Proceedings of the 46th Annual Conference of the Soil Science Society of Nigeria (SSSN), 14 th -18th March, 2022, Ahmadu

Bello University, Zaria

AA
Use of nanotechnology for enhanced micronutrient assimilation in soil-plant systems: A review 119-124
Sharhabil Musa Yahaya; Ishaku Yo’ila Amapu; Sani Idris and Jerry Joseph

Biomass, Soil Organic Carbon accumulation and, Yield of Relayed cowpea as Influenced by Poultry Manure
and Split Nitrogen Doses in Maize Based Cropping System in Samaru 125-132
Agah, B.U., Lawal, A.B., Sharifai, A and Abdul, N

Evaluation of Poultry Manure Derived from Biochar inclusion in Poultry Litters for Soil Amendment
and Yield of Maize (Zea mays) Varieties 133-138
Ndor, E.; Usman, I. N and Jibrin, A. U

Effect of Long-Term Rotation, Nitrogen Fertilizer and Tillage on Soil Quality in the Northern
Guinea Savanna of Nigeria 139-148
N.I. Usman, A. A Yusuf and A. Abdulkadir

Soil Physical and Chemical Properties as Affected by Land Configuration and Cow Dung Manure at Minna,
Niger State, Nigeria 149-155
Eze, P. C., Musa, J. J., Mohammed, A.,Onyekwere, I. N., Ayankeye, O. E. and Adava, A. O.

Assessment of Physico-Chemical Properties of Soils in Selected Farmlands in Panhauya,

Kaduna State, Nigeria 156-166
Fatihu Ruqayyah Muhammad, Abdullahi Jibrin , S.L Ya’u, Nuraddin I. Muhammad

Effect of Irrigation Scheduling and NPK Fertilizer on Growth and Yield of Carrot (Daucus carota L.)
in Sudan Savannah of Nigeria 167-177
S. A. Pantami and I. Mohammed

Effect of Pig Manure on the Growth, Yield of Okra (Abelmoschus Esculentus L.) and
Soil Chemical Properties 178-185

Eniola, R.I; Isitekhale, H.H.E; Aboh, S.I and Izevbuwa, P

Sulphate Adsorption Capacity of Biochar Produced from Four Agricultural Wastes 186-196
Solomon, R. I., Abdu, N., Yusuf, A. A., Mukhtar, B., Musa, A. M. and Shehu, Y.

Determination of Phosphate Fractions of Soils from Southern Guinea and Sudan Savannas
Of Northern Nigeria. 197-202
Joseph Jerry, Sharhabil Musa Yahaya, Ibrahim Muhammed Mustapha, Victor Odiamehi Onokebhagbe, Sale Alhaji Lukman, Yawuck
Esther Bulus, Joseph Faith Fumibugba

Determination of Phosphorus Fractions in Soils of Ombi and Duduguru in Nasarawa State of Nigeria 203-209
Mustapha A.A, Abdulrahman, B. L, Magaji, M. J. and Sambo, A.U.

Effects of Pig Dung and Rice Mill Waste on Some Soil Properties and Okra (Abelmochus Esculentus)
Growth and Yield 210-215
Oliver Akongwubel AGBA, Monday Sunday ADIAHA

Effect of Rewardn Soil Water Trap on Growth and Yield of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench)
in Makurdi, Southern Guinea Savanna Zone of Nigeria 216-222
Ali, A., Usman, M. and Oche, J.P.

Exploring the Effect of Biochar on Soil pH (A Review) 223-228

A. M. Zubairu, A. L. Ngala, S. J. Kwari, K. Usman and M. T. Buba

Effects of Irrigation Intervals and Nitrogen Levels on Yield Parameters of Rice (oryza sativa l.)
Varieties in Dadin Kowa, Northern Nigeria 229-236
Y. Mustapha, I. Alhassan

Using QUEFTS Model for Estimating Nutrients (N, P and K) Requirements of Irrigated Upland Rice
(Oryza Sativa L.) in the Sudan Savanna of Nigeria 237-243

x
 Fatihu et al. SSSN 46 2022 (156-166)

Colloquia Series Available Online at www.sssn.ng Colloquia SSSN 46 (2022)

Proceedings of the 46th Conference of Soil Science Society of Nigeria; Sustaining Living Soil Ecosystem through Adoption of
Soil Management Practices for Mitigating Climate Change for National Development

Assessment of physico-chemical properties of soils in selected farmlands in Panhauya, Kaduna State, Nigeria

Fatihu R. M.1, Abdullahi J. 1, S.L Ya’u2, Nuraddin I. M.¹

1
Department of Geography and Environmental Management, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria
2
Department of Soil Science, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria

Abstract
The worldwide depletion of soil resources continues to be a serious hazard particularly in the least developing countries where
agriculture is the main pillar of their economy. The knowledge of the physico-chemical conditions of any soil is crucial for proper
implementation of management practices to achieve sustainability. The study area is located in the Northern Guinea Savannah of
Nigeria and also been an agrarian community lacks an up to date data on the soil physico-chemical conditions needed to preserve the
soil on a sustainable basis there by achieving maximum productivity. The physico-chemical properties of soils were assessed in three
selected farmlands for rice, maize and tomato cultivation in Panhauya, Giwa Local Government Area of Kaduna State. A reconnaissance
survey was carried out, sample points were identified and coordinates of the farmlands were captured. Stratified Grid Sampling
technique was adopted. For each of the three farmlands, an area (of 3 hectares) was identified and divided into 12-unit grids (of 0.25
hectares). In each of the grids, soil samples were collected at the top soil (0-15 cm), sub-soil (15-30 cm), and center (core samples)
making a total of 54 bulked samples with 12 core samples per farmland to achieve 162 samples, respectively. The means results of the
physico-chemical analyses of the three farmlands were in the ranges of: pH (6.65-6.31), bulk density (1.32-1.30 Mgmˉ³), gravimetric
moisture content (2.08-2.10%), ESP (3.90-3.78%), % OC(0.23-0.14 gkgˉ¹) OM (0.40-0.25 gkgˉ¹), % TN (0.03-0.02 gkgˉ¹), Available
Phosphorus (7.78-3.57 mgkgˉ¹),Ca (3.78-2.79 cmolkgˉ¹), Mg (1.01-0.79 cmolkgˉ¹), Na (0.22-0.17 cmolkgˉ¹), K (0.20-0.14
cmolkgˉ¹),CEC (5.73-4.39 cmolkgˉ¹), BS (91.75-87.83%), % Sand (505.40-435.24 gkgˉ¹),% Silt (287.30-346.98 gkgˉ¹), % Clay
(207.46-217.78 gkgˉ¹). The texture was predominantly sandy loam with a few areas of sandy clay loam. Bulk density was higher at the
top soil than the sub-soil due to decrease in OM with depth. The silt to clay ratio indicated that weathering was more vigorous in the
top soil than the sub-soils. Chemical properties of the soils indicate a slightly acidic to neutral pH, medium exchangeable bases (Ca,
Mg, Na, K), low Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC-NH4OAc) and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) with high base saturation
respectively. The soils were medium to low in organic matter and total nitrogen content. Hence, it is concluded that the fertility of the
soils cannot sustain crop production on a long-term basis under continuous cultivation since the soils are poorly drained and sandy loam
in texture. Therefore, application of organic residues and mulches will help improve soil aeration, increase nutrient capacities, structural
development, drainage and reduce leaching which will go a long way in aiding recovery of the degraded soils.

Keywords: Assessment; chemical properties; physical properties; selected farmlands; soil

*Corresponding author email: ruqfatihu@gmail.com

©2022 SSSN All Rights Reserved
Peer-review under responsibility of 46th SSSN Conference LoC2022.

1.0 Introduction qualities which manifests in reduced yields, is permanent

Soil is a vital resource for the future of humanity and it
needs to be protected and enhanced. Instead, more than half
(52%) of all fertile, food-producing soils globally are now
classified as degraded, and many of them severely degraded
(UNCCD, 2015). A soil is said to be degraded if the loss of basic
156
(Mbagwu, 2003). Soil degradation is one of this generation's
most serious global environmental issues (Adnan et al., 2015;
Antonio, 2016; Meseret, 2016). Even while the degree of
degradation varies from location to location, it affects people all

across the world (Pimentel and Burgess, 2013; Raiesi, 2017;
Vanwalleghem et al., 2017; Ouyang et al., 2018).
Considering the rapidly increased population and animal
production all over the world, the demand for improved
agriculture is necessary to meet the consumption needs of the
population. It is therefore in search of high productivity in yield,
that soil fertility is fundamental and must come to play. Soil
fertility is crucial and must be considered in the pursuit of high
yield productivity. Because soil fertility is an important factor
in promoting food security and environmental sustainability in
farming systems, an integrated soil fertility management
strategy that promotes crop yield while limiting soil nutrient
extraction is required (Corbeels et al., 2000).
Soil fertility declination is considered as an important cause for
low productivity of many soils (Sanchez, 2002). It has not
received the same amount of research attention as soil erosion;
probably because as soil fertility decline is less visible and less
spectacular, and more difficult to assess. Assessing soil fertility
declination is difficult because most soil chemical properties
either change very slowly or have large seasonal fluctuations.
This decline includes; nutrient depletion, nutrient mining,
acidification (decline in pH and an increase in exchangeable
Al), loss of organic matter and increase in toxic elements (e.g.,
Al, Mn) (Hartemink, 2016).
Maintaining soil health/quality is indispensable for sustaining
the agricultural productivity at higher level. Soil quality
includes three groups of mutually interactive attributes (i.e.,
Soil physical, chemical and biological quality, which must be
restored at its optimum to sustain productivity (Kumar et al.,
2012).
Panhauya, a village in Giwa Local Government Area of the
Northern Guinea Savanna, is no exception to this sequence of
soil degradation which is evident in the lowland farms as water
logging, mottling on soil surface and wilting of cereal crops like
rice (Oryza sativa) and vegetables like tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum) were observed showing the evidence of poor
drainage. In relatively flat surfaces where crops like maize (Zea
mays) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) are grown, soil
compaction and cracks were identified. These and many other
soil degradation indicators, which might not be visually
identified but with a standard laboratory analysis for accurate
diagnosis, are a threat to food security and environmental
sustainability. Also, continuous cultivation of the agricultural
lands due to increasing population will definitely affect nutrient
holding capacity as well as crop yield. This is done with little or
no consideration for the demand of specialized use and
management of the lands to ensure sustainability. All these
problems have prompted this study in order to tackle and come
up with measures to address soil degradation in the area.
2.0 Materials and Method
2.1 Description of the study area
Panhauya is a settlement located in Giwa Local Government
Area. It is located between latitude 11°7'17"N to 11°7'19"N of
157
Fatihu et al. SSSN 46 2022 (156-166)
the equator and longitudes 7°37'29"E to 7°37'32"E of the
Greenwich Meridian with an elevation of 686 meters above sea
level. It has boundry in the North with Kankangi village, in the
West by Giwa town, in the South East by Tankarau and in the
South by Kwaba Village (Figure 1). Panhauya lies within a
region which has a tropical Savannah climate type with distinct
wet and dry season (Abaje, et al., 2012). It is characterized by
long dry season from November through April, while the mono-
modal wet season fall between May and September. It has a
mean annual rainfall from 1968 to 2017 of 1016 mm. The
relative humidity during dry season is about 15% and reaches
up to 60% during the rainy season (Hore, 1970 and IAR
Meteorological Unit, 2018). From the Climate pattern of the
study area above, it means that humidity pattern indirectly
influences soil development processes in the area.
The soils of the area are classified as leached ferruginous
tropical soils developed on weathered regolith overlain by a thin
deposit of wind-blown silt from the Sahara Desert during many
decades of propagation of the tropical continental air mass into
the area (Wright and McCurry,1970). Most of the soils have a
sandy loam texture (Jaiyeoba, 1995). Leaching of clay materials
and ions down the soil profiles is a major soil development
process. The soil exhibits a marked horizon differentiation with
iron oxide deposits in the clay-rich B-horizon, underlying the
A-horizon in forms of mottles, concretions or ferruginous hard
pans called duricrusts (Klinkenberg, 1970). The top soil is
rather coarse due to eluviations of the fines of the A-horizon
(Jaiyeoba and Ologe, 1990). Geologically, the study area is
underlain by Precambrian basement rocks which comprise of
older granite, gneisses and low-grade meta-sediment. The
Precambrian basement complexes which are the oldest rocks in
Nigeria are rich in high grade meta-sediments of mainly
quartzites (forming ridges) containing schist and phyllites
(Russ, 1977).
2.2 Soil Sampling, Collection and Preparation
For the purpose of this study, three farmlands were selected for
rice (Oryza sativa), maize (Zea mays) and tomato (Solanum
lycopersicum), been the major crops grown in the area and thus,
having different nutrient requirements due to variation in slopes
and areas grown. Stratified Grid Sampling technique was
adopted on each of the farmlands. An area of 3 hectares was
identified and divided into 12 units-grid of 0.25 hectares each.
In each of the 0.25-hectares area, soil samples were augered
using grid survey approach at 50 m equidistance points.
Twenty-one (21) bulk soil samples each were collected 0-15 cm
and 15-30 cm representing the top and subsoil respectively.
Additional twelve (12) core samples were collected at the centre
of each grid making 54 soil samples for each of the three
farmlands. This was conducted for each of the 3-hectare
farmlands to give a total of one hundred and sixty-two (162)
samples. The collected soil samples were stored in clean
polythene bags and labelled accordingly before proceeding to
the laboratory for the physico-chemical analysis.

2.3 Reconnaissance Survey
A reconnaissance survey was carried out by the researcher for
two days in order to get acquainted with the study area by
acquiring relevant data on the environment, identifying the
sampling points and the method of data collection (Author’s
Compilation, 2020).
2.4 Preparation of Soil Samples and Laboratory Analysis
The collected soils were air-dried in the laboratory, crushed
with porcelain pestle and mortar, and sieved to remove material
greater than 2 mm (gravel). The sieved soil sample was used to
carry out laboratory analysis using standard procedure for the
various physico-chemical properties as shown in (Table 1)
below. In some chemical analysis like Soil Organic Carbon
(SOC), 0.5 mm or 0.15 mm sieved soils are usually
recommended because vast reactive surfaces in soils are found
in fractions of soil samples (less than 2 mm), though no
statistical significant difference is observed with 2 mm mesh
(Manoj, 2014).
2.5 Data analysis
The data obtained from the laboratory was subjected to
descriptive statistics using Statistical Package for Social
Sciences version 23 (SPSS v 23). Data was analysed using
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Correlation as the main
analytical tool. The means were separated using least significant
difference (LSD) at 0.05 level of significance.
3.0 Results and Discussion
This chapter presents results and discussions of the findings
obtained from laboratory analysis of soil sample to ascertain the
physico-chemical properties of the soils. All data are analysed
based on 95% confidence level i.e. α = 0.05 level of
significance; values less than 0.05 are considered statistically
significant while values that are greater than 0.05 are considered
not statistically significant. The result in (Tables 2 and 3)
outline the physico-chemical parameters of soil samples
obtained from laboratory analysis using ANOVA in the
farmlands while (Table 4) indicates the correlation analysis for
the various farmlands. The ranking of the means is shown
within the sites and between surface and sub-surface soils in the
various farmlands.
3.1 Physical Properties of the Soil
The parameters considered under soil physical properties
include Particle Size Distribution, Bulk Density (BD),
Gravimetric Moisture Content (GMC) and Porosity. The results
are presented across the various farmlands and means of top and
sub-soils respectively as shown in (Table 2).
3.1.1 Particle size distribution
Sand particles dominated the particle size distribution, followed
by silt, then clay across the three farmlands. This dominance is
attributed to the parent material from which these soils were
formed which is basement complex. Different findings from
Malgwi (1979), Esu et al. (1987), Maniyunda (1999), Malgwi
et al., (2000), Odunze (2006), Fasina et al., (2007), Mustapha
and Fagam (2007); Voncir et al., (2008), Obi and Akinbola
158
Fatihu et al. SSSN 46 2022 (156-166)
(2009), Ande (2010), Senjobi and Ogunkunle (2011) and
Maniyunda (2012) confirms this assertion.
The result from (Table 2) also shows that sand particles increase
in order of farmland (A =576.19 gkg -1 >B =418.57 gkg-1 > C
=416.19 gkg-1 respectively), and sand fractions from the top soil
(505.40 gkg-1) is greater than at the sub-soil (435.24 gkg-1) for
the different soil layers which is in agreement with the findings
of several authors like Malgwi (1979), Esu et al., (1987),
Maniyunda (1999), Malgwi et al., (2000), Odunze (2006),
Mustapha and Fagam (2007); Fasina et al., (2007a), Voncir et
al. (2008), Obi and Akinbola (2009), Ande (2010), Senjobi and
Ogunkunle (2011) and Maniyunda (2012). Texturally, the
studied soils were said to be Sandy loam. There was no
significant (P=>0.05) difference between means of sand particle
contents amongst the various farmlands in the study area. This
may be attributed to wash down of medium to fine particles
from the top soil to the sub-soil (Mortimore, 1989; Lawal et al.,
2013; Maniyunda and Gwari, 2014). Also, the high sand content
is a good indication of the observable high infiltration rate and
low water holding capacity of the soils, thereby resulting into
moisture stress as reported by Fagbami and Udoh (1982) and
Senjobi (2007). In addition to the above, this scenario
encourages rapid leaching of nutrients from the soils beyond the
rooting zones of the planted crops – a situation that threatens
increase in food productivity and food security.
3.1.2 Bulk Density
The bulk densities for the different farmlands in (Table 2) above
shows farmland (C = 1.36a >A =1.31b >B =1.30b) respectively.
The ranking of means for the soil shows the top soil (1.32 Mgm-
3
) to be higher than the sub-soil (1.30 Mgm-3) respectively, that
is bulk density decreases with depth. Similarly, there was a
significant (P=≥0.05) difference amongst the bulk densities of
soils across the various farmlands studied but no significant
difference across the different soil layers.
Bulk density values of the top soil were observed to be higher
than the sub-soil, and no significant (P=0.05) difference noted.
Higher bulk density values of the top soil might likely be
attributed to soil compaction, less aggregation and less root
penetration compared to surface layers, therefore contain less
pore spaces (Gholami et al., 2014). Also, low bulk density
values of sub soil might likely be attributed to effect of soil
organic matter in the top soils. Soil organic matter is lighter than
soil minerals and it increases soil porosity, thereby reducing
bulk density (Hilel, 1980 and Ali et al., 2010).
3.1.4 Gravimetric Moisture Content (GMC)
Gravimetric Moisture Content (GMC) means of the different
farmlands was (C =2.33% >A =2.08% >B =2.01%)
respectively. The means for the different layers of the top soils
is (2.08%) and (2.10%) at the sub-soil and no significant
difference was observed (P=0.05) at the sub-soil meaning there
is a slight increase in GMC with depth. The water holding
capacity of the soils increases with increase in the clay content
of the soils, this will in turns decrease the water holding capacity
 Fatihu et al. SSSN 46 2022 (156-166)

of the soils as such enhancing erodibility of the soil on exposure

through cultivation.

Fig. 1: Map of Giwa LGA Showing the Study Area.

Source: GIS Laboratory Department of Geography and Environmental Management A.B.U. Zaria.

159
 Fatihu et al. SSSN 46 2022 (156-166)

Table 1: Standard Procedures for Laboratory Analysis

S/N Analysis Method
1 Bulk Density Undisturbed soil sample (Blake and Hartge, 1986).
2 Soil Moisture Pressure plate (-33, & -1500 kPa suction) (Klute, 1986)
3 Soil Porosity Calculation (Danielson and Sutherland, 1986)
4 Particle Size Analysis Bouyoucos hydrometer method (Gee and Or, 2002).
5 Soil Reaction (pH) In both water and 0.01 M CaCl2 solution
6 Exchange Acidity Titration (Thomas, 1982).
7 CEC NH4OAc saturation method (Rhoades, 1982).
8 Electrical Conductivity (ECe) Wheatstone Bridge. 1: 2.5 soil/water ratio
9 Exchangeable Bases NH4OAc saturation method at pH 7.0 (Thomas, 1983).
10 Organic Carbon Walkey Black Method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982).
11 Total Nitrogen (T.N) Kjeldahl technique (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982).
12 Avail. Phosphorus (AP) Bray-1 extraction method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945).
13 Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) Calculation (Agbenin, 1995).
15 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) Calculation

Table 2: Soil Physical Properties for Different Farmlands

Parameters Site A Site B Site C SE (±) LOS Top soil Sub-soil SE (±) LOS
Sand (gkgˉ¹) 576.19 418.57 416.19 12.07 NS 505.40 435.24 12.07 NS
Silt (gkgˉ¹) 249.05 370.00 332.38 10.16 NS 287.30 346.98 10.16 NS
Sandy Clay (gkgˉ¹) 174.76 211.43 251.67 6.82 NS 207.46b 217.78a 6.82 *
Ρb (Mgm-3) 1.31b 1.30b 1.36a 0.02 * 1.32 1.30 0.02 NS
ϴg (%) 2.08 2.01 2.33 0.06 NS 2.08 2.10 0.06 NS
Porosity (%) 38.08 37.33 38.33 0.20 NS 37.08a 35.33b 0.20 *
ρb = bulk density, ϴg = gravimetric moisture content, SE=Standard Error, LOS (P) = level of significance: NS >0.05, *≤0.05%, **≤0.01: Note: Means followed by the
same letters in the rows are not significantly different at 5% LOS.

3.1.5 Soil Porosity
The means of top soils had porosity value of (37.08) and (35.33)
for the sub-soil that is porosity of the soils decreased with
increase in depth. The increase in trend in the different
farmlands was C (38.33)>A (38.08) >B (37.33). The values for
porosity were similar to those reported by Malgwi et al., (2000)
and Maniyunda (2012). There was no significant difference in
mean values of porosity between various farmlands. Therefore,
addition of organic matter as a management option will improve
porosity of the soils. The top soils were observed to have higher
total porosity values compared to subsoils, and a significance
difference was observed at (P=≥0.05). This is similar to the
findings of Malgwi et al., (2000), Idoga et al., (2007),
Maniyunda (2012). The surface values tend to support free
water movement, good aeration and ease of root penetration due
to higher Organic Matter content (Malgwi et al., 2000).
3.2 Chemical Properties of the Soil
The soil chemical properties considered were Soil Reaction
(pH), Organic Carbon (OC), Organic Matter (OM), Nitrogen
(N), Available Phosphorus (AP), Exchangeable Bases,
Exchange Acidity (EA), Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC),
Electrical Conductivity, Base Saturation, Exchangeable Sodium
Percentage (ESP) and Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR). The
results are presented across the various farmlands and between
the top and sub-soils respectively as shown in (Table 3). The
interpretation of the results was based on rating for soil data by
FAO (2004) and Malgwi (2007) ratings in (Appendix I) also the
160
correlation matrix of the soil chemical properties is presented in
(Table 4).
3.2.1 Soil pH
The mean pH (0.01M CaCl₂) of the soils for the different
farmlands ranged between 6.25,6.35 and 6.85 for farmlands A,
B and C respectively. Their corresponding means for the top
and sub-soil were (6.65) and (6.31) respectively. There were no
significant differences in the pH means of the various
farmlands. The results show that soils of farmlands A and B
were slightly acidic, while C soils was neutral respectively. This
indicates that the soils generally are of low pH, the low pH of
these soils could indicate leaching of bases out of the soils as
reported from findings of Kparmwang (1993) and Raji (1995).
Raji and Mohammed (2000) submitted that the Northern Guinea
Savanna has the highest total potential acidity (mean 5.67 cmol
(+) kg-1) in comparison to other savannah ecological zones.
This implies a need to avoid use of acidifying fertilizer on the
soils on define these terms as it may render nutrients unavailable
for crops utilization.
The top soils had higher mean pH than surface horizons, which
is attributed to the buffering anti-acidification effect of organic
matter through biogenetic cycling of bases soils (Jones and
Wild, 1975; Mosugu, 1989). Since pH (in H20) was higher than
pH (in 0.01M CaCl₂), delta pH value (ΔpH) [pH (CaCl2) – pH
(H2O)] were negative in all cases. This indicates that the soils
had net negative charge on their colloids (Uehara and Gillman,
1981; Kparmwang, 1993). Similar findings were also reported
 Fatihu et al. SSSN 46 2022 (156-166)

by workers on Savanna soils (Raji, 1995; Maniyunda, 1999; respectively. The generally low OC content of these soils might
Yaro, 2005; Law-Ogbomo and Nwachokor, 2010). Uehera and be due to continuous A>C>B (0.21-0.37> 0.20-0.34> 0.15-0.26
Gillman (1981) reported that a positive, zero or small negative gkgˉ¹) respectively cultivation without fallow, bush burning,
delta pH value (< -0.5) generally indicates a soil dominated by high rate of mineralization due to high temperature and crop
variable charge minerals and for the soils under study they had removal for livestock feeding, fuel wood, fencing and building
delta pH values greater than -0.5. Therefore, majority of the purposes (Jones and Wild, 1975; Esu et al., 1987; Bownan et
soils are believed to contain significant amounts of independent al., 1990; Raji et al., 1996; Odunze, 1998; Maniyunda, 2012).
charge minerals or 2:1 clays. There is a negative correlation (r There was no significant difference in the means of OC and OM
= -0.805) at 0.05 level of significance between pH and for all the farmlands, also for the different layers (top and sub-
Exchange Acidity (EA) (Table 4). soil) but a significant (P=≥0.05) difference was found for OM
across the different layers. The decrease in organic carbon and
3.2.2 Organic Carbon (OC) organic matter with depth from top to sub-soil was reported by
The mean Organic carbon (OC) and Organic Matter (OM) in several earlier workers who attributed the trend to high organic
the different sites shows A>C>B (0.21-0.37> 0.20-0.34> 0.15- matter accumulation and microbial activity on the surface soils
0.26 gkgˉ¹) respectively. The corresponding top soil ranged (Mortland, 1970; Ogunwale, 1973; Raji and Mohammed, 2000;
from (0.23-0.40 gkgˉ¹) while the sub-surface ranged from Hussaini, 2011; Maniyunda, 2012; Aliyu, 2016).
(0.14-0.25 gkgˉ¹) respectively. These values were rated low for
all the three farmlands A, B and C, also for the top and sub-soils
Table 3: Soil Chemical Properties for Different Farmlands
Sub SE
Parameters Site A SiteB SiteC SE (±) LOS Top soil soil (±) LOS
pH water 7.00 7.10 7.63 0.06 NS 7.41 7.09 0.06 NS
pH CaCl2 6.25 6.35 6.85 0.06 NS 6.65 6.31 0.06 NS
O.C. (g kg-1) 0.21 0.15 0.20 0.01 NS 0.23 0.14 0.01 NS
O.M. (g kg-1) 0.37 0.26 0.34 0.02 NS 0.40a 0.25b 0.02 *
N (g kg-1) 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.00 NS 0.03a 0.02b 0.00 *
P (mg kg-1) 6.94 6.87 3.21 0.38 NS 7.78 3.57 0.38 NS
Ca (cmolkg-1) 3.69 3.40 2.75 0.09 NS 3.78 2.79 0.09 NS
Mg(cmolkg-1) 1.00 0.92 0.76 0.02 NS 1.01 0.79 0.02 NS
Na(cmolkg-1) 0.18b 0.22a 0.18b 0.01 * 0.22 0.17 0.01 NS
K(cmolkg-1) 0.16 0.21 0.14 0.01 NS 0.20 0.14 0.01 NS
E.A. (kg-1) 0.58 0.52 0.40 0.02 NS 0.46 0.54 0.02 NS
ECEC (kg-1) 5.67 5.25 4.24 0.12 NS 5.73a 4.39b 0.12 *
EC (kg-1) 0.09b 0.09b 0.10a 0.00 * 0.11 0.08 0.00 NS
ESP (%) 3.07 4.16 4.29 0.15 NS 3.90 3.78 0.15 NS
SAR (%) 0.12 0.15 0.15 0.01 NS 0.15a 0.13b 0.01 *
BS (%) 89.34b 89.73b 90.31a 0.35 * 91.75 87.83 0.35 NS
OC = organic carbon, OM = organic matter OM =OC˟1.72, EA = exchange acidity, ECEC = effective cation exchange capacity, EC = electrical conductivity, ESP =
exchange sodium potential, SAR = sodium absorption ratio, BS = base saturation. LOS (P) = level of significance: NS >0.05, *≤0.05%, **≤0.01, SE=Standard Error;
Note: Means followed by the same letters in the rows are not significantly different at 5% LOS.

3.2.3 Nitrogen in depth. This may be attributed to contribution by organic

The mean Nitrogen (N) content for top soils and sub-soils were
found to be (0.03 and 0.02 gkgˉ¹) respectively, while the means
across the different farmlands ranged from 0.03, 0.04 and 0.02
respectively. These values were rated low (<1.5 gkg-¹) in all the
soils, both in the top and sub-soil. Nitrogen is mobile in soils,
as a result its losses through various mechanism like NH 3
volatilization, succeeding denitrification, chemical and
microbial fixation, leaching and runoff results in
residual/available N becomes poor in soils (Kumar et al., 2014).
Another factor which may have had an effect on the N content
of the soils could be influence of continuous cultivation, a
common practice that is accompanied by crop residue removal
(Noma et al., 2011). Earlier workers in the savanna have
reported low N in the region (Hussaini, 2011; Maniyunda, 2012;
Sharu et al., 2013; Maniyunda et al., 2014; Jimoh, 2015). There
was a significance (P=≥0.05) difference between top and sub-
soil contents of N. Nitrogen was also noted to be higher in the
surface horizon and decreased through the profile with increase
matter and nitrogen fertilizer application (Maniyunda, 2012).
Similar trend was reported by (Ezenwa and Esu, 1999).
3.2.4 Available Phosphorus (AP)
The mean Available Phosphorus (AP) content for the different
farmlands varied from (6.94, 6.87 and 3.21 mg kg -1) for
farmlands A, B and C respectively. The corresponding top and
sub- soil horizons had values ranging from (7.78 and 3.57 mg
kgˉ¹) respectively. The values were rated low for all the three
farmlands (A, B and C) so also, the top and sub-soil
respectively. There was no significant difference between mean
values of the soils on the different horizons and across the
farmlands. This indicated presence of phosphorus in soils, as
earlier asserted by Brady and Weil (2016). The highest available
P content was found on the surface soils. Hence, available P
content may be more affected by other anthropogenic influences
such as addition of phosphorus fertilizers to soils. There is a
strong negative correlation between Available P and pH (r = -

161

0.092 and -0.020) which is not significant”. Similarly, with
increase in soil pH by one-unit, available P decreases and vice
versa.
3.2.4 Exchangeable bases
The exchangeable bases were Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+.
Exchangeable calcium (Ca) dominated exchange sites,
occupying about 60% of total exchangeable bases. “The
dominance of Ca on the exchange sites was reported by other
works in Nigerian savanna soil (Esu, 1987; Kparmwang, 1993;
Raji, 1995; Maniyunda, 2012). Exchangeable calcium values
ranged between (3.69, 3.40 and 2.75 cmol (+) kgˉ¹) for
farmlands A, B and C respectively. Their corresponding top and
sub-soil layers ranged from (3.78 and 2.79 cmol (+) kgˉ¹)
respectively. The values for exchangeable calcium was rated
medium for all three farmlands A, B and C respectively”.
Exchangeable calcium tends to increase from top to sub-soil
layers in the soils studied, and may be attributed to ease of
mobility of the cation. There is a positive correlation (r =
+0.943) between exchangeable Ca and Mg at 0.001 level of
significance.
Exchangeable magnesium (Mg) was next to calcium in
abundance. Its values in the three farmlands varied between
(1.00, 0.92 and 0.76 cmol (+) kg-1) for farmlands A, B and C
respectively. Their corresponding top and sub-soils had values
ranging from (1.01 to 0.79 cmol (+) kg-1) respectively. The
values were rated medium for all the three farmlands (A, B and
C) and there was no significant difference on the Mg content in
the different farmlands as well as different horizons.
Exchangeable sodium (Na) was found to vary (0.18, 0.22 and
0.18 cmol (+) kg-1) for farmlands A, B and C respectively. The
corresponding top and sub-soils had exchangeable K ranging
from (0.22 and 0.17 cmol (+) kg-1) respectively. These values
were rated medium for all the three farmlands (A, B and C). For
the surface soils and sub-surface soils also, the values were
rated medium. There was no significant difference in the means
for the different soil layers (top and sub-soil) but a significant
difference was found across the various farmlands.
Exchangeable potassium (K) content varied between (0.16, 0.21
and 0.14 cmol (+) kg-1) for the three farmlands A, B and C
respectively. The corresponding surface and sub-surface soils
had values ranging from (0.20 and 0.14 cmol (+) kg-1)
respectively. These values, which were lower than those
reported by Maniyunda (2012) were rated medium for
farmlands A, B and C respectively. There was no significant
difference in K content across the various farmlands and
horizons respectively. Slope positions and horizons had no
significant effect on the K content.
Exchangeable bases were observed to occur in the order Ca >
Mg > Na > K and this corroborates earlier reports on soils of the
Nigerian Savannah (Kparmwang and Esu, 1990; Raji, 1995;
Hussaini, 2011).
3.2.5 Exchange acidity (H+ + Al3+)
The mean exchange acidity (EA) of the soils in the three
farmlands were (0.58, 0.52 and 0.40 cmol (+) kg-1) for A, B and
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Fatihu et al. SSSN 46 2022 (156-166)
C respectively. Their corresponding top and sub-soil layers had
a mean EA value of (0.46 and 0.54 cmol (+) kg-1) respectively.
These values are higher than those reported by Maniyunda
(2012), Jimoh (2015), and Aliyu (2016) who worked on
Savanna soils. Idoga et al., (2005) however reported similar
exchange acidity values for soils in Benue. There was no
significant difference in EA across the different farmlands as
well between the soil layers. It was noticed that the mean EA
decreased from top to sub-soil. Percent Al³⁺ saturation value >
30 % may affect sensitive crops, while over 60% could bring
about Al toxicity. Chapman (1965) reported absolute levels of
2-3 cmol kgˉ¹ exchangeable Al³⁺ as excessive for some crops
while, Amberger (2006) indicated that a concentration of Al³⁺
ion >1 cmol kgˉ¹ in the soil solution could lead to Al³⁺ toxicity.
The value of exchangeable Al³⁺ obtained for this study could
result to Al³⁺ toxicity to crop. Similarly, exchangeable H⁺
concentration in the surface soil where plant root usually
concentrate in the four locations could be detrimental to crop
growth through impacts on internal metabolism of the plant as
a consequence of nutrient toxicities resulting in smaller, less
durable roots. Therefore, a general impact on plant health is
observed, resulting in reduced yield and lower plant density
(Horne et al., 2010).
3.2.6 Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) of the soils for the different
farmlands A, B, and C was found to be (5.67, 5.25 and 4.24
cmol (+) kgˉ¹) respectively. The corresponding top and sub-soil
layers of the respective farmlands had CEC values ranging from
(4.39 and 5.73 cmol (+) kgˉ¹). These values were rated medium
for all the three farmlands (A, B and C) and also for the means
of the top and sub-soil layers. There was no significance
difference in the CEC of the various farmlands, but a
significance difference was found between the soil layers.
However, mean CEC is seen to decrease from top to sub-soil
(Table 3) in accordance with the OC content. The decrease in
CEC with depth could be due to the strong association between
Organic Matter and CEC. The value of (15-20 cmol kgˉ¹) is
stipulated as indicative moderate values in the top 0-15 cm of
soils for satisfactory production under rainfed (Landon, 1991).
The values obtained for this study were below these critical
limits. The low CEC may be attributed to low organic matter
content that characterized the area.
3.2.7 Soil Salinity
The Electrical Conductivity (ECe, in 1:2.5 soil/water ratio) of
the soil is a good indicator of the degree of salinity of the soil.
The electrical conductivity (ECe) of the studied soils for the
different farmlands ranged between (0.09, 0.09b and 0.10a
dSmˉ¹) for A, B and C respectively. The corresponding top and
sub-soil layers of the respective farmlands had EC values
ranging from (0.11 and 0.08 dSmˉ¹). There was no significance
difference in the EC across the different layers but a significant
(P=≥0.05) difference was seen in the various farmlands. The
values which were similar to those reported by Malgwi (2001),
Maniyunda, and Gwari (2014), and Aliyu (2016) on soils of
Savannah region, were all below the critical limits of 4 dSmˉ¹

which defined a saline soil (FAO, 1993). In other words, all
soils in the study area were non-saline in nature. The low value
of ECe in the study area might be due to the combine effect of
pH, total dissolved solid and parent material. Generally, the ECe
decreased with increasing soil depth. The surface soils had
significantly higher (P<0.01) EC values than subsurface soils.
Higher mean ECe value in surface horizons may be due to
accumulation of salts brought to the surface by capillary
movement of water and subsequent deposition (Malgwi, 2001).
3.2.8 Soil Sodicity
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) is a good indicator of
soil sodicity spell. The ESP for soils in the various farmlands
ranged from (3.07, 4.16 and 4.29) percent for farmlands A, B
and C respectively. The corresponding top and sub-soils ranged
from (3.90 and 3.78) percent respectively. These values were
lower than the critical value for sodicity (>15%). This meant
that the studied soils had no sodicity hazards (Brady and Weil,
2002). The ESP values were noticed to reduce with increased
pedal depth. There was no significant difference in the mean
ESP values across the various farmlands and between the
horizons in the studied area. Sodium affected soils exhibit
structural problems such as crusting and waterlogging due to
poor infiltration (Naidu and Rangasamy, 1993).
3.2.9 Base Saturation Percentage (BSP)
Base saturation (NH4OAc) range for the various farmlands were
(89.34, 89.73 and 90.31) percent for farmlands A, B and C
respectively. The corresponding surface and sub-surface
horizons were found to (91.75 and 87.83) percent. These values
were rated high for all the three farmlands A, B and C
respectively. While for the top and sub-soils, BSP was rated
high too. The high BSP for these soils indicate that the soils are
being highly leached off their exchangeable bases. There was
significant difference in the BS across the various farmlands.
This was attributed to the downward leaching of exchangeable
bases down the profile. But no significant difference was found
in the BS between the horizons. A significant positive
correlation (r = 0.608) at (P= 0.05) level of significance was
seen between BSP and pH and this has been reported in many
studies (Li, 1991; Zhang et al., 2003; Klose and Makeschin,
2005; Mao et al., 2005; Li et al., 2012).
4.0 Conclusion
Physical properties of the soils for the farmlands in terms of
texture indicates that sand particles dominated the particle size
distribution, followed by silt then clay from surface down to the
sub-surface layers. This reflects the nature of the parent material
from which the soils were developed and the drainage pattern
of the area. Sandiness of the soils suggest low CEC, high
infiltration rate and observable low moisture content which may
result to moisture stress, and this scenario encourages rapid
leaching of nutrient from the soils beyond the rooting zones of
the planted crops - a critical situation that threatens food
security. All soils from the farmlands had higher clay content in
the sub-soil layers, this was attributed to illuviation of clay.
Bulk density was found to decrease down the soil layers which
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Fatihu et al. SSSN 46 2022 (156-166)
is attributed to high OM content at the top than the sub-soil
layers.
Chemical properties of the soils indicate slightly alkaline to
neutral pH, medium to low Exchangeable Bases (Ca, Mg, Na,
K), and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC - NH4OAc) with high
base saturation respectively. The soils were medium to low in
Organic Carbon and low in Total Nitrogen contents. The low
content of nutrients in these soils were attributed to continuous
cultivation without residue incorporation, high rate of
mineralization which are all indication of high infiltration rate
and low water holding capacity of the soil.
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