter. The 5-m Palomar mirror
therefore has an area 52 = 25 times larger than the area blocked by the observing cage. Only 1/25 of
the incoming light is obstructed.

32. Light-gathering power is proportional to the area of the mirror or lens that collects the light. The
diameter of the Keck I mirror is 10 m, which is 4.2 times larger than the HST mirror. The light- gathering
power of the Keck I telescope, which is proportional to the square of its diameter, is 17

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times greater than that of the HST. The HST’s advantage is due to its location in space, where it is
unaffected by the Earth’s atmosphere.

33. Magnifying power equals the focal length of the mirror divided by the focal length of the
eyepiece. The telescope’s focal length is 2000 mm. (a) A 9-mm eyepiece gives a magnification of
2000 mm/9 mm = 222×. (b) A 20-mm eyepiece gives a magnification of 2000 mm/20 mm = 100×. (c)
A 55-mm eyepiece gives a magnification of 2000 mm/55 mm = 36×. The angular resolution is given
( )( )
by θ = , or θ = 0.75 arcsec. This is a limit, and even on top of a high
2.5 ×105 6.0 ×10 –7 m
( 2.5 m )
mountain you would not achieve this resolution.

34. (a) a 40-meter objective mirror, light with wavelength 550 nm:

θ=
( 2.5 ×105 )( 6.0 ×10 –7 m )
= 0.004 arcsec. (b) The resolution would be four times poorer, 0.015
( 40 m )
arcsec, due to the mirror being four times smaller.

35. The spherical aberration does not affect the usefulness of the HET for spectroscopy because the
light from only one star enters the spectrograph. If the axis of the telescope is pointed directly at the
star, there is no spherical aberration for that star.

36. You must use the small-angle formula discussed in Box 1-1 to convert the angular size of the
smallest discernable surface features into a linear size. The distance (d) to Jupiter is 628 × 106 km,
and the angle (α) subtended by the smallest features is 0.1 arcsec. Thus, the actual size (D) of the
smallest visible features is
αd ( 0.1) ( 628 ×106 km )
D= = ≈ 300 km.
206, 265 206, 265
The distance from the surface of the Earth to the surface of the Moon is about 376,300 km, and the
resolution of the human eye is 60 arcsec (1 arcmin). Again using the small-angle formula, we find
that the smallest discernable lunar features have a size of
D=
αd
=
( 60 ) ( 376,300 km ) ≈ 110 km.
206, 265 206, 265
Thus, the HST can resolve features larger than 300 km across on Jupiter’s moons, whereas only those
features larger than about 110 km across on our nearby Moon can be distinguished with the unaided
human eye.
αd
37. (a) From Box 1-1, the small-angle formula is D = , where α = 0.1 arcsec and d = 70 ×
206,265
106 ly. Therefore the smallest detail that can be discerned in the image is
αd (
( 0.1) 70 ×106 ly)
D= = ≈ 34 ly.
206, 265 206, 265
206,265D
(b) For a dime to have an angular size of 0.1 arcsec, d = , with D = 1.8 cm = 1.8 × 10–2 m =

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α
1.8 × 10–5 km,
( 206, 265) (1.8 ×10 –5 km )
d= = 37 km .
0.1

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38. The distance to Pluto is about 28.6 AU = 4.3 × 109 km. As we saw in Section 6-7, the resolution
of the HST is 0.1 arcsec. Using the small-angle formula (Box 1-1), we find that the size of the
smallest discernible features at Pluto’s distance from Earth is
αd ( 0.1) ( 4.3 ×109 km )
D= = ≈ 2080 km
206, 265 206, 265
Pluto’s diameter is 2,290 km, and despite our calculated result the HST would not be able to
distinguish any features on that planet, although it might discern differences in shading of the surface.

39. D = 25,000 km = 2.5 × 107 m and v = 43 GHz = 43 × 109 sec–1.

(a) λ =
c 3 ×108 m / s
= = 0.0070 m = 7 mm (b)θ =( 2.5 ×10 5 )
( 0.007 m ) = 7 ×10 –5arcsec .
v 43 ×10 / s
9
2.5 ×107 m

40. (a) For a frequency of 557 × 109 Hz, the wavelength is

c 3 ×108 m/s
λ= = = 5.4 ×10 –4 m .
v 5.57 ×10 /s
11

This radiation is in the far infrared near the microwave region. (b) Because this radiation is strongly
λ
absorbed by the atmosphere, a satellite is necessary for these observations. (c) From θ = 2.5 ×105 ,
D
λ
we have D = 2.5×105 , where θ = 4 arcmin = 240 arcsec. Therefore
θ
5.4 ×10 –4 m
D = 2.5 ×105 = 0.56 m .
240

41. They were looking for an absorption line in the continuous spectrum of the distant galaxy. The
light from the distant galaxy would pass through any ionized gas surrounding the Milky Way. To
look for an emission line, the background should be dark.

42. Part b of Figure 6-32 shows the 21-cm emission from neutral atomic hydrogen. This gas must be
cool for the hydrogen to be neutral and in the ground state. Part d of Figure 6-32 shows a dark band
along the Milky Way where the cool gas is absorbing the X rays. The presence of cool gas could be
inferred very indirectly from part a of Figure 6-32. The visible light comes from stars and HII regions.
The HII regions are typically surrounded by cooler, neutral gas. Also, the dark band along the Milky
Way in this view is due to dust. Typically the dust occurs mixed with gas.

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Discussion Questions
43. Factors to consider include ease of access, lack of light pollution, availability of utilities and
telecommunications, and the ability of the ground to support the weight of a large building without
shifting. In most cases today, an environmental impact study would take many years to complete and
could rule out many ideal locations.

44. Orbiting telescopes, while free of atmospheric distortions, are much more difficult to maintain.
Mountain top telescopes can be very large, but still are limited by the Earth’s atmosphere.

Web/eBook Questions
HST photos are available for download on the STSI Web site: www.stsci.edu/portal/.

Most major observatories have Web sites. Palomar is one of the most famous in the United States,
www.astro.caltech.edu/palomar/. Lick, Mt. Wilson, Lowell, and most other observatories also make
their photos and data available online.

Both NASA and the European Space Agency have excellent Web sites devoted to Herschel, the
Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), the Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope
(GLAST), the Space Interferometry Mission (SIM), and the X-ray Evolving Universe Spectroscopy
(XEUS) mission and many other missions. Most agencies maintain an archive of data, images, and news
for past images.

Observing Projects
Remember: DO NOT FOCUS DIRECTLY ON THE SUN! Looking directly at the Sun can
cause blindness or permanent eye damage.

Orion, Meade, and Celestron are some of the best-known manufacturers of high-quality amateur
telescopes. Consult the latest issue of Sky & Telescope or Astronomy for print ads. Chromatic
aberration is seen best with an inexpensive refractor. As the magnification increases, smaller objects
may seem to vibrate within the field of view. It is worth teaching students about exit pupil,
particularly for binoculars (primary lens diameter/magnification = exit pupil). This is the diameter of
the beam of light exiting the device. Unfortunately when we age, our eye’s entrance pupil is seldom
greater than 4 mm.

Many astronomers had their first telescopic look at the Moon, planets, and stars at a public “star
party”! Invite families to bring children to viewing sessions.

53. (a) As the field of view decreases, more detail is visible. By eye, only bright and dark areas are
visible on the Moon. In binoculars, some craters are visible. Through the 4”-diameter telescope, the
larger craters are clearly resolved and mountain ranges are visible. In the 8”-diameter telescope with
the 25-mm eyepiece, the Moon fills the view, smaller craters are visible, and fine detail like wrinkle
ridges can be seen in the lunar seas. With the 10-mm eyepiece, only part of the Moon is visible, and
even finer details can be seen. By eye, Jupiter and Saturn each appear as points of light. Through

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binoculars, Jupiter shows a small, slightly oblate, disk and the Galilean moons are visible. Saturn also
shows a small disk. In the 4”-diameter telescope with 25-mm eyepiece, Jupiter’s cloud bands become
visible and Saturn’s rings are just visible. More of Jupiter’s cloud details are visible with the 8”-
diameter telescope and 25-mm eyepiece and the rings of Saturn are clearly visible. With the 10-mm
eyepiece, Jupiter’s Great Red Spot can be seen, and the Cassini division can be seen in Saturn’s rings.
At highest magnification, the galaxy M31 fills and extends beyond the field of view. The bright
central core of the galaxy is visible as well as darker bands of dust. Individual stars are not resolved.
(b) The 25-mm eyepiece produces 80× magnification and the 10-mm eyepiece yields 200×
magnification.
(c) The ratio is 200/80 = 2.5.
(d) The 10-mm eyepiece field is 15' and the 25-mm field is 38'.
(e) This ratio is 15/38 = 0.4.
(f) The size of the field of view is inversely proportional to the magnification.

54. (a) The magnified view shows much more detail.

(b) The field of view decreases as magnification is increased.
(c) The image quality continues to improve.
(d) The image quality is largely unchanged with this further magnification.
(e) The image quality deteriorates with further magnification.
(f) Magnifying an image does not improve the resolution of the image. The limiting quality in
the case of the Starry Night image is the resolution of the image being used. Magnifying beyond this
resolution produces no increase in the clarity of detail. In a telescope, resolution, the ability to
distinguish close details, is limited by the size of the telescope’s primary mirror and atmospheric effects.

55. (a) Your answer will depend upon your local sky conditions but you might find that this limiting
magnitude is as small as +4 or even +3 under very poor conditions. (b) Again, this fraction will
depend critically upon your local conditions but this might be only a small fraction of the number of
possible stars. This observation points out the importance of trying to limit light pollution in the modern
world. It also indicates that if you want to observe faint objects such as visiting comets or meteor trails,
you need to go to a dark sky site. (c) The fraction of stars visible against the heavy light pollution of
modern cities is very small, the only stars visible at all being the very brightest.

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Collaborative Exercise
If your course is writing intensive, ask small groups of students to collaborate on a report recommending
a site for a new remotely-controlled observatory for your institution. Consider such aspects as distance
from the campus, weather, light pollution, accessibility for heavy construction equipment, and
telecommunications with campus.

56. and 57. The average student probably can span 1.5 m with arms outstretched. Dividing the mirror
circumference in meters by 1.5 m gives the approximate number of students.

Chapter 6 Optics and Telescopes Chapter 6 Optics and Telescopes