ISSN : 0021-3721 JNKVV

Volume : 49 Research Journal

Number(2) : 2015 (May - August, 2015)

Volume 49 Number 2 2015

Contents

Research Paper

Crop residue management with conservation agriculture for sustaining natural resources 125-136
T.N.Thorat, K.K. Agrawal, M.L.Kewat, Girish Jha and Sandip Silawat

Assisted reproductive technology: Advances and applications in veterinary sciences 137-141

Dharmendra Kumar, Rakesh Ranjan, Amit Kumar, S.N.S Parmar and Bikash Chandra Sarkhel

Impact of soil testing analysis in Madhya Pradesh 142-149

H.O. Sharma, P.K. Mishra and R.S. Chouhan

Evaluation of molecular polymorphism among rice bean (Vigna umbellata) genotypes 150-153
Aparna Pandey, Sharad Tiwari, A.K. Mehta and Niraj Tripathi

Bioethanol production from waste potato using co-culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae 154-159
and Zymomonas mobilis
Yogesh Sudam Patil, L.P.S. Rajput, Yogendra Singh and Keerti Tantwai

Estimation of genetic variability for grain yield and its attributes in aromatic rice genotypes 160-164
under conditions of Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh
Neha Sohgaura, G.K. Koutu, D.K. Mishra, S.K. Singh and Arpita Shrivasatava

Influence of organic, chemical and integrated nutrient management on biochemical 165-169

parameters of Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk)
Nisha Singh Keer, S.K. Dwivedi, Anubha Upadhyay, Preeti Sagar Nayak and R.K.Samaiya

Effect of organic manures, micronutrients and chemical fertilizers on growth and yield of Niger 170-174
B.S. Solanki, M.R. Deshmukh, V.K. Katara and Alok Jyotishi

Use of biofertilizers, organic manures and inorganic fertilizers for autumn sown niger 175-177
yield maximization
R.R. Badole, M.R. Deshmukh, B.S. Solanki, V.K. Katara and Alok Jyotishi

Effect of dates of sowing on chickpea production and productivity in rainfed rice fallow 178-179
land in Madhya Pradesh
M.G. Usmani, S.K. Singh, R.K. Tiwari and S.K. Rao

Genetic divergence analysis in urdbean genotypes of India 180-184

Rajmohan Sharma

Effect of nitrogen scheduling and dosages on aerobic rice 185-188

Anjir Pandey, R.K. Tiwari, S.K. Tripathi, I.M. Khan and S. Singh

Computation of thermal indices for soybean in Madhya Pradesh 189-192

H.K. Rai, Arpit Suryawanshi and D.D. Dangi
Effect of micronutrients and biofertilizer application on growth and yield contributing 193-199
characters in onion
Pratibha Singh, S.K. Sengupta, P.K. Jain and B.K. Verma

Effect of micronutrient complex and biofertilizer application on growth and yield in 200-204
onion (Allium cepa L.)
Pratibha Singh, S.K. Sengupta, B.K. Verma and P.K. Jain

Effect of growth regulators, micronutrients and bio-fertilizers on fruiting of mango cv Langra 205-207
under Jabalpur condition
Akshata Tomar and S.K. Pandey

Population dynamics of sugarcane early shoot borer in Madhya Pradesh 208-213

A.K. Choudhary, P.K. Amrate and A. Chatterjee

Impact of harvesting stages on seed quality of soybean during storage 214-218

V.R. Shelar, A.P. Karjule and K.C. Gagare

Mechanical damage due to threshing and processing methods and its effect on seed 219-227
quality of soybean seed
K.C. Gagare, R.W. Bharud, V.R. Shelar, A.P. Karjule and S.N. Mate

Family environment of girl students and its effect on extent of participation in sports and 228-233
games at different educational level in Rewa Division of Madhya Pradesh
Rachna Mishra

Estimation of rainfall erosivity factor (R) of universal soil loss equation for soil erosion 234-238
modelling using GIS techniques in Shakkar River watershed
A.P.M.Sharma, S.K.Sharma and R.J.Patil

Textural properties of extruded product prepared by using by-products of dhal milling industry 239-248
Thongam Sunita Devi, A.K. Gupta, Sheela Pandey and A.P. Mahanta Sharma

Reassessing the efficacy of recommended insecticides against rice gall midge in different 249
agro-climate zones of Andhra Pradesh
R. Bala Muralidhar Naik, D. Seshagiri Rao, L. Krishna and Md. Lathee Pasha

Population dynamics of pest on rabi groundnut crop at Kampasagar of Nalgonda district 250-251
Andhra Pradesh
R. Bala Muralidhar Naik, L. Krishna, D. Bhadru and Md. Lathee Pasha

Light trap catches of major pests of rice in Nagarjuna Sagar Project Area of Nalgonda 252-254
district of Andhra Pradesh
R.Bala Muralidhar Naik, Md.Latheef Pasha, L.Krishna, D.Bhadru and P.Rajani Kanth

A new record on association of phytoplasma with phyllody disease in 255

Parthenium hysterophorus from Madhya Pradesh, India
K. N. Gupta

Ecological traits of yellow mosaic disease in relation to epidemics in soybean 256-261

K.N. Gupta and R.K. Varma

Issued : December 4, 2015

Available on website (www.jnkvv.org)

JNKVV Res J 49(2): 125-136 (2015)

Crop residue management with conservation agriculture for

sustaining natural resources

T.N.Thorat, K.K. Agrawal, M.L.Kewat, Girish Jha and Sandip Silawat

Department of Agronomy
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
Email: tnt161975@gmail.com

Abstract tremendous value to farmers. However, a large portion of

India being an agriculture-dominant country produces more
than 500 million tons of crop residues annually. A large
portion of unused crop residues are burnt in the fields primarily
to clear the left-over straw and stubbles after the harvest.
Non availability of labour, high cost of residue removal from
the field and increasing use of combines in harvesting the
crops are main reasons behind burning of crop residues in
the fields. Burning of crop residues adversely affects the air
quality, leads to nutrient loss like N,P, K and S, degrades
soil properties and cause wastage of residue that is now
considered tremendous resource worldwide. Trace gas and
aerosols emissions due to open field burning of such large
quantity of residue leads to adverse implications of the local
and regional environment, which also has linkages to the
global climate change. The impacts of such burning need to
be arrested fast through various strategic policies, scientific,
technical and social measures for sustaining conservation
of environment and agricultural resources of the country. This
article reviews the recent research efforts developed in
conservation agriculture based crop residue management
technologies which are more resource efficient than
conventional agriculture.
Keywords: Crop residues, open field burning,
conservation agriculture, sustainability practices
Indian agriculture produces about 500-550 million tonnes
(Mt) of crop residues annually. There is production of 93.9
million tons (Mt) of wheat, 104.6 Mt of rice, 21.6 Mt of
maize, 20.7 Mt of millets, 357.7 Mt of sugarcane, 8.1 Mt
of fibre crops (jute, mesta, cotton), 17.2 Mt of pulses and
30.0 Mt of oilseeds crops, in the year 2011-12 (MoA 2012).
This huge volume of crop residues are produced both on-
farm and off-farm. These crop residues are used as animal
feed, soil mulch, manure, thatching for rural homes and
fuel for domestic and industrial purposes and thus are of
these crop residues, about 90-140 Mt annually, is burnt
on-farm primarily to clear the fields to facilitate planting of
succeeding crops. The problem of on-farm burning of crop
residues has intensified in recent years due to use of
combines for harvesting and high cost of labours in
removing the crop residues by conventional methods. The
residues of rice, wheat, cotton, maize, millet, sugarcane,
jute, rapeseed-mustard and groundnut crops are typically
burnt on-farm across the country. This problem is severe
in irrigated agriculture, particularly in northwest India where
the rice-wheat system is mechanized (Anonymous 2012).
Burning of crop residues leads to plethora of problems
such as release of soot particles and smoke causing
human health problems; emission of greenhouse gases
(carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) adding to
global warming; loss of plant nutrients; adverse impacts
on soil properties as well as soil flora and fauna and
wastage of valuable crop residues.
It is a paradox that burning of crop residues and
scarcity of fodder co-exists in this country, when fodder
prices have surged significantly in recent years. Much of
the paradox owes it to non-availability and easy access
of the quality crop planters which can seed into loose
and anchored residues. Industrial demand for crop
residues is also increasing. To manage the residues in a
productive and profitable manner, conservation agriculture
(CA) offers a good opportunity. With the adoption of
conservation agriculture-based technologies these
residues can be used for improving soil health, increasing
crop productivity, reducing pollution and enhancing
sustainability and climate resilience of agriculture. The
resource conserving technologies (RCTs) involving no or
minimum tillage, direct seeding, bed planting and crop
diversification with innovations in residues management
are the possible alternatives to the conventional energy

125
and input-intensive agriculture (NAAS 2012).There are
several other options such as animal feed, composting,
energy generation, bio-fuel production and recycling in
soil to manage the residues in a productive and profitable
manner. Use of crop residues as soil organic amendment
in the system of agriculture is a viable and valuable option.
Generation of crop residues in India and their nutritional
potential
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Govt. of India
has estimated that about 500 Mt of crop residues are
generated every year. As shown in Table 1, the generation
of crop residues is highest in Uttar Pradesh (60 Mt)
followed by Punjab (51 Mt) and Maharashtra (46 Mt).
Among different crops, cereals generate maximum
residues (352 Mt), followed by fibres (66 Mt), oilseeds
(29 Mt), pulses (13 Mt) and sugarcane (12 Mt). The cereal
crops (rice, wheat, maize, millets) contribute 70% while
rice crop alone contributes 34% to the crop residues.
Wheat ranks second with 22% of the crop residues
whereas fibre crops contribute 13% to the crop residues
generated from all crops. Among fibres, cotton generates
maximum (53 Mt) with 11% of crop residues. Coconut
ranks second among fibre crops with generation of 12 Mt

Table 1. State wise generation and remaining surplus of crop residues in India (Mt/yr)

State Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues Crop residues

generation surplus burnt burnt
(MNRE 2009) (MNRE 2009) (based on IPCC (Pathak et al. 2010)
coefficients)
Andhra Pradesh 43.89 6.96 6.46 2.73
Arunachal Pradesh 0.40 0.07 0.06 0.04
Assam 11.43 2.34 1.42 0.73
Bihar 25.29 5.08 3.77 3.19
Chhattisgarh 11.25 2.12 1.84 0.83
Goa 0.57 0.14 0.08 0.04
Gujarat 28.73 8.9 9.64 3.81
Haryana 27.83 11.22 6.06 9.06
Himachal Pradesh 2.85 1.03 0.20 0.41
Jammu and Kashmir 1.59 0.28 0.35 0.89
Jharkhand 3.61 0.89 1.11 1.10
Karnataka 33.94 8.98 3.05 5.66
Kerala 9.74 5.07 0.40 0.22
Madhya Pradesh 33.18 10.22 3.74 1.91
Maharashtra 46.45 14.67 7.82 7.41
Manipur 0.90 0.11 0.14 0.07
Meghalaya 0.51 0.09 0.10 0.05
Mizoram 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.01
Nagaland 0.49 0.09 0.11 0.08
Odisha 20.07 3.68 2.61 1.34
Punjab 50.75 24.83 9.84 19.62
Rajasthan 29.32 8.52 3.84 1.78
Sikkim 0.15 0.02 0.01 0.01
Tamil Nadu 19.93 7.05 3.62 4.08
Tripura 0.04 0.02 0.22 0.11
Uttarakhand 2.86 0.63 0.58 0.78
Uttar Pradesh 59.97 13.53 13.34 21.92
West Bengal 35.93 4.29 10.82 4.96
India 501.76 140.84 91.25 92.81
Source: MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Resources) Govt. of India, New Delhi. (2009) www.mnre.gov.in/
biomassrsources

126
of residues. Sugarcane residues comprising of tops and
leaves, generate 12 Mt, i.e., 2% of the crop residues in
India. (MNRE, 2009). Among of these major crop residues,
about 35-40 per cent of N, 60-85 per cent K, 30-35 per
cent of P and 40-50 per cent of S absorbed by rice remains
in the vegetative parts at maturity. One tone of rice straw
contains approximately 5-6 kg N, 0.8-0.9 kg P and 15-20
kg K. Considering 90 per cent of rice straw and 30 per
cent wheat straw are available for recycling, the amount
of nutrients recycled would be about 0.54 Mt. Besides N,
P, K, a tone each of rice and wheat contains about 96,
777, 745, 42, 55 and 4 g/ha of Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu, B and Mo,
respectively.
Utilization and on-farm burning of crop residues in India
Traditionally crop residues have numerous competing
uses such as animal feed, fodder, fuel, roof thatching,
packaging and composting. The residues of cereal crops
are mainly used as cattle feed. Rice straw and husk are
used as domestic fuel or in boilers for parboiling rice.
Farmers use crop residues either themselves or sell it to
landless households or intermediaries, who further sell
them to industries. The surplus residues i.e., total
residues generated minus residues used for various
purposes, are typically burnt on-farm. Estimated total
amount of crop residues surplus in India is 91-141 Mt
which is disposed of by burning each year. Pathak et al.
(2010) have estimated that about 93 Mt of crop residues
are burnt on-farm in the country (Table 1). Presently, more
than 80 percent of total rice straw produced annually is
being burnt by the farmers in 3-4 weeks during October-
November (Singh et al. 2010a).
Adverse consequences of on-farm burning of crop
residues
Burning of crop residues leads to release of soot particles
and smoke causing human and animal health problems.
It also leads to emission of greenhouse gases namely
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, causing global
warming and loss of plant nutrients like N, P, K and S.
The burning of crop residues is wastage of valuable
resources which could be a source of carbon, bio-active
Table 2. Annual national emissions from rice and wheat straw open burning (All in Gg)
Years Production Quantity of dry residue
1994 145720 150576
2000 156485 162125
127
compounds, feed and energy for rural households and
small industries. Heat generated from the burning of crop
residues elevates soil temperature causing death of active
beneficial microbial population. The burning of crop
residues immediately increases the exchangeable NH4+-
N and bicarbonate-extractable P content, but there is no
build up of nutrients in the profile. Long-term burning
reduces total N and C, and potentially mineralizable N in
the upper soil layer.
The burning of agricultural residues leads to
significant emission of chemically and radioactively
important trace gases such as methane (CH4), carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrous oxide (N2O), oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) and sulphur (SOx) and other hydrocarbons of
atmosphere. About 70%, 7% and 0.7% of C present in
rice straw is emitted as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide
and methane, respectively, while 2% of N in straw is
emitted as nitrous oxide upon burning. It also emits a
large amount of particulates that are composed of a wide
variety of organic and inorganic species. One ton of rice
straw on burning releases about 3 kg particulate matter,
60 kg CO, 1460 kg CO2, 199 kg ash and 2 kg SO2. (Gupta
and Sahai 2005). Assuming that one fourth of the available
residue is burnt in the field, it is estimated that the
emissions of CH4, CO, N2O and NOx were 110 Gg, 2305
Gg, 2 Gg and 84 Gg, respectively in the year 2000 from
rice and wheat (Table 2). Besides these other light
hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) including
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), SOx and NOx are also
emitted. These gases are of major concern for their global
impact and may lead to increase in the levels of aerosols,
acid deposition. These may subsequently undergo trans-
boundary migration depending upon the wind speed/
direction, reactions with oxidants like OH, leading to
physico-chemical transformation and eventually wash out
by precipitation. The emission of gases from burning of
crop residue are the major cause of concern for respiratory
symptoms, tuberculosis, asthma, and lung functioning
of animals as well as human apart from the potential risk
for lung cancer as many pollutants found in large quantities
in biomass smoke are known suspected carcinogens.
CH4 CO N2O NOx
102 2138 2.2 78
110 2305 2.3 84
Reasons for on-farm burning of crop residues
Farmers and policy makers are well-aware of the adverse
consequences of on-farm burning of crop residues.
However, because of increased mechanization,
particularly the use of combine harvesters, declining
numbers of livestocks, long period required for composting
and unavailability of alternative economically viable
solutions, farmers are compelled to burn the residues.
The number of combine harvesters in the country,
particularly in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) has
increased dramatically from nearly 2000 in 1986 to over
10000 in 2010. The north-western part (Punjab, Haryana
and Western Uttar Pradesh) of the IGP has about 75% of
the cropped area under combine harvesting. Combine
harvesters are used extensively in the central and eastern
Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and in the southern states as well for harvesting
rice and wheat crops. Major reasons for rapid increase in
the use of combines are labour shortage, high wages
during harvesting season, ease of harvesting and threshing
and uncertainty of weather. On using combine harvesting;
about 80% of the residues are left in the field as loose
straw that finally ends up being burnt on farm.
There are some other reasons also behind
intentional burning of crop residues. On farm burning
traditionally provides a fast way to clear the fields off the
residual biomass, thus, facilitating land preparation and
sowing/planting. It also provides a fast way of controlling
weeds, insects and diseases, both by eliminating them
directly or by altering their natural habitat. The time gap
between rice harvesting and wheat sowing in north-west
India is only 15-20 days. In this short duration, farmers
prefer to burn the rice straw on-farm.
Competing uses of crop residues
The crop residues can be gainfully utilized for
i) Cop residues as livestock feed:
In India, the crop residues are traditionally utilized as
animal feed such as or by supplementing with some
additives. However, crop residues, being unpalatable and
low in digestibility, cannot form a sole ration for livestock.
Crop residues are low-density fibrous materials, low in
nitrogen, soluble carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins
with varying amounts of lignin which acts as a physical
barrier and impedes the process of microbial breakdown.
To meet the nutritional requirements of animals, the
128
residues need processing and enriching with urea and
molasses, and supplementing with green fodders
(leguminous/non-leguminous) and legume (sunhemp,
horse gram, cowpea, gram) straws. Straws contain only
3 to 5 per cent crude protein. For good growth on straw
diets, a level of 8 to 10 per cent protein is needed for
young stock, this improves consumption and increases
energy intake.
ii) Compost making
The crop residues have been traditionally used for
preparing compost. For this, crop residues are used as
animal bedding and are then heaped in dung pits. In the
animal shed each kilogram of straw absorbs about 2-3
kg of urine, which enriches it with N. The residues of rice
crop from one hectare land, on composting, give about 3
tons of manure as rich in nutrients as farmyard manure
(FYM). The rice straw compost can be fortified with P
using indigenous source of low grade rock phosphate to
make it value added compost with 1.5 per cent N, 2.3 per
cent P2O5 and 2.5 per cent K2O (Sidhu and Beri 2005).
iii) Bio-energy production:
Biomass can be efficiently utilized as a source of energy
and is of interest worldwide because of its environmental
advantages. In recent years, there has been an increase
in the usage of crop residues for energy generation and
as substitute for fossil fuels. In comparison with other
renewable energy sources such as solar and wind,
biomass source is storable, inexpensive, energy-efficient
and environment-friendly. However, straw is characterized
by low bulk-density and low energy yield per unit weight
basis. The logistics for transporting large volumes of straw
required for efficient energy generation represents a major
cost factor irrespective of the bio-energy technology.
Availability of residues, transportation cost and
infrastructural settings (harvest machinery, modes of
collection, etc.) are some of the limiting factors of using
residues for energy generation.
iv) Bio-fuel and bio-oil production:
Conversion of ligno-cellulosic biomass into alcohol is of
immense importance as ethanol can either be blended
with gasoline as a fuel extender and octane-enhancing
agent or used as a neat fuel in internal combustion engines.
Theoretical estimates of ethanol production from different
feedstock (corn grain, rice straw, wheat straw, bagasse
and saw dust) vary from 382 to 471 l/t of dry matter. The
technology of ethanol production from crop residues is,
however, evolving in India. There are a few limiting steps
in the process of conversion of crop residues into alcohol,
which need to be improved. High energy requiring operating
conditions, costly hydrolytic cellulase enzyme, and
unavailability of natural robust commercial organism to
ferment pentose and hexose sugars simultaneously either
as single species or in combination of other species are
some of the constraints, which require additional research
efforts.
Bio-oil can be produced from crop residues by the
process of fast pyrolysis, which requires temperature of
biomass to be raised to 400-500 0C within a few seconds,
resulting in a remarkable change in the thermal
disintegration process. About 75% of dry weight of
biomass is converted into condensable vapours. If the
condensate is cooled quickly within a couple of seconds,
it yields a dark brown viscous liquid commonly called
bio-oil. The calorific value of bio-oil is 16-20 MJ/kg.
v) Biogas generation
Gasification is a thermo-chemical process in which gas
is formed due to partial combustion of crop residues. The
main problem in biomass gasification for power generation
is the purification of gas for removal of impurities. The
crop residues can be used in the gasifiers for 'producer
gas' generation. In some states, gasifiers of more than 1
MW capacity have been installed for generation of
'producer gas', which is fed into the engines coupled with
alternators for electricity generation. One ton of biomass
can produce 300 kWh of electricity. The gasification
technology can be successfully employed for utilization
of crop residues in the form of pellets and briquettes. The
generated 'producer gas' is cleaned using bio-filters and
used in specially designed gas engines for electricity
generation.
Table 3. Performance of zero-till wheat sown into rice residue using happy seeder viv-a-vis conventional till wheat on
farmers fields in Punjab during 2007-2010
Year No. of experiments Grain yield (t/ha)
Happy seeder (HS) Conventional till (CT)
2007-08 46 4.59
2008-09 14 4.54
2009-10 94 4.42
Mean 154 4.56
129
vi) Biochar production
Biochar is a high carbon material produced through slow
pyrolysis (heating in the absence of oxygen) of biomass.
It is a fine-grained charcoal and can potentially play a
major role in the long-term storage of carbon in soil, i.e.,
C sequestration and GHG mitigation. However, with the
current level of technology, it is not economically viable
and cannot be popularized among the farmers. However,
once all the valuable products and co-products such as
heat energy, gas like H2 and bio-oil are captured and used
in the biochar generation process, it would become
economically-viable. There is a need to develop low cost
pyrolysis kiln for the generation of biochar to utilize surplus
crop residues, which are otherwise burnt on-farm.
Management options of crop residues with conservation
agriculture
Conservation agriculture, with the following three core
inter-linked principles, is a viable option for sustainable
agriculture and is an effective solution to check land
degradation (Kassam 2011).
1. Minimizing mechanical soil disturbance and
seeding directly into untilled soil to improve soil organic
matter content and soil health.
• Resource conservation technologies for crop
residue management
The RCTs (laser assisted precision land levelling,
zero/reduced tillage, direct drilling of seeds, direct seeding
of rice, unpuddled mechanical transplantation of rice,
raised bed planting and crop diversification) with
innovations in residue management avoid straw burning,
improve soil organic C, enhance input efficiency and have
the potential to reduce GHGs emissions (Pathak et al.
2011).
Increase in yield with
HS over CT (%)
4.50 2.0
4.34 4.6
4.30 2.8
4.42 3.24
 Permanent crop cover with recycling of crop with roto-disc drill followed by double disc and lowest
residues is a pre-requisite and integral part of conservation with punch planter (Table 4).
agriculture. However, sowing of a crop in the presence of
residues of preceding crop is a problem. But new variants
2. Enhancing organic matter cover on soil using cover
of zero-till seed-cum-fertilizer drill/planters such as Happy
crops and/or crop residues. This protects the soil surface,
Seeder, Turbo Seeder and rotary-disc drill have been
conserves water and nutrients, promotes soil biological
developed for direct drilling of seeds even in the presence
activity and contributes to integrated pest management.
of surface residues (loose and anchored up to 10 t/ha).
These machines are very useful for managing crop residues
for conserving moisture and nutrients as well as controlling i) Crop residues as surface mulch:
weeds in addition to moderating soil temperature. Data
in Table 3 from 154 on-farm trial conducted during 2007-
Leaving crop residues on the soil surface seems to be
10 in different districts of Punjab showed that weighted
better option as it conserves soil and water and reduces
average wheat yield for Happy Seeder sown plots was
evaporation losses. Surface retained residues also
significantly more (3.24%) than the conventionally sown
reduce the germination of weeds leading to lower weed
wheat Sidhu et al. (2011). Due to use of Happy Seeder
infestation. Moreover, slow decomposition also helps
technology additional advantages like less weed growth,
in building up of soil organic carbons-a direct indicator
water saving and improvement in soil health and
of soil health. Sidhu and Beri (2005) conducted two
environmental qualities were also noted.
year study on sandy loam soil at PAU Ludhiana and
Jat et al. (2006) evaluated the second generation found that rice straw mulching increased mean grain
drills (roto-disc drill, happy seeder, double disc drill and yield of wheat by 43 per cent compared to no mulch
punch planter) and found that wheat yield was comparable under double zero till system. On the other hand, the
under all the drills. Though the yield attributes and yield increase in wheat yield due to rice straw mulch in CT-
under all the drills was almost same but the highest yield puddled transplanted/ CT-direct seeded rice compared
(4.22 & 7.08 grain and straw respectively) was recorded to no mulch was 2.4 -5.4 per cent (Table 5).

Table 4. Yield performance of wheat drilled with different new generation drills under full rice residues

Drills Plant height Effective Spike length Spiklets/ Yield

tillers spike (t/ha)
(cm) (m-2) (cm) Grain Straw
Happy seeder 84.6 388 9.81 17.5 4.22 7.08
Roto-disc drill 86.8 395 9.53 17.2 4.21 7.05
Double disc drill 86.2 375 9.46 16.9 4.03 7.00
Mean 85.9 386 9.60 17.2 4.16 7.04
CD at 5% NS NS NS NS NS NS

Table 5. Effect of tillage and rice straw mulch on wheat yield (t/ha) in rice-wheat system

Rice treatments Wheat treatments

Conventional till Zero till ZT + rice straw
(CT) (ZT)-rice straw mulch (HS)
removed
CT- Direct seeded rice (DSR) 5.05 4.03 5.17
ZT + DSR 5.25 3.56 5.09
CT- Puddled transplanted rice (PTR) 4.98 4.48 5.25
Mean 5.09 a 4.02 b 5.17 a
Mean values followed by same letter do not differ significantly at P < 0.05

130
Table 6. Effect of Sasbania green manure, nitrogen levels and rice residue on yield and yield attributes of rice-wheat
cropping system

Treatment Sesbania aculeata Rice Wheat

Dry N Effective 1000-grain Grain Effective 1000-grain Grain
biomass contribution tillers/m2 weight yield tillers/m2 weight yield
(t/ha) (kg/ha) (g) (t/ha) (g) (t/ha)

Nitrogen and Green manure

N0 - - 211.9 20.7 2.28 274.5 42.57 4.01
N60 - - 241.9 21.0 3.51 299.4 43.27 4.06
N120 - - 260.8 21.1 4.40 317.2 43.76 4.14
G40N0 1.98 46.83 243.9 20.9 4.04 294.0 43.62 4.39
G40N60 1.89 45.07 264.2 21.1 5.17 320.8 44.06 4.46
G40N120 1.96 47.52 272.8 21.1 5.59 326.8 44.21 4.52
G50N0 4.09 97.26 255.2 21.0 5.05 306.7 43.71 4.56
G50N60 3.99 94.51 272.8 21.1 5.72 328.8 43.95 4.65
G50N120 4.08 98.34 248.3 21.2 5.98 338.4 44.16 4.68
CD at 5% - - 19.9 0.8 0.49 49.6 1.98 0.43
Residue incorporation (%)
0 290.2 43.49 4.35
50 319.2 43.68 4.43
100 326.1 43.93 4.38
CD at 5% 32.2 NS NS

Table 7. System productivity and economics of pearlmillet-based systems as influenced by residue management

Treatment 2010-11 2011-12

Productivity Net returns Net returns/ Productivity Net returns Net returns/
(t/ha) (x 103 Rs/ha) Rs invested (t/ha) (x 103 Rs/ha) Rs invested

Pearlmillet-wheat
No residue 2.03 0.67 0.03 2.53 -0.03 0.00
Crop residue 3.03 6.35 0.23 4.80 20.09 0.56
Leucaena twigs 3.52 11.92 0.48 4.13 15.56 0.47
Pearlmillet-chickpea
No residue 3.61 15.81 0.75 2.66 9.59 0.33
Crop residue 5.08 24.52 0.92 5.69 32.60 0.92
Leucaena twigs 6.32 37.16 1.54 5.75 17.42 0.53
Pearlmillet-mustard
No residue 4.26 21.66 1.05 3.52 8.86 0.32
Crop residue 5.54 29.98 1.15 5.68 23.79 0.69
Leucaena twigs 6.95 44.29 1.87 4.45 13.88 0.44
SE m + 0.10 0.14
CD at 5% 0.29 0.41

131
ii) In-situ incorporation of crop residues
It is another option to incorporate residues into fields to
improve soil organic matter levels and return to the soils
with the nutrients contained in straw. Yadvinder Singh et
al. (2005) and Bijay Singh et al. (2008) have concluded
that application of rice residues to wheat typically has
small effect on wheat yields in short term (1 to 3 years).
From a four year study, Gupta et al. (2007) reported that
incorporation of rice straw showed no effect on wheat
yield but wheat yield increased significantly in the 4th year
compared with removal or burning of residues. Singh et
al. (2006) studied the effect of in-situ green manuring of
Sesbania and crop residue incorporation on yield of rice-
wheat cropping system and found that incorporation of
50 and 100% rice residue enhanced grain yield of wheat
by 1.83 and 0.07% as compared to no residue (Table 6).
3. Diversification of crops in associations, sequences
and rotations to enhance system resilience
Amgain et al. (2013) assess the effect of residue
management practices on productivity and profitability of
rainy-season pearlmillet followed by winter-season crops
viz. wheat, chickpea and mustard and concluded that
pearlmillet should be followed by chickpea/mustard along
with residue retention of crops/Leucaena twigs for higher
productivity and profitability under zero-till dryland
conditions of North-Western India (Table 7).
Impact of crop residue management on soil health
Crop residues are an important constituent in nutrient
cycling and also play an important role in maintaining
soil physical, chemical and biological condition.
a. Chemical soil health
The most important factor in determining soil health is
soil organic matter. Long term incorporation of crop
residues build soil organic matter level and also increase
the availability of macro and micro nutrients. Gupta et al.
(2007) found that the application of crop residue for three
years increased availability of P and K in soil over straw
burned. Besides a direct supply of P, crop residues can
lower the P sorption capacity and enhance nutrient
availability. Both inorganic and organic P contents in soil
increased with straw incorporation. Naresh (2013) reported
that before wheat planting, burning of residues results

Table 8. Effect of crop residues management in rice wheat rotation (3 years) on physicochemical properties of soil

Parameter Initial status Retained Incorporation Removed Burnt

(Depth 10-20 cm)
pH 7.83 7.95 7.35 7.40 7.65
Water stable aggregates > 250 µm 51.9 57.4 56.9 46.3 38.2
Organic carbon (%) 0.46 0.53 0.58 0.43 0.47
Available N (kg/ha) 64.6 89.0 83.0 32.0 21.0
Available P (kg/ha) 25.8 39.0 42.0 21.0 29.0
Available K (kg/ha) 52.1 67.0 69.0 48.0 55.0

Table 9. The effect of residue management on soil microbial biomass C and N in zero till wheat

Condition Residue management SMB C (mg C/kg soil) SMB N (mg N/kg soil)
Rainfed Removal 288 b 22 a
Full retention 453 a 20 a
Irrigated Burning 540 b 22 c
Removal 617 ab 25 b
Partial retention 681 a 25 b
Full retention 687 a 31 a

132
 Table 10. Effect of cropping systems, residue management and tillage practices on physical properties of soil (0-15 cm)

Treatment Organic carbon Organic matter Water stable Porosity Bulk density Water holding
aggregates capacity
(%) (%) (%) (%) (mg/m3) (%)
2004-05 2005-06 2004-05 2005-06 2004-05 2005-06 2004-05 2005-06 2004-05 2005-06 2004-05 2005-06

Cropping system

Coconut + banana 1.23 1.25 2.12 2.15 38.72 42.30 39.21 41.31 1.40 1.34 39.34 40.43

Coconut + Maize 1.18 1.21 2.03 2.08 38.45 41.00 39.07 40.77 1.40 1.35 38.27 39.01

Coconut + Pineapple 1.25 1.30 2.15 2.24 39.52 43.15 39.37 41.21 1.38 1.31 39.78 41.18

SEm± 0.022 0.021 0.031 0.031 0.30 0.252 0.271 0.293 0.010 0.011 0.391 0.343

CD at 5% 0.051 0.042 0.082 0.082 0.881 0.735 0.735 NS NS 0.022 1.144 1.008

Residue management

133
Surface mulching 1.31 1.37 2.25 2.37 39.64 42.69 39.19 41.22 1.39 1.33 39.66 40.94

Residue incorporation 1.13 1.13 1.95 1.94 38.16 41.60 39.24 40.98 1.40 1.35 38.60 39.47

SEm± 0.011 0.011 0.022 0.021 0.250 0.201 0.223 0.232 0.010 0.001 0.322 0.281

CD at 5% 0.042 0.042 0.073 0.065 0.720 0.592 NS NS NS 0.010 0.934 0.822

Tillage

Conventional tillage 1.22 1.22 2.00 2.03 38.24 41.62 38.69 40.58 1.40 1.35 39.11 40.09

Reduced tillage 1.22 1.29 2.11 2.23 39.56 42.68 39.74 41.62 1.38 1.32 39.15 40.37

SEm± 0.010 0.011 0.021 0.020 0.250 0.201 0.223 0.232 0.010 0.001 0.322 0.280

CD at 5% NS 0.042 0.053 0.061 0.720 0.592 0.651 0.684 NS 0.011 NS NS

Initial values for SOC content-1.08%, SOM-1.86%, WSA-35.24%, Porosity-36.38%. Bulk density- 1.50 Mg/m3, Water holding capacity-36.5%
huge loss of N (up to 75%), P (25%) and K (21%) and by
incorporation of residues of both crops in rice-wheat
rotation increased the available N, P and K contents in
soil over removal and burn of residues. Surface retention
of residues increases soil N, P and K uptake by 14.6,
28.5 and 17.7 per cent (Table 8).
b. Biological soil health
Crop residues provide energy for growth and activities of
microbes and substrate for microbial biomass, and provide
conditions for source-sink of nutrients. Availability of
nutrients like N, P, and S is particularly dependent upon
soil microbial biomass (SMB) and microbial activity, which
in turn depend on the supply of organic substrates in
soil. Verhulst et al. (2009) reported that soil microbial
biomass (C and N) decreased with decreasing amount of
residue retained on the soil surface in the zero till
treatments of both rainfed and irrigated long term trial.
The SMB reflects the soil's ability to store and cycle
nutrients (C, N, P and S) and organic matter and plays
an important role in physical stabilization of aggregates
(Table 9)
c. Physical soil health
Crop residues are important source of soil organic matter
and upon incorporation may lead to improve soil physical
parameters. Singh et al. (2010b) found that incorporation
of crop residues decreased BD and increased infiltration
rate, WHC, microbial population, soil fertility as compared
to no residue treatment. The residue incorporation with
NPK fertilizer resulted in the highest yield, nutrient uptake,
improved residual soil fertility and soil microorganism's
status. Sudha and George (2011) studied the effect of
cropping systems, residue management and tillage
practices on organic carbon sequestration in soils and
found improvement in soil properties like aggregate
stability, porosity, bulk density, water holding capacity
which reflects better yield and returns in the two years of
study (Table 10).
Constraints of using crop residues with CA
• Difficulties in sowing and application of fertilizer,
pesticides and problem of pest infestation
• Requires more attention on timings and placement
of nutrients, pesticides and irrigation
• Weed control is the major bottleneck in the rice-
134
wheat system
• Excessive use of chemical herbicides creates
unhealthy environment
• Nutrient management becomes complex because
of higher residues levels
• Loss in basal application of N fertilizers at the time
of seeding and hence less efficiency and environmental
pollution
• Specialized equipments are required for fertilizer
placement which contributes high costs
• For adoption of conservation agriculture higher
amount of herbicides are used which creates problems
of pollution and environment hazards
• Requires management skills
• Apprehensive of lower crop yields and /or economic
returns
• Negative attitudes or perceptions, and institutional
constraints
• Farmers have strong preferences for clean and
good looking fields as against untilled shabby looking
fields
Research needs for efficient CRM with CA
• Generation and utilization of crop residues
• Basic and strategic research
• Optimizing competing uses of crop residues
• Water and nutrient management with conservation
agriculture
• Pest management in conservation agriculture
• Machinery for conservation agriculture
Conclusion
• India has the challenging task of ensuring food
security for the 'most' populous country by 2050 with one
of the largest malnourished population. Besides, farming
in future has to be multi-functional and ecologically
sustainable so that it can deliver ecosystem goods and
services as well as livelihoods to producers and society.
Hence farming should effectively address local, national
and international challenges of food, water and energy
insecurity; issues related to climate change; and
degradation of natural resources.
• For ensuring the country's food security both in
short and long term perspectives and making agriculture
sustainable, the soil resource base must be strong and
healthy.
• Conservation agriculture, with crop residues as an
integral component, is an effective solution to the aforesaid
challenges and ensures a strong natural resource base.
• Crop residues are of great economic values as
livestock feed, fuel and industrial raw material, and in
conservation agriculture for which it is a pre-requisite.
• Crop residues, either partly or entirely must be used
for conservation agriculture for ensuring the country's food
security, making agriculture sustainable and the soil
resource base healthy.
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residue management on productivity and
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(Manuscript Receivd : 17-01-2015; Accepted : 30-06-2015)

136
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 137-141 (2015)
Assisted reproductive technology: Advances and applications in
veterinary sciences
Dharmendra Kumar*, Rakesh Ranjan*, Amit Kumar**, S.N.S Parmar** and Bikash Chandra Sarkhel*
*Animal Biotechnology Centre
NDVSU, Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
**Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics
NDVSU, Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Email : dr.dharmendra.pat@gmail.com
Abstract
In livestock, genetic improvement and quick dissemination
are prime concern over the years for researchers. To achieve
it, assisted reproductive technology (ART) is considered as
a major tool which includes artificial insemination (AI),
multiple ovulations, embryo transfer, sex determination of
sperm or embryos, in vitro fertilization (IVF), intra cytoplasmic
sperm injection (ICSI), somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)
etc. These techniques have been introduced to overcome
reproductive problems, to increase the offspring from
selected females and to reduce the generation intervals in
farm animals. AI is the most effective method being used for
the genetic improvement of animals. Reproductive capacity
and efficiency has been improved tremendously since the
introduction of artificial insemination. Super ovulation and
embryo transfer technology increased the opportunity to
obtain multiple progeny in less generation interval. Ovum
pick up associated with IVF/ICSI could be applied for
treatment of sterility or to disseminate the superior
germplasm in short time interval. Polymerase chain reaction
technology and flow cytometer are currently being used for
sexing embryos on a small scale, and it is likely that this
technology will be used for embryo diagnostics' in the future.
The cloning through nuclear transfer and the production of
cloned, transgenic animal has been technically achieved.
Recently, many livestock species have been cloned using
handmade cloning technique. Advances in animal
reproductive technology promise new possibilities including
therapeutic cloning, stem cell biology, cell and gene therapy
and transgenesis.
Keywords: Reproduction, Genetics, Artificial
insemination, In vitro fertilization, Cloning
Assisted reproductive technology (ART) is considered as
a major tool for accelerating the genetic improvements in
137
livestock with the applications of advance techniques over
traditional reproduction. Major techniques under ART
includes artificial insemination (AI), cryopreservation of
gametes or embryos, multiple ovulations, embryo transfer,
sex determination of sperm or embryos, in vitro fertilization
(IVF), intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), somatic
cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) etc. These reproductive
technologies were developed to offer possibilities for wider
use of superior germplasm in short time intervals. To take
full advantage of the benefits of ART, one must understand
the basic physiology of the male and female reproductive
systems as well as various methods to synchronize
reproductive cycles. As novel findings emerge, new
perspectives and applications are proposed, tested, refined
and, finally applied to fields. In the present scenario, the
use of biotechnology in reproduction enables to manipulate
the animal's genetics using genetic engineering
techniques in animal husbandry with consideration of herd
health, nutrition, growth, and reproduction. In this view,
genetic improvement is seldom introduced without other
aspects such as animal management, disease control,
nutrition, and reproduction. Furthermore, the recent
advances as genomics, transcriptomes, proteomics,
metabolomics and bioinformatics in the study of ART will
allow a greater understanding of the limitations to efficient
reproductive processes.
Different Techniques under ART
Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination has been in use worldwide for more
than half century. As a modern technology, AI with fresh
or frozen semen has been considered the most successful
and efficient reproductive technology in animal production
and reproduction (Gordon 1994). The opportunity for
genetic improvement through progeny testing and
breeding programmes would be extremely limited without
AI especially in remote places. Using advance techniques
viz, multiple ovulation, estrous synchronization and
embryo transfer technology (ETT), AI increased the
opportunity to obtain multiple progeny in short generation
interval. For estrous synchronization systems,
prostaglandin F2 and its analogues are used to assist
producers to incorporate AI into their operations by
reducing time and labor associated with estrus detection,
even in anestrous animals. Recently, with better
understanding of endocrine profiles of females throughout
the estrous cycle, economical and efficient systems have
been developed for the synchronization of ovulation, which
allows producers to AI animals at a predetermined fixed-
time, eliminating oestrus detection.
Oestrous synchronization
Oestrous synchronization is a major step for AI and
embryo transfer protocol which includes the manipulation
of the oestrus cycle results in standing oestrus in majority
of animals, within a short period of time. It is a very effective
method to increase the proportion of animals that are
bred at the beginning of the breeding season.
Physiologically, it is based on synchronization of the
follicular waves and/or luteal regression. The
synchronization programme is based on hormonal
regimen including PGF2 , GnRH and controlled
Intravaginal Drug (Progesterone) Releasing device (CIDR).
Fig 1. Process of in vitro fertilization showing (a) co-incubation of oocyte and sperm, and (b) blastocyst stage of
embryos
138
Embryo transfer
Development of embryo transfer technology allows
producers to obtain multiple progeny from genetically
superior females. Depending on the species, fertilized
embryos can be recovered from females (embryo donors)
of superior genetic merit by surgical or nonsurgical
techniques and subsequently transferred to recipients of
lesser genetic merit. In large animal's viz., cattle and
horses, fertilized embryos could recover without surgery
whereas, in case of small animals viz., goat and sheep,
embryos must be recovered by surgical techniques.
Normally only one or two embryos are produced during
each normal reproductive cycle in cattle or buffaloes. To
increase the number of embryos, the embryo donor is
treated with a hormone regimen to induce multiple
ovulations and subsequently inseminate artificially or
naturally.
In vitro fertilization
In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a technique of fertilization of
oocyte by sperm under in vitro condition. Under IVF,
oocytes are recovered either by ovum pick up (van
Wagtendonk-de Leeuw et al. 2006) or simply by ovaries
of slaughtered females. The use of slaughterhouse ovaries
in IVF techniques for livestock reproduction overcomes
the limitation of oocyte number. The process of in vitro
maturation of oocytes involves the use of optimized
hormonal combination (Oestradiol, leutinizing and follicle
stimulating hormone) and growth factors. Likewise certain
chemicals viz. heparin, caffine etc. are used for capacitaion
of sperm of desired sires. The in vitro matured oocytes
are inseminated and subsequently co-incubated under
specific fertilization media in humidified CO2 incubator
(Fig 1a&b). Different types of fertilization media are
reported by different workers viz., Bracket and Oliphant
(BO) (Cognie et al. 1995), synthetic oviductal fluid (mSOF)
(Rho et al. 2001), Tyrode's medium (Wang et al. 2002).
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection is the newest and the
most successful micromanipulation technique for treating
male factor infertility. It entails the mechanical insertion
of a chosen spermatozoon directly in to the cytoplasm of
an oocyte (Fig 2). ICSI involves direct injection of a single
sperm or sperm head (nucleus) into the ooplasm, by
passing natural process of sperm oocyte interaction.
Hence, fertilization process taking place via ICSI is different
from in vivo or in vitro fertilization. It is a microfertilization
technique that is used to curve the male infertility
problems in animals and also in cases where eggs are
not easily perpetrated by sperm. ICSI is considered as a
last resort when all other conventional methods of
insemination fail.
This technique is considered to be efficient than
IVF and AI in terms that in ICSI only one intact
spermatozoon is sufficient to fertilize an ovum while AI
and IVF require millions of spermatozoa. In the veterinary
field, micromanipulation in domestic animal species e.g.
bovine (Gotto et al. 1990; Suttner et al. 2000), equine
(Dell'Aquila et al. 1997), ovine (Catt and Rhodes 1995),
swine (Probst and Rath 2003) etc., has been used for the
past two decades as an experimental means and in the
commercial field.
Fig 2. Process of ICSI showing microinjection of sperm
into oocyte
139
Sperm sexing
By adopting the molecular techniques like Polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) and flow cytometer/cell sorter, one
can select the sex of the offspring as per need of industry.
For example, the beef industry prefers male calves, for
the growing and finishing stages of meat production.
Whereas, the dairy industry prefers heifer calves for milk
and offsprings. Thus, methods are needed to determine
the sex of sperm or embryos so producers can control
the sex of the offspring of their livestock. Using a specific
dye that binds to DNA (Hoechst 33342 stain) and a flow
cytometer/cell sorter, the DNA content of individual sperm
is measured. The ability to sex semen has a large
potential for commercialization; thus, much of the research
to develop and refine sperm sexing technology has been
conducted in the private sector. XY, Inc., a company in
Ft. Collins, CO, has been the leader in developing sperm
sexing technology in cattle, horses, and pigs.
Researchers at the USDA Agricultural Research Service
have also played a major role in developing sperm sexing
technology for poultry and swine. Apart from sperm sexing,
now a day basic research has been emphasized to embryo
sexing by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In this
technique, a blastomere is aspirated or isolated from the
early stage of embryo, DNA isolated, and with specific
set of X/Y primers PCR is carried out to determine the
sex of the embryo.
Somatic cell nuclear transfer or Cloning
Since the mid 1980s, technology has been developed to
transfer the nucleus from either a blastomere or a somatic
cell to an enucleated oocyte). The first livestock animal
Fig 3. Process of cloning showing transfer of cell in
perivitelline space of enucleated oocyte
(sheep) was cloned in 1986 using cells from early embryos
(Willadsen 1986). Then, the birth of a sheep "Dolly" by
transfer of a somatic-cell nucleus (SCNT) of an adult
(Wilmut et al. 1997) represented the fall of an important
biological dogma, i.e., that differentiated somatic cells
could not be reprogrammed to a toti- or pluripotent state
that would allow development of a new individual. This
"nuclear transfer" produces multiple copies of animals
that are themselves nearly identical copies of donor. The
cloning technique involves culturing somatic cells from
an appropriate tissue of the animal to be cloned. Nuclei
from the cultured cells are transferred into an enucleated
oocyte obtained from another animal (Fig 3). The
reconstructed oocytes are cultured and transferred to a
recipient female. However, the efficiency of the cloning
technology remains low due to increased rates of
pregnancy losses, placental and fetal alterations,
dystocia and birth of large offspring with lower postnatal
survival. In a study, a relatively low number of cloned
embryos survive to term (1 to 5%), with approximately a
third of cloned calves not surviving to weaning, and more
than 8% dying before reaching 4 years of age (Well et al.
2004). Till date, SCNT has been successfully used in
many animal species to produce cloned offspring. This
technique may be accomplished for advance reproductive
purposes, i.e., to produce a genetically identical copy of
the individual that supplied the donor cell, or for therapeutic
purposes, i.e., to produce cells or tissue for
transplantation back to the individual that supplied the
donor cell. Somatic-cell cloning is a rapidly developing
area and a valuable technique to copy superior genotypes
and to produce or copy transgenic animals.
Hand-made cloning technique: Although somatic
cell nuclear transfer is being performed in many
laboratories all over the world, successful application of
the embryo reconstruction technology is still a difficult
and demanding task. The conventional technique of cloning
includes complicated and time consuming processes,
requiring expensive equipments like micromanipulators
and highly qualified and skilled personnel. The
complications and less efficiency of micromanipulator
based SCNT technique pave the way of "Handmade
cloning" (HMC). The first published report to exclude
micromanipulators from the NT was the bovine zona-free
embryonic cell nuclear transfer (Peura et al. 2001). For
somatic cell nuclear transfer, Vajta et al. (2003) first
reported the use of HMC for the production of zona free
cloned embryos in cattle. In HMC, oocytes were bisected
into two halves with the hand guided blades under stereo
microscope. The enucleated half oocyte (demicytoplast)
was attached with somatic cell to form couplet. Each
140
couplet was electrofused with another enucleated
demicytplast to form full reconstructed oocyte, chemically
activated and subsequently cultured in vitro. This
technology of SCNT allows more efficient production of
embryos for transfer and to study the basic scientific
aspects of the critical limiting steps in nuclear transfer.
Future prospects of ART
ART boost up the embryonic stem cell technology through
in vitro embryo production. Cloning and IVF are the
techniques that are continuously providing the embryos
for stem cell culture. Further transgenesis, one of the
most fascinating areas of modern research involves
different techniques of ART viz., cloning (Schnieke et al.
1997; Cibelli et al. 1998), DNA microinjection (Nottle et
al. 2001) to generate transgenic embryos or live animals.
The controlled reproduction in animals has
contributed tremendously to the satisfaction of the
increasing demands of the modern society (Kues and
Niemann 2004). Farmers are now adopting more advanced
techniques to enhance reproductive efficiency of animals,
which may further increase potential economic efficiency
to livestock sectors. Different ART techniques viz.,
artificial insemination, estrous synchronization, super
ovulation, embryo transfer, in vitro fertilization, sexed
semen, and cloning have influenced the livestock industry.
The integrated use of molecular techniques, modern
instruments and other allied livestock disciplines, the
potential of farm animals for improving human health is
growing. Advances in animal reproductive technology
promise new possibilities, but many ethical challenges
have emerged with the development of the fourth
generation technologies, including therapeutic and
reproductive cloning, stem cell biology, cell and gene
therapy and transgenesis. The overall genetic
advancement in animals can only be attained when good
practices in livestock management are improved. To be
successful, the application of biotechnologies must
include good practices in animal husbandry, animal health
and nutrition, and reproduction.
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Medjugorac I, Brem G, Wolf E, Stojkovic M (2000)
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection in bovine: Effects
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injection technique. Theriogenology 54:935-48
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Schmidt M, Pedersen HG, Greve T, Callesen H
(2003) Handmade somatic cell cloning in cattle:
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vitro. Biol Reprod 68:571-78
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vitro production in the bovine after use in several
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JF (2002). Transgenic goats produced by DNA
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(Manuscript Receivd :15-03-2015; Accepted : 30-08-2015)
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 142-149 (2015)

Impact of soil testing analysis in Madhya Pradesh

H.O. Sharma, P.K. Mishra* and R.S. Chouhan

Agro-Economic Research Centre
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
*Director Extension
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)

Abstract should be kept at village level and method as well as result

Looking to the importance of soil testing analysis in famers'
field this particular study has been conducted to evaluate the
adequacy, usefulness effectiveness and contribution in
returns in farmer's field. The primary data were collected
from the 100 respondents through pre tested interview
schedule by personal investigation from two locations i.e.
Sagor and Dhar districts of Madhya Pradesh for the year
2010-11. It is observed from the study that out of 100
respondents who have submitted soil samples to soil testing
labs for its analysis only 71 received soil testing report. Out
of these 71 only 49 respondents adopted the
recommendations of soil heath card and applied nutrients
in crops for improvement in yield levels. The per hectare
expenditure on seed, fertilizer and plant protection measures
of adopted farmers increased for all the crops after adopting
recommendation of soil testing analysis. The per hectare
expenditure on labour was also found to increased in all the
crops (wheat, gram, potato) except soybean. The cost of
cultivation (Rs. /ha) and cost of production (Rs. /q) of all the
crops reduced drastically, while benefit cost ratio was found
to be increased after adoption of soil testing
recommendation. The lack of knowledge about soil testing
technology (70%), non-availability of soil testing report in time
, less cooperation from the officers of agriculture department
(46%) and complicated method of soil testing sample were
found to be main constraints in adoption of soil testing
recommendations as reported by majority of respondents in
the area under study. It was also observed during the
investigation that there is an ample scope to improve the
analyzing capacity as well as dissemination ability of soil
testing laboratories. If this, couple with professional
management through proper linkages, can bring radical
changes in soil testing services in the state to the extent of
farmers' satisfaction. The results of the research undertaken
made it clear that adoption of recommendation of soil testing
reduced the cost of production and increased returns over
cost of cultivation of crops. This fact may be popularized
amongst the farmers so that they can take benefit of soil
testing analysis. Sufficient field staff with trained personal
demonstrations of these recommendations may be taken
up in farmers' field for its wide adoption.
Keywords: Impact, soil testing, analysis
Soil testing till today has been used mainly to formulate
precise recommendations for the major nutrients i.e.
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium fertilization of crops
in different soils and to recommend appropriate doses of
amendments for salt-affected and acidic soils.
Micronutrients, comprising Zinc, Copper, Iron,
Manganese, Boron and Chlorine, though required by
plants in much smaller amounts, yet are as essential for
them as the major nutrients. Despite that, little attention
has been paid to employ the soil testing for assessing
the micronutrient status of soils and determining soils
requirement for micronutrient fertilizers for growing crops.
With an objective to extent the advisory service to the
farmers of the state regarding the nutrient problems of
soils and crops and suggest appropriate remedial
measures for efficient correction of the same. Jawaharlal
Nehru Agriculture University Jabalpur and the Department
of Agriculture Madhya Pradesh Bhopal have established
soil testing laboratories for nutrient. Some private
laboratories are also available in the state. Farmers are
advised to make the best use of this service rendered by
these laboratories.
Success or failure of soil testing programmes
largely depends on providing correct information to farmers,
ability of the programme to provide service to a large group
of farmers in a particular area, proper analysis and
interpretation of results and recommendations that when
followed are profitable for the farmer. Then only will this
service be effectively utilized to improve local agricultural
production Time and quality consciousness in the service

142
is a real challenge for the analysts in the new millennium.
This compels laboratory to adopt rapid, reliable, time saving
procedures and methods to meet future requirements.
The farmer's confidence in the programme can be
established only by demonstrating that it actually provides
a means of improving his profit. Looking to the importance
of the soil testing in farmers' field this study had been
conducted as the review of various studies reported that
the recommendations of soil testing laboratories are useful
for increasing the levels of output but the majority of the
farmers have not been interested in this due to lack of
knowledge about soil testing facilities, testing of soils is
incredible, laboratories are situated far away, and non
availability of soil testing report etc.
Objectives
The present study was planned to focus the impact
assessment of soil testing analysis in Sagar and Dhar
districts of Madhya Pradesh with the following specific
objectives:
• To assess the soil testing infrastructure available
across different agro-climatic regions / districts of Madhya
Pradesh.
• To determine the growth of sample target, and
achieved by soil testing laboratory.
• To identify the gaps in sample target, and achieved
by Sagar and Dhar soil testing laboratories and
recommendation adopted by the farmers.
• To evaluate the cost effectiveness of the soil testing
analysis.
• To identify constraints in adoption soil testing
technology and suggest ways and means for proper
utilization of these soil testing laboratories.
Materials & methods
In Madhya Pradesh total numbers of laboratories are 70,
out of which Soil Testing laboratories of Sagar & Dhar
(MP) have been selected purposively for the study. The
soil testing laboratory of Sagar district covers farmers of
Sagar and Damoh districts and Soil testing laboratory
situated at Dhar covers Dhar district. The laboratory
working under the direct control of the Joint Director Soil
Testing, Department of Agriculture Madhya Pradesh, and
Sub Divisional Agriculture Office, Senior Agriculture
143
Development Officer. The Rural Agriculture Extension
Officer (RAEO) helps in the collection of soil sample at
field level and sends these samples to soil testing
laboratory. The soil testing reports are also provided to
RAEOs for its distribution among the recipient farmers.
Both primary and secondary data collected for the
study. The primary data were recorded on general
information of farmers who tested there soil and adopted
the recommendation of soil testing report, land use and
cropping pattern, incremental cost and return obtained
before and after adopting recommendation of soil testing,
constraints in adoption of soil testing recommendation.
The secondary data were collected on infrastructure facility
available in different agro climatic region in Madhya
Pradesh, sample collected, analyzed and reported during
the year 2001-02 to 2010-2011 by the soil testing
laboratory. Year 2001-02 and 2010-2011 were treated as
base and current year respectively for analyzing of
secondary data. The survey method was used for
collection of the relevant data from selected cultivators
by using pre-tested interview schedule. The investigators
briefly explained about the objectives of the study to each
respondent and assured them that the supplied
information will be used only for research purpose. The
secondary data were also collected by personal visit in
the office of Director of Agriculture and Joint Director of
Agriculture, Soil Testing, Vindhyachal Bhavan, Bhopal and
also from the published and unpublished record of Soil
Testing laboratories of Dhar and Sagar districts.
A list of all the farmers who tested their soil sample
in the year 2008- 09 has been collected from the respective
soil testing laboratory and 50 farmers from each laboratory
have been selected for the study. Thus, the total number
of respondents were 100, (50 each from Sagar and Dhar
districts) of Madhya Pradesh.
To assess the impact of soil testing analysis before
and after technique has been followed and the years 2008-
09 and 2009-10 were treated as before and after year
respectively. The collected primary data pertain to the
agriculture year 2010-11. While, the required secondary
data are pertain to year from 2001-02 to 2010-11. The
analysis of the collected data was done on the basis of
stated objectives. The growth of sample targeted and
achieved and absolute change analyzed with the help of
secondary data. In this triennium average ending year
2003-04 was treated as base and triennium average
ending 2010-11 was treated as Current year. The data
were classified into two groups, i.e. before and after
adoption of soil testing technology by the respondents.
Results & discussion
The available soil testing structure, gap in sample target
and achievements, incremental returns received after
analyzing of soil sample are considered for in-depth study.
Soil testing infrastructure in the state
The soil testing facilities available across the state has
been given in the Table 1. The table reveled that there
were 70 soil testing labs exist in the state under different
agro-climatic regions. The numbers of labs were found
maximum in Malwa Plateau (13) followed by Kymore
Plateau and Satpura Hills (11) and Vindhya Plateau (10).
The other agro climatic zone also had more then one soil
testing labs.
The coverage or catchments of per lab was 0.63
lakh farmers and 0.47 lakh hectares land or cultivable
land. The maximum farmers covered by labs was found
in Central Narmada Valley (1.15 lakh) followed by Vindhya
Plateau (1.06 lakh) Chhattisgarh Plains (0.70 lakh) and
Kymore Plateau and Satpura Hills (0.67 lakh).
As for as coverage of area under each lab is
concerned labs situated in Chhattisgarh plain (Bhalaghat
district) covered 0.72 lakh hectare, followed by Central
Narmada Valley (0.65 lakh hectare), Northern Hills of
Chhattisgarh (0.60 lakh hectare) and Kymore Plateau
and Satpura Hills (0.51 lakh hectares). Other labs also
covered a significant area and provide service to needy
farmers. (Table 1) It is also observed from the data that
labs situated in Satpura Plateau (0.34 lakh hectares)
covered the lowest area, which is appreciable in terms of
availability of infrastructure facilities.

On an average 0.50 lakh ha area and 0.66 lakh

Fig. 1. Agro-climatic zone wise Soil testing Infrastructure
in Madhya Pradesh
farmers are being covered under a lab in the state
indicating an urgent need to establish more and more
soil testing lab not only to reduce the pressure on exiting
labs but also to improve the access and incrasing the
rate of adoption thereby reducing the transportation cost
for benefit of the farming community in particular and
increasing the fertility of soil.

Table 1. Soil Testing Infrastructure in Madhya Pradesh (2010 - 11)

Agro climatic zones Districts (No.) Soil testing No. of Net area Lab available
labs (No.) farmers sown per lakh per lakh
(lakh) (lakh/ha) farmers hectare
Chhattisgarh plains 1 2 2.88 2.75 0.70 0.72
Northern Hill of CG 6 5 8.12 8.34 0.62 0.60
Kymore Plateau & Satpura Hills 7 11 16.37 21.55 0.67 0.51
Central Narmada Valley 2 4 3.47 6.10 1.15 0.65
Vindhya Plateau 6 10 9.42 24.38 1.06 0.41
Gird Region 7 9 13.50 17.85 0.67 0.50
Bundelkhand 3 4 10.89 8.84 0.37 0.45
Satpura Hills 2 3 5.64 8.70 0.53 0.34
Malwa Plateau 9 13 23.37 31.14 0.56 0.42
Nimar Plains 5 7 11.80 14.46 0.59 0.48
Jhabua Hills 2 2 5.10 4.00 0.39 0.50
Total 50 70 110.56 148.11 0.66 0.51

144
Gap in sample target and achievement Target and achievement of samples

The gap in soil sample targeted and achieved has been
presented in Table 2. The gaps between target and
achievement were recorded to be 19.95 & 21.18 per cent
during the current year (2011) and 63.47 & 41.41 per cent
during the base year (2004) in Sagar and Dhar districts
respectively. The target of 10000 sample remain unchaged
during the base and current year in Sagor districts ,
while ib case of Dahar the target was found to be reduce
from 15000 (2004) to 11000 (2011).
The target of soil samples were found to be stagnant to
15000 with the growth of -3.55% per year during the period
under study. It is also noted that the target were decreased
by -496.97 soil samples per year in Dhar district of
Madhya Pradesh, while, the achievement were found to
be increased from 9811 (2001-02) to 13581 (2010-11) with
a rate of 24.25 soil samples and growth of 0.25% per
year. The gap between target and achievement ranges
from - 9.46% (2010-11) to -51.71% (2008-09) and could

Table 2. Gap in Sample Targeted and Achievement, Sagar District of MP

Particular Sagar Dhar Total

A) The base year (TE 2004) Target 10000 15000 25000
Achieved 3653 8785 12438
Gap 6347 6215 12562
(63.47) (41.43) (50.25)
B) The current year (TE 2011) Target 10000 11000 21000
Achieved 8005 8670 16675
Gap 1995 2330 4325
(19.95) (21.18) (20.60)
Change over base year Target 0 -4,000 -4000
Achieved 4352 -115 4237
(119.13) (-1.31) (34.06)
Figures in parenthesis show percentages to total

Table 3. Growth and Gap of Sample Targeted and Achieved in Dhar District of MP

Year Target Achievement Gap % gap

2001 - 02 15000 9811 -5189 -34.59
2002 - 03 15000 7269 -7731 -51.54
2003 - 04 15000 9274 -5726 -38.17
2004 - 05 15000 11411 -3589 -23.93
2005 - 06 15000 12355 -2645 -17.63
2006 - 07 20000 10014 -9986 -49.93
2007 - 08 12000 9500 -2500 -20.83
2008 - 09 12000 5795 -6205 -51.71
2009 - 10 6000 6632 632 10.53
2010 - 11 15000 13581 -1419 -9.46
Mean 14000 9564 -4436 -
Standard Deviation 3559.03 2489.04 3153.13 -
Coefficient of Variance (%) 0.25 0.26 0.71 -
Regression Coefficient -496.97 24.25 -521.22 -
Growth (%) -3.55 0.25 -11.75 -

145
Table 4. Growth and Gap of Sample Targeted and Achieved in Sagar District of MP

Year Target Achievement Gap % gap

2001 - 02 10000 2197 -7803 78.03
2002 - 03 10000 3215 -6785 67.85
2003 - 04 10000 5548 -4452 44.52
2004 - 05 10000 5312 -4688 46.88
2005 - 06 10000 6310 -3690 36.90
2006 - 07 10000 7072 -2928 29.28
2007 - 08 10000 6778 -3222 32.22
2008 - 09 10000 7019 -2981 29.81
2009 - 10 10000 7381 -2619 26.19
2010 - 11 10000 9615 -385 3.85
Mean 10000 6045 -3955 -
Standard Deviation 0.00 2127.62 2127.62 -
Coefficient of Variance (%) 0.00 0.35 0.54 -
Regression Coefficient 0.00 657.21 -657.21 -
Growth (%) 0.00 10.87 -16.62 -

Table 5. Incremental cost after adoption of soil testing recommendation by the farmers in different crops (Rs/ha)

Particulars Soybean Wheat Gram Potato

Before After Before After Before After Before After
Seed & seed treatment 3667.95 3667.95 2107.00 2563.93 2881.67 2680.96 41990.00 41990.00
(0.00) (21.69) (-6.97) (0.00)
Manures & fertilizer 2229.59 1577.84 1557.15 3384.79 401.00 315.00 618.74 1920.43
(-29.23) (117.37) (-21.45) (210.38)
Plant Protection 0.00 489.88 0.00 0.00 422.00 1321.00 0.00 0.00
( ) (0.00) (213.03) (0.00)
Weedicides 0.00 494.00 331.10 496.65 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
( ) (50.00) (0.00) (0.00)
Labour 6064.55 6898.48 7826.36 7917.41 6380.83 6833.67 10127.00 10744.50
(5.53) (1.16) (7.10) (6.10)
Interest on working capital 464.94 337.27 393.70 478.30 335.86 371.34 1756.10 1820.01
(-27.46) (21.49) (10.56) (3.64)
Depreciation 1344.25 1344.25 1382.20 1382.20 278.28 278.28 423.59 423.59
(0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)
Total Variable cost 13771.28 14309.67 13597.51 16223.28 10699.64 11800.25 54915.43 56898.53
(3.91) (19.31) (10.29) (3.61)
Total Fixed Cost 8010.81 10357.50 8323.80 9672.40 4791.43 6703.91 14898.34 16684.92
(2.29) (16.20) (39.91) (11.99)
Total Cost of Cultivation 21782.09 24667.17 21921.31 25895.68 15491.07 18504.16 69813.77 73583.45
(-28.18) (18.10) (19.45) (5.40)
Cost of Production (Rs/q) 1430.21 1248.39 567.30 551.90 1253.76 1069.66 565.29 425.58
(-12.72) (-2.71) (-14.68) (-24.71)
Figures in parenthesis show percentages difference to before

146
not even full fill in any year during the period under study
(Table 3).
The target of soil sample to be tested remain the
same in each year during the period under study but
achivement were found to be increased from 2197 (2001-
02) to 9615 (2010-11) by the rate of 657.21 sample and
growth of 10.87% per annum along with gaps of -3.85
(2010-11) to -78.03 (2001-02) per cent during the period
under study in sagor distruct of MP (Table 4).
Incremental cost & return after adoption of soil testing
recommendation
recommendation of soil testing considering the rate
prevailing in the year 2010-2011.
The cost of cultivation (Rs./ha) of all the crops i.e
wheat (18.10%), gram (19.45%) and potato (5.40%) except
soybean ( -28.18%) were found to increased, while the
cost of production (Rs./q) of all the crops were found to
decreased from -2.71per cent (wheat ) to - 24.71 per cent
(potato) after adoption of soil testing analysis report by
the cultivators. The per hectare expenditure on fertilizer
of increased for wheat (117.37%) and potato (210.38%)
was found to be increased, whereas the for soybean
(-29.23%) and gram (-21.45%) was found to be decreased
after adoption of soil testing report (Table 5).

Impact of soil testing analysis has been done by analysis
cost and return incurred in before and after the adoption
of soil testing recommendation. Although, there were no
significant difference found in different locations. Hence
there pooled analysis has been taken into consideration
for all the crops. In which farmers adopted the
In sum the per hectare expenditure on seed,
fertilizer and plant protection measures of adopted farmers
increased for all crops after adopting soil testing analysis
recommendation. The per hectare expenditure on labour
was also found increased in all crops. The cost of
cultivation and cost of production of all the crops reduced

Table 6. Incremental return after adoption of soil testing recommendation by the farmers in different crops (Rs/ha)

Particulars Soybean Wheat Gram Potato

Before After Before After Before After Before After
Yield physical unit (q/ha)
Main product 15.23 19.76 38.61 46.88 12.35 17.29 123.50 172.90
(29.74) (21.42) (40.00) (40.00)
By product 22.84 27.78 19.30 22.44 7.41 10.37 0.00 0.00
(21.63) (16.27) (39.95) (0.00)
Gross return (Rs/ha)
Main product 44171.83 57304.00 46343.29 53860.57 27170 38038 86450.00 121030
(29.73) (16.22) (40.00) (40.00)
By product 2284.75 2778.75) 1930.97 2244.19 592.80 829.92 0 0
(21.62) (16.22) (40.00) (0.00)
Gross returns 46456.58 60082.75 48274.26 56104.76 27762.80 38867.92 86450.00 121030
(29.20) (16.22) (40.00) (40.00)
Net income (Rs/ha)
At variable cost 32685.30 45773.08 34676.69 39881.50 17062 27067 31534.57 64131
(40.04) (15.01) (58.63) (103.37)
At total cost 24685.30 35415.58 26352.85 30209.12 12271.40 20363.16 16636.23 47446.56
(43.53) (14.63) (65.94) (185.20)
Cost - Benefit ratio
At variable cost 3.37 4.19 3.55 3.46 2.59 3.29 1.51 2.13
(40.04) (-2.59) (26.94) (35.12)
At total cost 2.17 2.43 2.20 2.17 1.79 2.10 1.24 1.64
(43.53) (-1.62) (17.20) (32.83)
Figures in parenthesis show percentages difference to before

147
drastically after adaption of recommendation of soil
testing.
The gross return, net return at variable cost and
net return at total cost related to all the crops were found
to be increased 16.22 per cent (Wheat ) to 40.00 per
cent (gram & potato), 15.01 per cent (Wheat) to 103.37
per cent ( potato) and 14.63 per cent (wheat) to 185.20
per cent ( potato) after adoption of soil testing analysis.
The cost benefit ratio at variable as well as total cost was
also found to be increased for all the crops expect wheat
( Table 6).
Constraints in adoption of soil testing technology
The constraints reported by the sample cultivators in
adoption of soil testing technology are presented in Table
7. It is observed from the data that lack of knowledge
about soil testing facility among cultivators (70%) was
found the main constraint in adoption of soil testing
technology followed by non availability of soil testing
reports in time to cultivator (62%), less cooperation from
Agriculture Officers/Staff of Agriculture Department (46%),
complicated method of taking soil sampling (30%),
technology totally different from farming practices (26%),
lack of training about soil testing technology (22%), high
cost of adoption of recommended practices (20%,)
difficulty in adoption of recommendations (20%),
incredibility of soil testing report (12%) and situation of
soil testing labs not with the reach of cultivators (12%),
were the other main constraints reported by farmers during
the course of investigation.
Table 7. Constraints in adopting of soil testing technology
Constraints Respondents
(%)
Lack of knowledge about testing facility 70
Non availability of soil testing report in time 62
Less cooperation from Agriculture 46
Officers/staff
Complicated methods of Soil Sampling 30
Technology is far different from farming 26
practices
Lack of Training for testing 22
High cost of recommendation 20
Difficulty in adoption of recommendation 20
Soil testing is incredible 12
Lab situated far away from the village 12
148
Conclusion
The following conclusion are made from the above results
The present infrastructure of soil testing facility is found
to be insufficient in different agro climatic regions of
Madhya Pradesh. Whatever infrastructure is available is
not functioning properly hence, coverage of target/
achievement needs to be increased by employing skill
and trained staff in these labs. This is needs to be
increased quantity as quality of soil sample testing.
There is an ample scope to improve the analyzing
capacity as well as dissemination ability of the soil testing
laboratories. If this, coupled with professional management
through proper linkages, can bring radical changes in the
soil testing service in the state to extent the farmers'
satisfaction.
The Department of Agriculture ensures an effective
and live linkage between the field and the laboratory. It is
to be appreciable if each lab may adopt at least one
nearby village from where sample may be collected by
the laboratory staff and recommendations are also
communicated / handed over directly by the laboratory
staff to the farmers and to follow the outcome of the
programme. Each lab can take up one village as a mission
to see the utility of the programme by itself and find out
shortcomings so that the whole programme can be
improved on the basis of such direct observation / study.
Presently, the labs are literally cut off from the field and
work in isolation of the whole programme.
Soil analysis and fertilizer recommendation is only
a part of the soil testing service. To a good measure, the
efficiency of the service depends upon the care and efforts
put forth by extension workers and the farmers in collection
and dispatch of the samples to the laboratories and
obtaining reports timely. Its effectiveness also depends
upon the proper follow up in conveying the
recommendations to the farmers, including the actual use
of fertilizer according to the recommendations. The role
of extension service, soil chemists and the agronomists
in the field is important. The service is suffering both from
technological aspect and due to inadequate and untrained
manpower. Weakness of the programme in its various
aspects as discussed above needs improvement.
If the fertilizer industry will venture to produce and
promote the products on the basis of requirement of
specific soil nutrient deficiency, the industry will have to
get into the soil testing programme in a big way and
generate such information as a measure of good
supplement to soil testing programme basically being run
by the Government. The fertilizer industry may adopt at
least one district in a State and ensure and monitor that
the fertilizer in the adopted district is used on the basis of
plant nutrient deficiency as determined through accurate
soil testing.
The awareness about soil testing facility, its need
and importance is at the farmers' level hence, awareness
building must be taken up by extension activities. As the
adoption of recommendations of soil testing reduces cost
of production of crops and increases returns. This fact
may be popularized among the farmers' so that they can
be benefited. Sufficient field staff with trained personal
should be kept at village level and method as well as
result demonstrations of these technologies may be taken
up at the village level which popularized the impact of
these technologies in front of the cultivators.
e`nk ijh{k.k ds fo'ys"k.k ds egRo dks ns[krs gq, ;g v/;;u fdlku ds
[ksr esa e`nk ijh{k.k ls gksus okys ykHk dh i;kZIrrk] mldh mi;ksfxrk
izHkko'khyrk vkSj ;ksxnku dk ewY;kadu djus ds fy, fd;k x;k gS A
blds fy, izkFkfed vkadMs O;kfDrxr lk{kkRdkj vuqlwph ds ek/;e ls
o"kZ 2010&11 ds fy, e/; izns'k ds lkxj vkSj /kkj ftyksa ds 100
—"kdksa ls ,df=r fd, x, A bu —"kdksa ls e`nk ijh{k.k ds iwoZ rFkk
i'pkr~ dh tkudkjh ,d= dh x;h A v/;;u ls ;g Kkr gqvk fd ftu
—"kdksa us fo'ys"k.k ds fy, e`nk ijh{k.k iz;ksx'kkykvksa dks feÍh ds uewus
izLrqr fd;s Fks] muesa ls dsoy 71 izfr'kr —"kdksa dks e`nk ijh{k.k fjiksVZ
izkIr gqbZ A bu 71 esa ls dsoy 49 —"kdksa n~okjk e`nk LokLF; dkMZ dh
flQkfj'kksa dks viuk;k x;k vkSj mit ds Lrj esa lq/kkj dj Qlyksa esa
iks"kd rRoksa dk mi;ksx fd;k A e`nk ijh{k.k ds fo'ys"k.k dh flQkfj'k
dks viukus ds ckn lHkh Qlyksa ds fy, cht] moZjd vkSj ikS/k laj{k.k
ds mi;ksa esa izfr gsDVs;j [kpZ esa o`f) ik;h x;h A Je ij izfr gsDVs;j
O;; Hkh lks;kchu dks NksM+dj lHkh Qlyksa ¼xsgq¡] puk] vkyw½ esa vf/kd
ik;k x;k A e`nk ijh{k.k dh flQkfj'k viukus ds ckn lHkh Qlyksa esa
dk'rdkjh dh ykxr ¼:@gsDVs;j½ vkSj mRiknu dh ykxr ¼:@fDoaVy½
dkQh de gbZ tcfd mRiknu ykxr vuqikr c<+k ik;k x;k A v/;;u
149
ds rgr vf/kdkj —"kdksa esa e`nk ijh{k.k rduhd ds ckjs esa Kku dh deh
¼70%½] le; esa e`nk ijh{k.k fjiksVZ dh vuqiyC/krk ¼62%½] —f"k
foHkkx ds vf/kdkfj;ksa ls Hkh de lg;ksx ¼46%½] vkSj feÍh ijh{k.k
uewus dh tfVy fof/k ¼30%½] e`nk ijh{k.k flQkfj'kksa ds viukus esa
eq[; ck/kkvksa ds :i esa crk;k A bl 'kks/k ds ifj.kkeksa ls ;g Li"V gS
fd e`nk ijh{k.k dh flQkfj'k ls mRiknu dh ykxr ds lkFk dk'r dh
ykxr de gksrh gS ,oa vf/kd vk; izkIr gksrk gS bl rF; dks fdlkuksa
ds chp yksdfiz; cuk;k tk ldrk gS rkfd os feÍh ijh{k.k ds fc'ys"k.k
dk ykHk ys ldrs gS lkFk gh bu flQkfj'kksa ds ifj.kke izn'kZuksa dks
izf'kf{kr O;fDrx.k ds lkFk i;kZIr QhYM LVkQ dks xk¡o Lrj rd
fof/k ds :i esa vPNh rjg ls igqpkuk pkfg, rkfd fdlku bls vkSj
vf/kd ek=k esa viuk ldsa A tk¡p ds nkSjku ;g Hkh ik;k fd e`nk ijh{k.k
iz;ksx'kkykvksa dh fo'ys"k.k {kerk ds lkFk&lkFk izpkj&izlkj dh {kerk
esa lq/kkj djus dh i;kZIr vko';drk gS lkFk gh mfpr la;kstu ds
ek/;e ls fdlkuksa dh larqf"V ds fy, O;kolkf;d izca/ku ds lkFk jkT;
esa e`nk ijh{k.k esa Økafrdkjh ifjorZu yk;k tk ldrk gS A
References
Anonymous (2000) Relevance of soil testing of agriculture
and the environment. Issue Paper Council for
Agricultural Science and Technology 15 : 12
Biswas PP (2002) Soil testing at farmers door step. Fertilizer
News 47 (10): 21-24
Rao AS, Sanjay Shrivastava (1999) Experiences on current
status of crop responses to fertilizers in different
agro-climatic zones as learnt from All India
Coordinated Research Project on soil test crop
response correlation. Fertilizer News 44 (4): 83-95
Sharma HO, Yadav Rajeev, Nahatkar SB (2005) Adoption
Pattern and Constrains of Soybean Production
Technology in Malawa Platues of MP Agril. Situation
in India 61(4): 3-17
(Manuscript Receivd : 22-02-2015; Accepted : 30-08-2015)
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 150-153 (2015)
Evaluation of molecular polymorphism among rice bean (Vigna
umbellata) genotypes
Aparna Pandey, Sharad Tiwari*, A.K. Mehta† and Niraj Tripathi
Biotechnology Centre
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
†Department of Agronomy
College of Agriculture
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Email: shtiwari@gmail.com
Abstract
Rice bean is important crop and is used as vegetable, folk
medicine and fodder. 38 accessions were selected for
molecular analysis using RAPD and ISSR markers.
Randomly selected 8 decamer primers amplified 49 RAPD
marker loci. Out of them, 26 loci were found to be polymorphic.
Average bands per primer were 6.125, while average
polymorphic bands per primer were 3.25. The PIC value of
RAPD markers was with an average of 0.27. Five ISSR
primers amplified 31 ISSR marker loci. Among these, 9 were
polymorphic across all the rice bean accessions. Percent
polymorphism ranged up to 83.33. Average bands per primer
were 6.20, while average polymorphic bands per primer were
1.80. The average of PIC scores for ISSR markers was 0.104.
Keywords: Genetic variation, ISSR, Phenotypic
coefficient, RAPD, Rice bean
Rice bean (Vigna umbellata) belongs to genus Vigna,
subgenus Ceratotropis (Piper) Verdc this includes azuki
bean group. Rice bean is a traditional crop grown across
South, Southeast and East Asia and its wild form is
distributed across a wide area of the tropical monsoon
forest zone from eastern India, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand,
Laos and Southeast China (Seehalak et al. 2006). It is
an important tropical legume plant, identified as an under
exploited species. It is used as vegetable, folk medicine
and fodder in Southeast Asian countries (Wu et al. 2001).
Rice bean is a good sources of protein; essential amino
acids, essential fatty acids and minerals, and the dried
seeds make an excellent addition to a cereal based diet.
150
Molecular technique is a tool to detect the extent
and structure of genetic variation applying molecular
markers, providing insights into the diversity of crop
varieties and potential contributions represented by their
wild relatives. In this paper we report the variability at
phenotypic and molecular level in rice bean. The objectives
of the present study were to determine the nature and
amount of genetic variability for fodder yield and its
components and to detect the genetic diversity among
the germplasm by RAPD and ISSR markers.
Material and methods
Leaf samples of rice bean genotypes (Table 1) were
collected after 25-30 days of sowing. Genomic DNA was
isolated using procedure described earlier by Saghai-
Maroof et al. (1984). To evaluate genetic differences among
rice bean genotypes, 20 RAPD and 15 ISSR markers
were tested. Out of these 35 markers, eight RAPD and
five ISSR primers were selected on the basis of capability
to produce bands in all the genotypes. Selected primers
were confirmed by repeating the reaction twice before
employing them for diversity analysis. Amplified products
were separated on 1.5% agarose gel (Sigma, USA) in 1X
TAE buffer and the size of amplified DNA fragments was
estimated on the basis of 1Kb plus ladder (Fermentas,
USA). Gels stained with ethidium bromide were run for
approximately 4h at 65V.
Evaluation of fragment patterns was carried out by
similarity index. Reproducible bands were scored
manually as '1' or '0' for presence or absence of the bands.
The final RAPD and ISSR generated data were used to
calculate pair wise similarity coefficients (Jaccard 1908)
using the Similarity for Qualitative Data (SIMQUAL) format
of NTSYS-pc version 2.1 (Numerical Taxonomy and
Multivariate Analysis System) software package (Rohlf
2002). Cluster analysis was performed on the basis of
genetic similarity matrix and the resulting similarity
coefficients were used for constructing dendrogram using
the Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic
Average (UPGMA) with the SAHN module of NTSYS-pc.
Results and discussion
amplifications through PCR. Out of 15 decamer primers
only 8 primers responded to all the accessions. These 8
decamer primers amplified 49 RAPD marker loci (Table
2). The size of amplified fragments ranged from 240-
1600bp. Out of these 49 bands, 26 bands (53.06%) were
polymorphic revealing presence of diversity among the
accessions under study. Muthusamy et al. 2002 also
observed high degree of polymorphism using RAPD
markers in rice bean landraces. Other pulses exhibiting
substantial diversity within germplasm are Italian common
bean (Marotti et al. 2006), domesticated cowpea and its
wild progenitors (Ba et al. 2004) and common bean
landraces (Maciel et al. 2001).

Genetic information at DNA level could be more reliable Primer OPC-15 amplified a specific electromorph
to reflect the suitable genetic difference between the of 245bp in accession JRB07-54-3 (Sample 37). As this
accessions as it is normally not subjected to specific accession exhibited highest green fodder yield,
environmental variation. During the present investigation dry fodder yield per day and crude fiber percent among
out of 94 accessions of rice bean, 38 were selected on all the accessions under study, it can be predicted that
the basis of diversity analysis at phenotypic level
exhibiting better fodder and crude protein yields. The Table 2. Number of bands obtained using RAPD and
genomic DNA of 38 accessions was explored using ISSR ISSR markers
and RAPD markers to assess genetic variability among
them. Primer TB MB PB PP PIC
RAPD
RAPD analysis
OPC-09 10 0 10 100.00 0.683
OPC-10 4 4 0 0.0 0.000
The RAPD analysis was carried out using decamer
primers from Operon Technologies Inc. for DNA OPC-11 10 0 10 100.00 0.679
OPC-13 4 4 0 0.0 0.000
Table 1. List of rice bean genotypes used for OPC-15 5 0 5 100.00 0.450
polymorphism study OPC-16 4 4 0 0.0 0.000
OPC-19 4 4 0 0.0 0.000
S. Genotype S. Genotype S. Genotype
OPH-20 8 7 1 12.5 0.0841
1. BFRB-3 14. JRB06-3 27. JRB07-1-1
Total 51 23 28 - -
2. BFRB-3-1 15. JRB06-8-1 28. JRB07-33-1
Average 6.375 3.5 39.06 0.237
3. BFRB-6 16. JRB06-8-2 29. JRB07-33-2
ISSR
4. KRB-167 17. JRB06-9 30. JRB07-34-1
UBC-880 7 3 4 57.14 0.260
5. Bidhan-1 18. JRB06-9-1 31. JRB07- 35-1
UBC-885 6 1 5 83.33 0.259
6. Bidhan-1-1 19. JRB06-11 32. JRB07-35-2
UBC-821 7 7 0 0.0 0.000
7. BFRB-8 20. JRB06-13 33. JRB07-35-3
UBC-851 5 5 0 0.0 0.000
8. BFRB-8-1 21. JRB06-13-1 34. JRB07-36-1
UBC-853 6 6 0 0.0 0.000
9. JRB-06 22. JRB06-10 35. JRB07-39-1
Total 31 22 9 - -
10. JRB-06-1 23. JRB06-114 36. JRB07-54-2
Average 6.20 1.8 28.09 0.104
11. BFRB-9 24. JRB04-1 37. JRB07-54-3
TB-Total bands, MB-Monomorphic bands, PB-
12. KRB-19 25. JRB04-2 38. JRB07-1-1
Polymorphic bands, PP-Percentage polymorphism, PIC-
13. KRB-19-1 26. JRB07-1 Polymorphic Information Content

151
marker OPC-15 may be associated with these traits and
will be a suitable object for further investigation to reveal
its linkage with specific trait/gene. The cluster analysis
for selected 38 accessions of rice bean using 8 RAPD
markers was done using NTSYS-pc software programme.
The cluster analysis grouped accessions into six clusters
(Fig 1). The first cluster contained three accessions 1, 9,
and 16 while the second cluster occupied thirteen
accessions 3, 5, 6, 11, 19, 13, 14, 35, 22, 30, 27, 18 and
2. The third cluster consisted of seven accessions 4, 15,
7, 12, 8, 10 and 17 and the fourth one had seven
accessions 20, 28, 26, 29, 34, 21 and 37. The fifth cluster
contained three accessions 23, 31 and 36 and the last
cluster consisted of five accessions 24, 25, 33, 32 and
38. Among these accessions JRB06-9-1 (sample 18) and
BFRB-3-1 (Sample 2) were closely related with each other
but differed from all other accessions. Accession JRB07-
1-1 (sample 38) showed the highest diversity from all other
accessions as per dendrogram analysis. This accession
also produced highest number of leaves and can be used
as a parent in a hybridization programme for developing
fodder rice bean varieties.
ISSR analysis
A set of 12 ISSR primers (UBC primers of 16-20 bases)
were used to analyze genetic diversity among selected
38 accessions. Out of 12 ISSR primers only 5 primers
responded with all the accessions. These five primers
amplified 31 marker loci with amplified fragments size
between 230-1100 bp. Out of these 31 loci, 9 were found
Fig. 1. Dendogram generated showing relationship
among rice bean germplasm using RAPD markers
152
to be polymorphic (22.6%) across all the rice bean
accessions under study. Ajibade et al. (2000) reported
that ISSR primers generate 3 to 26 markers with an
average of 12.94 per accession in Vigna (Table 2). Similar
results have been reported also with ISSR markers by
Marotti et al. (2006) among Italian common bean
landraces and Muthusamy et al. (2002) in rice bean
landraces.
Based on ISSR markers, genetic diversity among
38 accessions of rice bean was estimated and a
dendrogram was generated by UPGMA cluster analysis
based on similarity coefficient. The cluster analysis
grouped 38 accessions of rice bean into five major clusters
(Fig 2). The first cluster contained two accessions 1 and
6 .The Second cluster comprised seven accessions 3,
24, 8, 9, 20, 21 and 23. The third cluster occupied six 4,
5, 25, 26, 31 and 32. The fourth cluster contained eleven
accessions 7, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 11 and 12
while the last cluster with eleven accessions 22, 29, 30,
33, 35, 36, 27, 28, 34, 37 and 28. Accession JRB06-10
(sample 22) exhibited highest diversity among 38
accessions in UPGMA analysis. Fang et al. (2006) in
cowpea and Ajibade et al. (2000) in Vigna also observed
high diversity with resembling cluster patterns.
The total number of polymorphic and discriminant
fragments were found to be higher with RAPD as compared
to ISSR. Similar results were also obtained in rice bean
as more polymorphic loci were detected with RAPD
(70.30%) than with ISSR fingerprinting (61.79%)
(Muthusamy et al. 2008).
Fig. 2. Dengrogram genrrated showing relationship
among rice bean germplasm using ISSR markers
 During the present investigation with rice bean
germplasm, considerable level of diversity was revealed
by the dendrogram developed from molecular analysis.
In addition, the excellent attributes of RAPD and ISSR
markers could be of great importance for cultivar
identification and estimating genetic variability among the
selected rice bean accessions. It will provide a means to
formulate a breeding strategy for the genetic enhancement
of rice bean, a potential pulse fodder crop.
jkbl chu ,d egRoiq.kZ Qly gS tks lCth] yksd fpfdRlk vkSj pkjs
ds :i esa iz;ksx dh tkrh gS A blds 38 foHksnksa dks vkj-,-ih-Mh- rFkk
vkbZ-,l-,l-vkj- dk mi;ksx dj vf.od fo'ys"k.k gsrq p;fur fd;k
x;k Fkk A vVdyksa ij vk/kkfjr 8 izkbelZ us 49 vkj-,-ih-Mh- ekdZlZ
fcUnqiFkksa dks ifjyf{kr fd;k ftuesa ls 26 ikyhekfQZd Fks vkSj 6-125
cS.M izfr izkbej Fks tcfd ikyhekfQZd cS.M izfr izkbej 3-25 Fks A
vkj-,-ih-Mh- ekdZlZ dh ih-vkb-lh- dk vkSlr 0-27 Fkk A ik¡p
vkbZ-,l-,l-vkj- izkbelZ us 31 ekdZj fcUnqiFkksa dks ifjyf{kr fd;k
ftuesa ls 9 ikyhekfQZd Fks A vkSlr ikyhekfQZTe 83-33 izfr'kr~ rd
Fkk ,oa izfr izkbej vkSlr cS.M 6-20 tcfd izfr izkbej vkSlr
ikyhekfQZd cS.M 1-80 Fks A vkbZ-,l-,l-vkj- ds fy, vkSlr ih-
vkbZ-lh- dk eku 0-104 Fkk A
References
Ajibade SR, Weeden NF, Michite S (2000) Inter simple
sequence repeat analysis of genetic relationships
in the genus Vigna. Euphytica 111(1):47-55
Ba FS, Remy SP, Gepts P (2004) Genetic diversity in cowpea
[Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] As revealed by RAPD
markers. Genetic Resour Crop Evol 51:539-550
Fang J, Chao CT, Robertsand PA, Ehlers JD (2007) Genetic
diversity of cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] in
four West African and USA breeding programs as
determined by AFLP analysis. Genet Resour Crop
Evol 54:1119-1209
153
Maciel FL, Garald LTS, Echevarrigaray S (2001) RAPD
markers variability among cultivars and landraces
of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) of South
Brazil. Euphytica 120(2):257-263
Marotti I, Bonetti A, Minelli M, Cizonea P Dinelli G (2006)
Characterization of some Italian common bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) landraces by RAPD, semi-
random and ISSR molecular markers. Genet
Resour Crop Evol 54:175-188
Muthusamy S, Kanagarajan S, Ponnusamy S (2008)
Efficiency of RAPD and ISSR markers system in
accessing genetic variation of rice bean (Vigna
umbellata) landraces. Electronic J Biotech 11:3451-
3458
Rohlf FJ (2002) NTSYS-pc: numerical taxonomy system
ver.2.1. Exeter Publishing Ltd, Setauket
Saghai-Maroof MA, Soliman KM, Jorgensen RA, Allard RW
(1984) Ribosomal DNA spacer-length
polymorphism in barley: Mendelian, inheritance,
chromosomal location and population dynamics.
Proc Natl Acad Sci 81:8014-8018
Seehalak W, Tomooka N, Waranyuwat A, Thipyapong P,
Laosuwan P, Kaga A, Vaughan DA (2006) Genetic
diversity of the Vigna germplasm from Thailand and
neighbouring
(Manuscript Receivd : 17-02-2015; Accepted : 28-08-2015)
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 154-159 (2015)
Bioethanol production from waste potato using co-culture of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis
Yogesh Sudam Patil, L.P.S. Rajput, Yogendra Singh and Keerti Tantwai
Biotechnology Centre
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Abstract
The present study was carried out with the objectives of
optimization of fermentation variables for maximum yield of
bioethanol using co-culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
and Zymomonas mobilis and quality evaluation of bioethanol
produced. In this investigation on optimization of fermentation
variables for maximum recovery of bioethanol using co-culture
of the yeast and bacteria,key factors were optimized in solid
state fermentation (SSF) and simultaneous saccharification
and fermentation (SiSF) method for obtaining better recovery
of bioethanol. The results of various experiments revealed
that with the SSF technique using co cultures of yeast and
bacteria the highest yield of bioethanol (5.9%) was obtained
at incubation temperature of 30°C after 96 hr of incubation
period whereas the residual sugar level after fermentation
at incubation temperature of 30°C was obtained at a low of
0.202 mg/ml of fermented broth after 96 hr of incubation
period with respect to initial sugar level of 0.408 mg/ml of
medium. In case of SiSF, highest yield of bioethanol (5.5%)
was obtained at a pH of 4.5 with incubation temperature of
25°C after 96 hr of incubation period with the residual sugar
left to a minimum of 0.218 mg/ml of fermented broth from the
initial sugar level of 0.412 mg/ml of medium under a set of
above mentioned fermentation variables. On quality
evaluation of bioethanol produced , the results analysed
showed that with the SSF technique, the values of density ,
viscosity and boiling point of bioethanol produced by co-
culture were found to be 1.0218g/ml, 0.98 centipoise and
78.3°C respectively . Like wise in case of SiSF method, the
values of density, viscocity and boiling point were found to be
1.0245 g/ml, 0.99 centipoise and 78.1°C respectively .
Keywords: Bioethanol, Bio fuel, Ligno-cellulose,
Fermentation, Yeast, Bacteria, Co-culture
Ethyl alcohol produced from biomass based waste
material is called bioethanol. It can be produced from a
large variety of natural renewable materials such as
agricultural crops, land forest products, as well as from
154
industrial and domestic waste such as paper, textile and
beverages. In the present scenario, there is a growing
interest for ecologically and economically sustainable
biofuel production. In the past years, feasibility of
lignocelluloses containing materials for ethyl alcohol
production has been explored depending upon the
availability in the region (Shindo and Tachibana 2006).
An ethanologenic microorganisms capable of fermenting
all of the sugars released from lignocellulosic biomass
through a saccharification process is essential for
secondary bioethanol production (Yanase et al. 2010).
The rapidly growing demand for energy, a dwindling and
unstable supply of petroleum and the emergence of global
warming from the use of fossil fuels have rekindled a strong
interest in pursuing alternative and renewable energy
sources. Presently, fermentation of sugar to ethanol is
best established process for conversion of biomass to
energy (Classen et al. 1999). Fermentation of starch
based raw material leading to the production of biofuel is
economical and should be followed in India (Sharma et
al. 2006). In our country, ethanol is usually produced by
fermentation of molasses and its less availability has
resulted in nonviability of molasses based industries. It
is therefore necessary to explore the possibilities for the
production of bioethanol from starch rich waste materials
as it is available in plenty in our country.
A large quantity of inexpensive waste potatoes from
farm is available in surplus in the state of Madhya Pradesh
for utilization as substrate in the production of bioethanol.
These cheaply and easily available waste potatoes contain
a considerable amount of starchy material required for
optimum growth of microorganism used for production of
bioethanol. Not much work has been done on the
utilization of waste potatoes in our country. Hence there
is an urgent need to explore the possibility for utilization
of waste potatoes in the production of bioethanol as plenty
of waste potato is available in the state of MP. keeping in
view the above fact following research work was planned
with objectives as to analyse the proximate composition
of waste potatoes collected from different locations, along
with optimize the fermentation variables for maximum yield
of bioethanol using co-culture of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis and evaluate the
quality of bioethanol produced.
Materials and methods
The present study was conducted in the
Fermentation Technology Laboratory, Biotechnology
Centre, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya,
Jabalpur (M.P.).Waste potato tubers (Fig.1) were
purchased from Adhartal vegetable market Jabalpur (MP).
The bioethanol producing microorganisms co-culture viz.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae MTCC 170 and Zymomonas
mobilis MTCC 2427 were obtained from Institute of
Microbial Technology (IMTECH) Chandigarh, Punjab (Fig
2 and 3). In this experiment, waste potatoes were taken
as starch source (substrate). Theculture of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis were
grown and maintained on Yeast Extract Peptone Dextrose
(YEPD) and Rich medium (RM) media respectively. The
culture of yeast and bacteria were maintained by sub
culturing them every 15 days on YEPD and RM agar plates,
incubating for 24 and 48 hrs respectively at 30°C and
thereafter storing in a refrigerator at 4°C until further use.
Inoculum was prepared separately in YEPD and RM broth.
These inoculums were used to inoculate sterilized
potatoes sample.
Fermentation methods were used for production
of bioethanol from waste potatoes by employing solid state
fermentation (SSF) as described by Sharma et al. (2006)
and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SiSF)
as described by O'Leary (2000) was adopted for
conducting the experiment. For solid state fermentation
(SSF) and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
(SiSF) method, different variables viz. temperature, pH,
Fig.1. waste potatoes used for Fig.2. Strains of Saccharomyces
bioethanol production cerevisiae (MTCC 170)
155
and incubation period were studied for better recovery of
bioethanol. In SSF, by maintaining the optimum condition
of moisture content at 60% level, production of bioethanol
was carried out at different incubation temperatures viz.
25, 30 and 35°C for different incubation periods viz. 3, 4,
5 and 6 days in order to attain for maximum recovery of
bioethanol using co-culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
MTCC 170 and Zymomonas mobilis MTCC 2427. In SiSF,
The process of fermentation was carried out at different
temperatures viz. 25, 30 and 35°C for different incubation
periods viz. 3, 4, 5 and 6 days with different ranges of pH
viz. 4.5, 5.0 and 5.5 pH for maximum recovery of bioethanol
using co-culture of Saccharomyces cerevisiae MTCC 170
and Zymomonas mobilis MTCC 2427. The yield of
bioethanol was determined by distillation and dehydration
process adopted by O'Leary (2000). Distillation and
dehydration was done using rotatory evaporator at 78 ±
2°C under vacuum. Potato tubers were analysed for
various chemical constituents like moisture, dry matter
content, amylase and amylopectin contents according
to AOAC (1980). Total starch content (Keer, 1950), total
sugar (Miller 1959) were also recorded. Quality of
bioethanol produced was assessed using three different
parameters like density determination using pycnometer
(Caylak and Sukan 1998), viscosity by Ostwald
viscosimeter (Bernnan and Tipper 1967) and Boiling point
determination as par O' Leary (2000).
Results and discussion
The effect of incubation temperatures and incubation
periods on yield of bioethanol using co-culture of the yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae MTCC 170) and bacteria
(Zymomonas mobilis MTCC 2427) applying the process
of solid state fermentation (SSF) is summarized in (Table
1). This depicts that co-culture gave maximum yield (5.9%)
of bioethanol at a incubation period of 96 hr having
maintained optimum incubation temperature of 30°C. The
values of bioethanol yield were found to be lowest and
Fig.3. Strains of Zymomonas mobilis
(MTCC 2427)
Table 1. Effect of incubation temperature on bioethanol Table 3. Effect of incubation temperature on residual sugar
yield at different incubation period in SSF method in solid state fermentation (SSF) at different incubation
periods
Substrate taken - 50 g, Water added - 30 ml
Substrate taken - 50 g, Water added - 30 ml
Incubation period (hr) Yield of bioethanol (%)
Temperature (°C) Incubation period (hr) Residual sugar after
25 30 35 fermentation
Temperature (°C)
72 4.1 4.7 2.8 25 30 35
96 5.8 5.9 4.6
72 0.321 0.372 0.387
120 4.3 5.6 3.9
96 0.121 0.202 0.254
144 2.5 5.0 2.9
120 0.095 0.087 0.097
* Values are average of triplicates
144 0.077 0.056 0.067
* Values are average of triplicates

Table 2. Effect of different pH on yield* of Bioethanol in Table 4. Effect of diffrent pH on residual sugar in
Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SiSF) Simultaneous Saccharificaiton and Fermentation (SiSF)
at different incubation temperatures and incubation periods at different incubation temperatures and incubation periods
using co-culture of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae
MTCC 170) and bacteria (Zymomonas mobilis MTCC Substrate taken - 50 g, Water added - 30 ml
2427)
Incubation period pH Residual sugar after
Substrate taken - 50 g, Water added - 30 ml (hr) Fermentation (mg/ml of
fermented broth)
Incubation Period pH Yield of bioethanol (%) Temperature (oC)
(hr) Temperature (0C) 25 30 35
25 30 35
72 4.5 0.312 0.352 0.321
72 4.5 3.5 3.0 2.6
5.0 0.332 0.334 0.365
5.0 2.8 3.1 2.4
5.5 0.314 0.384 0.344
5.5 2.8 2.6 2.7
96 4.5 0.124 0.218 0.134
96 4.5 5.5 4.1 3.2
5.0 0.132 0.221 0.214
5.0 3.5 3.9 3.3
5.5 0.112 0.231 0.212
5.5 3.7 3.4 3.3
120 4.5 4.5 3.7 4.0 120 4.5 0.092 0.103 0.109

5.0 4.2 3.5 4.4 5.0 0.102 0.097 0.112

5.5 4.1 4.1 4.3 5.5 0.092 0.105 0.101

144 4.5 3.4 3.4 3.3 144 4.5 0.042 0.063 0.082
5.0 3.9 2.6 3.4 5.0 0.053 0.074 0.084
5.5 3.5 3.6 3.5 5.5 0.063 0.074 0.032
*Values are average of triplicates *Values are average of triplicates

156
recorded as 2.5% from the co-culture of yeast and bacteria
at incubation temperature of 25°C with incubation period
of 144 hr. It was interesting to note that with the
advancement in incubation period from 72 to 96 hrs, there
was a relative increase in bioethanol yield and thereafter
it got reduced for both the strains of yeast and bacteria.
Various workers have also reported the similar findings
using yeast and bacteria (Liimatainen et al. 2004 Ming-
Xong et al. 2009). Similarly, Ming-Xiong et al. (2009)
reported 10.53 g/L of bioethanol yield from raw sweet potato
starch (20 g starch/lit) using genetically engineered
Zymomonas mobilis after 96 hr of incubation period. The
findings in the present investigation indicated that the
efficiency of bioconversion of starch into bioethanol was
greater due to maximum enzymatic activity at a
incubation period of 96 hr with a incubation temperature
of 30°C for the co-culture of yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae MTCC 170) and bacteria (Zymomonas mobilis
MTCC 2427). Hence it was concluded that the incubation
temperature of 30°C for the co-culture of yeast
(Saccharomyces cerevisiaeMTCC 170) and bacteria
(Zymomonas mobilis MTCC 2427) with the incubation
period of 96 hr for found to be optimum under SSF
technique for achieving the maximum yield of bioethanol.
The findings obtained in the present investigation showed
that these are in agreement with the reported observations
by earlier workers. Although some variations observed in
the values in present investigation might be due to the
genetic variability of the strains used and culture
conditions maintained.
The effect of pH, incubation temperature and
incubation period on yield of bioethanol in Simultaneous
Saccharification and Fermentation (SiSF) was also
studied taking 50g substrate with 50ml distilled water (Table
2). The maximum yield of bioethanol (5.5%) at a
incubation temperature of 25°C with incubation period of
96 hr and having maintained the pH at 4.5. It was also
observed that there was a relative increase in bioethanol
yield at incubation temperature of 25°C with the relative
increase in incubation period upto 96 hr. However the
bioethanol yield further got decreased at a incubation
Table 5. Quality attributes* of bioethanol produced from
co-culture of two different strains using SSF and SiSF
methods
Quality attributes SSF SiSF
Density (g/ml) 1.0218 1.0245
Viscosity (centipoise) 0.98 0.99
Boiling point (° C) 78.3 78.1
* Values are average of triplicates
157
period of 120 and 144 hr. The decrease in bioethanol yield
might be due to less enzymatic activity after an incubation
period of 96 hr. Several workers have also reported the
bioethanol yield almost in the similar range from
bioconversion of starch rich substrates using yeast and
bacteria (Abouzied et al. 1986 O'Leary 2000).
Initial sugar present in the fermentation medium
got reduced relatively with the progressive increase in
the incubation period upto 120 hr irrespective of the co-
culture (yeast and bacteria) and incubation temperature
(25, 30 and 35° C) used in the method of solid state
fermentation (SSF). (Table3). It was also observed that
there was a relative decrease in the level of residual sugar
after a fermentation period of 72 hrs proceeding to 144 hr.
In case of the co-culture of yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae MTCC 170) and bacteria (Zymomonas mobilis
MTCC 2427), the level of residual sugar after fermentation
was found to be minimum (0.067 mg/ml of medium) at a
incubation temperature of 35° C and incubation period of
144 hr. These observations indicated that the enzymatic
hydrolysis of sugar must have taken place at a higher
rate under the above mentioned fermentation conditions
resulting in maximum reduction in the level of residual
sugar and in turn giving rise to maximum production of
bioethanol. Various workers have also reported the level
of residual sugars with respect to initial sugar level,
incubation temperature and period of incubation (Hoskins
and Lyons 2009). The similar trend of bioconversion of
sugar into ethanol resulting in the reduction of residual
sugar level at different time intervals.
Different observations depicted in table 4 on
different levels of pH (4.5, 5.0 and 5.5) at different
incubation temperatures (25, 30 and 35° C) and incubation
periods (72, 96 120 and 144 hrs) showed that the
bioconversion of sugar into bioethanol was relatively low
at a pH of 5.0 as compared to pH of 4.5 and 5.5
irrespective of the incubation temperature, incubation
period used in the Simultaneous Saccharificaiton and
Fermentation (SiSF) process of fermentation. It was also
observed that pH of 4.5 was found to be optimum for better
conversion of sugar using co-culture at a incubation
temperature of 25° C and incubation period of 96 hr. The
findings in the present investigation showed that the levels
of residual sugar were found to be minimum under above
mentioned fermentation conditions. The reason for higher
efficiency of conversion of sugar might be the higher activity
of enzymes involved in the hydrolysis of sugar into
bioethanol. Ado et al. (2009) reported that using co-culture
of A. niger and S. cerevisiaeunder optimized conditions
such as incubation temperature, incubation period and
pH, the sugar concentration present in cassava starch
reduced from 0.24 g/100 ml on first day of fermentation to
0.01 g/100 ml on the seventh day in simultaneous
saccarification and fermentation (SiSF) method. It was
further reported that the concentration of sugar got
reduced rapidly and consistently during 24 hr of
fermentation and thereafter decrease was found to be
gradual upto 96 hr of incubation period. These findings in
the present investigations are in agreement with the result
of earlier workers as reported above.
The quality of bioethanol, produced using two
different methods (SSF) and (SiSF) of fermentation was
assessed by various quality attributes such as density,
viscosity and boiling point .The results analysed showed
(Table 5) that with the SSF technique, the density of
bioethanol produced by co-culture was found to be 1.0218
g/ml, whereas the viscosity value for bioethanol produced
by co-culture was found to be 0.98 centipoise. Likewise,
the value of boiling point of bioethanol produced by co-
culture was found to be 78.3°C. In case of SiSF method,
the density of bioethanol produced from co-culture was
found to be 1.0245 g/ml. Likewise, the viscosity of
bioethanol produced by co-culture was found to be 0.99
centipoise. Similarly, the value of boiling point of
bioethanol produced from co-culture was found to be
78.1°C. Several workers have also reported the density,
viscosity and boiling point of bioethanol under varied
fermentation conditions (Caylak and Sukan 1998
Ghobadian et al. 2008 O'Leary 2000). Bioethanol
production from waste potato has also been reported
using yeast (S.cerevisiae) and bacteria (Z. mobilis MTCC
2427) separately by Rai et al. 2013 a, Rai et al. 2013 b
respectively.
bl 'kks/k dk;Z esa ;hLV ,oa thok.kq ds lg&dYpj ds }kjk ck;ks bZFksukWy
dh vf/kdre mRikndrk ,oa xq.koRrk dk v/;;u fd;k x;k A blds
vUrxZr ,l-,l-,Q- o ,l-vkbZ-,l-,Q- fof/k dk mi;ksx ck;ks&bZFksukWy
dh vf/kDre izkfIr ds fy;s fd;k x;k A ,l-,l-,Q- fof/k dks viuk
dj ck;ks&bZFksukWy dk vf/kDre mRiknu 5.9% izkIr gqvk ftlds fy;s
rkiØe dks 30 0C ,oa le;kof/k 96 ?k.Vs ntZ dh x;h A ,l-vkbZ-
,l-,Q- fof/k ds }kjk vf/kDre mRiknu 5.5% izkIr gqvk ftlds fy;s
rkiØe 25 0C o 96 ?k.Vs dh le;kof/k ntZ dh xbZ A xq.koRrk dk
v/;;u djus ij ,l-,l-,Q- fof/k }kjk izkIr ck;ks&bZFksukWy dk /kuRo
¼1.0218 g/ml½ foLdksflVh ¼0.98 lsaVh iksvkbt½ o DoFkkuad ¼78.3
158
0
C½
tcfd ,l-vkbZ-,l-,Q- fof/k }kjk izkIr ck;ks&bZFksukWy ds fy;s
mijksDr ekud Øe'k% 1.0245 (g/ml), 0.99 ,oa 78.1 0C izkIr gq;sA
References
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L, Stams AJM, de Vries SS, Weusthuis RA (1999)
Utilisation of biomass for the supply of energy
carriers. Appl Microbiol Biotech 52:741-755
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Production of bioethanol and sunflower methyl ester
and investigation of fuel blend properties. J Agri Sci
and Tech 10:225-232
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use of solid-state fermentation products grown on
DDGS. J Inst Brew115:64-70
Keer RW (1950) Chemistry and industry of starch. Academic
press, Inc, New York. pp 659- 672
Liimatainen H, Kuokkanen T, Kaariainen J (2004)
Development of bio-ethanol production from waste
potatoes. In: Pongrácz E (ed.) proceedings of the
waste minimization and resources use optimization
conference. University of Oulu, Finland. Oulu
University Press: Oulu. Pp 123-129
Miller G (1959) Use of di nitro salicylic acid reagent for
determination of reducing sugar. Ana chem
319:426-428
Ming-xiong H, Feng H, Bai F, Li Y, Liu X, Zhang Y ( 2009)
Direct production of ethanol from raw sweet potato
starch using genetically engineered Zymomonas
mobilis. Afri J Microbiol Res:721-726
O'Leary D (2000). Ethanol online: available on http://
www.Ethanol.org
Sharma V, Kent D, Rausch M, Tumbleson E, Singh V (2006)
 Starch Fermentation Characteristics for Different
Proportions of Amylose and Amylopectin. Ameri Soci
Agril Bio Eng St. Joseph, Michigan www.asabe.org
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spent grain - a by-product of beer production. Master
Brew Assoc Am Tech Q 43: 189-193
Rai SK, Rajput LPS, Singh Y, Tantwai K (2013a) Studies on
Bioethanol production from Waste Potatoes using
yeast (S.cerevisiae) Plant Arch 13 (02): 847-853
Rai SK, Rajput LPS, Singh Y, Tantwai K (2013b) Studies on
Bioethanol production from Waste Potatoes using
Bacteria (Z. mobilis MTCC 2427)". Appl Biol Res 15
(2):154-158
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455

(Manuscript Receivd :17-0-2015; Accepted :25-08-2015)

159
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 160-164 (2015)
Estimation of genetic variability for grain yield and its attributes in
aromatic rice genotypes under conditions of Jabalpur, Madhya
Pradesh
Neha Sohgaura, G.K. Koutu, D.K. Mishra, S.K. Singh and Arpita Shrivasatava
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
Email: sohgauraneha@gmail.com
Abstract
Present investigation was carried out to elucidate information
on nature and magnitude of genetic variation observed for
yield and its attributing traits in 103 aromatic rice genotypes
collected from different geographical locations. Analysis of
variance revealed significant differences for all the traits under
study. High genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variation
was recorded for spikelet density, harvest index, number of
fertile spikelets panicle-1, length breadth ratio of cooked rice,
length breadth ratio, length breadth ratio of decorticated grain,
number of spikelets panicle-1, panicle weight plant-1, grain
yield plant-1, number of tillers plant-1, number of productive
tillers plant-1 , biological yield plant-1, grain length of cooked
rice, plant height, grain length, panicle index and decorticated
grain length. The traits spikelet density, harvest index, number
of fertile spikelets per panicle, length breadth ratio of cooked
rice, length breadth ratio, length breadth ratio of decorticated
grain, number of spikelet per panicle, panicle weight plant -1,
grain yield plant -1 number of tillers plant -1, number of
productive tillers plant-1, biological yield plant-1, grain length
after cooking, grain length, plant height, panicle index,
decorticated grain length, days to maturity, days to fifty percent
flowering, grain breadth after cooking, thousand grain weight,
elongation index, grain breadth, decorticated grain breadth,
panicle length plant -1, days to fifty percent flowering,
elongation ratio, amylose content and head rice recovery %
exhibited high heritability coupled with high genetic advance.
It indicates that the heritability is most likely due to additive
gene effect and direct selection may be effective for these
traits.
Keywords: variability, heritability, genetic advance,
aromatic rice
Rice is the world's most important crop and a primary
source of food for more than half the world's population. It
160
is one of the most diversified crop species due to its
adaptation to a wide range of geographical, ecological
and climatic regions. Aroma in cultivated rice is being
appreciated by consumers and represents a high-value-
added trait. Also, high milling returns and good cooking
quality are often associated with aromatic rice varieties.
After the achievement of production goals, acquisition of
better intrinsic quality of rice has been identified as one
of the possible avenues and challenges of the next decade.
For the development of high yielding varieties with quality,
the information on variability and genetic parameters of
grain quality attributes and their association with each
other including grain yield is essential to formulate
breeding strategies for grain quality improvement,
Assessment of variability for yield and its component
characters is of utmost importance prior to planning for
an appropriate breeding strategy. Genetic parameters
such as genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) and
phenotypic coefficient of variation (PCV) are helpful tools
in detecting the amount of variability present in the
germplasm. Heritability and genetic advance are important
selection parameters in estimating the resultant effect in
selection of best genotypes for yield and its attributing
traits. Keeping eye on these objectives the present
investigation was carried out to know the extent of genetic
variability in genetically diverse group of aromatic
genotypes collected from different geographical locations
Material and methods
The experimental material consisted of 103 aromatic rice
genotypes planted in a randomized complete block design
with three replication at Seed Breeding Farm, Department
of Plant Breeding and Genetics, JNKVV, Jabalpur during
 3.3210**119.7740**
18.8260
Kharif season 2013 and 2014. Twenty four day old

0.1160** 15.9230**
559.8590** 464.1120** 15.7360** 13.9260** 1575.1750** 37.3600** 120.1970** 5092.7210** 4546.2350** 110.0300**

0.0520

0.2280

0.0030
H%
1.7870

1.1260
seedlings of each genotype were transplanted in three

SFP

AC
row of 2.0 m length with a spacing of 22.5 cm between
rows and 10 cm between plants with in rows at the rate of
20 plants per row. The crop was grown with the

0.0440

0.0010

0.0008

0.0002
LWR
525.0940

12.5160
supplementation of fertilizer N, P and K @ 80, 60 and 40

EI
NOFS
kg ha-1, respectively. Standard agronomic practices were
followed. A composite sample of 10 plants from the middle

0.7570** 3.5940** 0.0840**

row was chosen to record observations on these plants

0.0000

0.0000
0.4820**
0.0520

0.0006

ER
for yield and its contributing characters. The genetic

GW
606.2360

13.1720
parameter for grain yield and its attributes were calculated

NOS
by employing standard statistical parameters.

LBRAC
0.0770

0.0010
10.6750**
0.0980

0.0010
Result and discussion

GL
0.9880

0.0890
PW

0.0730

0.0005
GBAC
According to results of pooled analysis of two years,
analysis of variance indicated that the differences among

62.5500** 770.2450** 783.2630** 217.4000**

0.0810

0.2180
genotypes were highly significant for all the traits studied.

HI
5.5050

0.3060
This indicated that the genotypes had sufficient amount

2.1950** 11.2820**
PL

0.1090

0.0007
GLAC
of variability. Phenotypic coefficient of variation estimates
Mean sums of square
were higher than the genotypic coefficient of variation for

Mean sums of square

Mean sums of square

30.4810
all character under study. This is due to the occurrence

3.0830
101.8670

PI
of error variance into the phenotypic coefficient of variance
2.9260
PH

LBRDG
and indicating that they all interacted with the environment

0.0420

0.0006
Table 1. Pooled analysis of variance for yield, yield and quality attributing traits

to some degree. High genotypic and phenotypic

coefficient of variation was recorded for spikelet density,

45.2280

1.1710
harvest index, number of fertile spikelets panicle-1, length BYPP
4.3060

0.0640
NOPT

breadth ratio of cooked rice, length breadth ratio, length

0.2950**
0.0500

0.0001
DGB
breadth ratio of decorticated grain, number of spikelets
panicle-1, panicle weight plant-1, grain yield plant-1, number
3.5460

0.1450
GYPP

of tillers plant-1, number of productive tillers plant -1,

5.9560

0.0730
NOT

biological yield plant-1, grain length of cooked rice, plant

4.7800**
0.0640

0.0007
height, grain length, panicle index and decorticated grain DGL
length, suggesting that, these characters are under the
92919.8390** 38.9780**

influence of genetic control. Hence, these characters can

0.0600

0.0250
33.5770

0.9000

TGW
DTM

be relied upon and simple selection can be practiced for

102 112.0650** 100.1280**
20.7320

0.1190
further improvement. These results are in consonance * Significant at 5 % ** Significant at 1 %
HRR

with Buu and Tuan (1991), Ganesan et al. (1995), Verma

1,242.9150

et al. (2000) and Jaiswal et al. (2007) for grain yield plant-1,
214.0540
37.6380

1.0990
DTF

Chauhan (1996) and Singh and Choudhary (1996) for

SD

2 21.4000

204 0.1400

harvest index, Verma et al. (2000) and Gangashetty et

M%

al. (2013) for number of tillers plant-1 and number of

productive tillers plant-1, Chauhan (1996) and Gangashetty
Source of variation d. f.

Source of variation d. f.
102
204

102
204

et al. (2013) for plant height, Buu and Tuan (1991) and
Source of variationd. f.
2

Gangashetty et al. (2013) for Panicle weight plant-1 and

grain length, Singh and Choudhary (1996), Ashvani et al.
(1997) and Verma et al. (2000) for biological yield plant-1,
Replications

Replications

Replications

Ashvani et al. (1997) for number of fertile spikelets

Genotypes

Genotypes

Genotypes

panicle-1, Ganesan et al. (1995) and Veni et al. (2006) for

length breadth ratio, length breadth ratio of decorticated
Error

Error

Error

grain and decorticated grain length.

161
 The estimates of genotypic and phenotypic
coefficient of variations were moderate for grain breadth
of cooked rice, test grain weight, elongation index, grain
width, decorticated grain width, panicle length plant-1,
days to fifty percent flowering, elongation ratio, amylose
content and head rice recovery percent. However, low
genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variations were
observed for Milling percent, spikelet fertility percent,
hulling percent and days to maturity which indicates the
existence of comparatively moderate variability for these
traits, which could be exploited for improvement through
selection in advanced generations. This result was in
agreement with the findings of Gangashetty et al. (2013)
for grain breadth and panicle length plant-1 and Karim et
al. (2007) for days to maturity.
Results of pooled analysis showed that all the traits
under study exhibited the high heritability. However, high
genetic advance was expressed by the traits spikelet
density, harvest index, number of fertile spikelets
panicle-1, length breadth ratio of cooked rice, length
breadth ratio, length breadth ratio of decorticated grain,

Table 2. Parameters of genetic variability for yield and quality attributing traits (Pooled)

Traits Mean Range GCV (%) PCV (%) h2 (bs) (%) GA GA as

Min max % of mean
DTF 103.50 77.24 134.79 13.19 13.22 99.41 28.03 27.08
DTM 140.28 114.09 163.29 8.86 8.88 99.42 25.52 18.19
NOT 10.27 4.76 17.50 22.26 22.41 98.62 4.67 45.53
NOPT 9.36 4.20 16.98 22.95 23.11 98.63 4.40 46.96
PH 105.66 63.71 169.16 21.67 21.73 99.45 47.03 44.51
PL 27.30 18.12 36.25 12.87 13.03 97.58 7.15 26.19
PW 23.26 12.13 45.50 27.20 27.23 99.78 13.02 55.97
NOS 143.01 59.40 342.76 28.77 28.88 99.23 84.44 59.04
NOFS 118.23 33.68 314.67 32.88 33.02 99.18 79.75 67.45
SFP 82.08 56.69 96.46 7.34 7.45 96.99 12.22 14.89
SD 535.05 197.65 1227.65 32.86 32.97 99.31 360.88 67.45
TGW 21.15 11.00 32.68 17.03 17.05 99.81 7.42 35.06
GYPP 17.38 9.03 33.11 26.24 26.33 99.31 9.36 53.86
BYPP 69.83 36.50 114.50 22.93 22.98 99.55 32.91 47.13
PI 76.91 31.33 98.84 20.97 21.09 98.83 33.03 42.94
HI 26.05 11.89 54.32 32.66 32.71 99.70 17.50 67.18
GL 8.74 5.50 14.04 21.58 21.58 99.98 3.89 44.45
GW 2.52 1.80 4.00 15.88 15.89 99.86 0.83 32.69
LBR 3.57 1.96 6.00 29.44 29.45 99.94 2.17 60.63
H% 72.18 60.00 87.79 8.75 8.76 99.87 13.01 18.02
M% 63.23 50.92 78.73 9.66 9.68 99.63 12.56 19.86
HRR% 54.99 40.76 71.49 10.50 10.52 99.65 11.87 21.59
DGL 6.21 3.70 10.09 20.33 20.33 99.99 2.60 41.88
DGW 2.13 1.31 3.22 14.71 14.72 99.87 0.65 30.29
LBRDG 3.00 1.59 6.11 28.49 28.50 99.94 1.76 58.67
GLAC 8.80 5.28 16.90 22.04 22.04 99.99 4.00 45.40
GWAC 2.59 1.70 4.01 19.42 19.43 99.91 1.03 39.99
LBRC 3.56 1.43 6.00 30.77 30.78 99.93 2.25 63.37
ER 1.42 1.11 1.95 11.73 11.74 99.90 0.34 24.15
EI 1.19 0.78 1.70 16.47 16.49 99.71 0.40 33.88
AC 20.33 15.00 25.30 11.33 11.33 99.94 4.74 23.33

162
number of spikelet panicle-1, panicle weight plant-1, grain
yield plant-1, number of tillers plant-1, number of productive
tillers plant-1, biological yield plant-1, grain length after
cooking, grain length, plant height, panicle index,
decorticated grain length, days to maturity, days to fifty
percent flowering, grain breadth after cooking, thousand
grain weight, elongation index, grain breadth, decorticated
grain breadth, panicle length plant-1, days to fifty percent
flowering, elongation ratio, amylose content and head rice
recovery percent indicating that the heritability is most
likely due to additive gene effect and selection may be
effective. This result was in consonance with Girish et al.
(2006), Chandra et al. (2009), Nandan et al. (2010) and
Golam et al. (2014) for grain yield plant-1, Girish et al.
(2006) and Chandra et al. (2009) for biological yield plant-1
and harvest index, Mishra and Verma (2002) and Nandan
et al. (2010) for thousand grain weight, Nandan et al.
(2010) and Verma et al. (2014) for number of spikelets
panicle-1, Hasib et al. (2004) and Panwar (2005) for number
of fertile spikelets panicle-1, Mishra and Verma (2002) for
plant height and spikelet density, Mishra and Verma
(2002), Jaiswal et al. (2007) and Nandan et al. (2010) for
number of tillers plant-1 and number of productive tillers
plant-1, Mishra and Verma (2002), Hasib et al. (2004),
Chaurasia et al. (2012) and Golam et al. (2014) for panicle
length plant-1 and panicle weight plant-1, Fatema et al.
(2011) for grain length and amylose content, Jaiswal et
al. (2007), for grain breadth and grain length after cooking,
Jaiswal et al. (2007) and Fatema et al. (2011) for length
breadth ratio, Nandan et al. (2010) grain length before
cooking and Chaurasia et al. (2012) for Days to 50%
flowering.
Conclusion
On the basis of the results of pooled analysis of two years,
it is concluded that aromatic rice genotypes included in
study revealed a high degree of variability. Less difference
between PCV and GCV indicates that these characters
are mainly controlled by the genetic factor and selection
based on these characters will be rewarding. The present
investigation revealed high heritability coupled with high
genetic advance as per cent of mean for most of the
characters indicating the presence of considerable
variation and additive gene effects. Hence, improvement
of these characters could be effective through phenotypic
selection.
/kku ds 103 lqxaf/kr thou izk#iksa esa fofHkUurk vkSj vuqokaf'kd y{k.kksa
dks v/;;u 31 pkfjf=d xq.kksa gsrq fd;k x;kA ftles vf/kdre th-lh-
oh- ,oa ih-lh-oh 17 mRiknu vk/kkfjr xq.kksa esa ik;k x;k] tcfd
163
vf/kdre oa'kkxfrRo ds lkFk vf/kdre vuqokaf'kd vfxze 29 mRiknu
vk/kkfjr xq.kksa esa ik;k x;k gSA vr% ;g pfjf=d xq.k ;ksx'khy thu
izHkko ds vuqokaf'kd fu;a=.k esa gS ,o ljy p;u fof/k }kjk vPNs
xq.k;qDr iztkfr;¡ fodflr djus esa lgk;d fl) gks ldrs gSA
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Chaurasia AK, Rai Prashant Kumar, Kumar Arvind (2012)
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Osman Mohamad (2014) Genetic analysis of F1
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performance of advanced generation lines of
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MZ (2007) Variability and genetic parameter
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and yield traits in non-segregating populations of
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and path analysis in rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes.
World J Agri Sci 6(2): 201-206
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Indian Farming 54 (8): 3-6
Singh S, Choudhary BS (1996) Variability, heritability and
genetic advance in cultivars of rice (Oryza sativa
L.). Crop Res Hisar 12(2): 165-167
Veni BK, Rani NS, Ramprasad AS (2006) Genetic parameters
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234 - 236
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(2014) Evaluation of aromatic short grain rice
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parameters. International J Res in Eng and Technol
03 (06): 103-106

(Manuscript Receivd : 28-04-2015; Accepted : 30-05-2015)

164
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 165-169 (2015)
Influence of organic, chemical and integrated nutrient management
on biochemical parameters of Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk)
Nisha Singh Keer, S.K. Dwivedi, Anubha Upadhyay, Preeti Sagar Nayak and R.K.Samaiya
Department of Plant Physiology
College of Agriculture
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
Email-skdwivedi_jnau@rediffmail.com
Abstract
Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk) belongs to the family
Plantaginaceae and commonly known as blonde psyllium,
is grown for husk and seeds. The present investigation was
conducted at Research Farm, Department of Crop and Herbal
Physiology, JNKVV, Jabalpur (M.P) during the Rabi season
2008-09. The treatment combination showed a significantly
wide variability in biochemical parameters of Isabgol.
Maximum Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, chlorophyll total,
Carotenoids content and Chlorophyll 'a/b' ratio was estimated
with T12 (50% NPK of RDF + FYM + PSB+ Zn + Azotobactor)
significantly followed by T7 ( FYM + PSB + Azotobactor ) at 90
DAS. Significantly maximum nutrient contents viz. N (3.66%),
P (0.460%), K (0.93%), Zn (40.26 mg /kg), Sulphur (0.85)
and proximate parameters viz. Protein (22.88%),
Carbohydrate (26.57%), Fat (16.49%), Fibres (33.01%), Ash
(3.21%), Moisture (8.65%), Swelling (18.79%), Husk
(37.50%), were estimated in T12 (50% NPK of RDF + FYM +
PSB+ Zn + Azotobactor), which were at par with T1 (100% of
RDF 50:25:30 NPK kg/ha) T2 (50:25:30 kg/haNPK of 100%
RDF + Zn 5 kg/ha) and T7 (FYM + PSB + Azotobactor ).
Keywords: Isabgol, fertilizers, Plantago ovata
The Plantago ovata belongs to the family Plantaginaceae
and is commonly known as blonde psyllium. India is the
sole exporter of psyllium husk and seed to the world
market. In India, at present the crop is grown in an area
over 50,000 ha and about Rs.160 billions is earned annually
through its export. In the world psyllium is commercially
cultivated in rabi season. India is the world's largest
producer and exporter of Isabgol and considered as sole
producer of isabgol in the world. In India, Isabgol having
major belt spread from semi arid to arid covering larger
area in Rajasthan and Gujarat. India ranks first in Isabgol
production (around 1 lakh tones) in world than Pakistan.
165
Gujarat grows isabgol in 24199 hectares and produces
about 26092 MT with a productivity of about 1078 kg/ha
(Anonymous 2010a). The share of Gujarat in an area
and production in the country is about 30 to 35 per cent.
About 90 % of the country's production is exported and
India is earning more than 200 crores rupees foreign
exchange (Anonymous, 2010b). In Madhya Pradesh
Isabgol was grown on area of 4372 ha and Mandsour,
Neemuch, Jabalpur and Ratlam are found to be the major
Isabgol growing districts of the State (Sharma et al. 2008).
The Isabgol husk is a membranous covering of the
seed, white to light pink in colors. It is 2 to 3 mm x 0.5 to
1.0 mm in dimension, translucent and odorless. It absorbs
moisture and forms a tasteless mucilaginous substance
which constitutes the drugs. Isabgol mucilage has a
remarkable property as a thicker and is therefore also for
making of ice cream in the west. The dehusked seed is
around 69% by weight of the total seed crop and is found
rich in starch and fatty oil (Atal et al. 1964). The dehusked
is used as a bird feed. Kanitkar and Pendse (1969) found
the seed oil possessing properties of reducing cholesterol
level of serum in rabbits.
The seed contains mucilage, fatty acid and large
quantities of albuminous matter which is a
pharmacologically active glucoside, Acubin (C13H19O8H2O)
and sugar. The seed also contains some essential amino
acid like valine, alanine, glutamic acid, glycine, cystine,
leucine, and tyrosine. The seed husk (epicarp of seed) is
medicinally important part which is mainly used for
treatment of number of stomach disorder viz., chronic
constipation, dysentery (Voderholzer et al. 1997) and many
others like inflammation of the mucous membrane of
gastro-intestinal, genito-urinary tracts, ulcerative colitis
and internal bleeding hemorrhoids (Thomas and Anon
1992; Fernandez and Hinojosa 1999; Perez and Gomez
1996). The medicinal nature of husk is because of its
ability to form a gel in water, emollient poultice (Mhaskar
et al. 2000). The mucilage acts very much like liquid
paraffin. It is cheaper and is free from side effects produced
by habitual use of liquid paraffin like eczema, malignant
disease of the colon, pain, etc.
Modern green revolution targeted at increased food
grain production was large dependent on chemical
fertilizer, and high yielding crop varieties. There was a
steady increase in the global use of chemical fertilizers
in different agricultural systems. Continuous and large
scale use of chemical fertilizer led to yield stagnation
and decrease in fertilizer responsiveness of the crops.
The excessive applications of chemical fertilizer cause
soil sealing, fertility diminishing and residual problems
and also damaged the soils original micro-ecological
balance. These ill effects of chemical fertilizers emphasize
a need for changes in agricultural production technologies.
(Chonkar and Rattan 2000). Keeping this in view present
research investigation was conducted to evaluate the effect
of chemical, organic and integrated nutrient management
practices on biochemical estimations in Isabgol.
Material and methods
The present investigation conducted Dusty Acre, at
Research Farm Department of Crop and Herbal
Physiology, JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP) during the rabi season
of 2008-2009. The soil of experimental plot was sandy
loam with good drainage capacity and its analysis revealed
that it had nitrogen 206 kg/ha availability with 27 kg/ha
Phosphorus, 300 kg/ha potash, presence of organic
carbon (0.60%) and pH (7.5). The experiment was laid
out in Randomized Block Design with twelve treatments
and three replications with the Variety Gujrat Isabgol 1.
The date of sowing and harvesting were 11th November
2008 and 19th march 2009.
Details of treatments
T1- 50:25:30 kg/ha of NPK (100% recommended dose
of fertilizers)
T2- 50:25:30 kg/haNPK of 100% RDF + Zn 5 kg/ha
T3- 10 tones FYM/ha
T4- 10 tonnes FYM/ha + PSB 3 kg/ha
T5- 10 tonnes FYM/ha + Azotobactor 3 kg/ha
T6- 10 tones FYM/ha + PSB 3 kg/ha+ Azotobactor 3
kg/ha
T7- 10 tonnes FYM/ha + PSB 3 kg/ha+ Azotobactor
3 kg/ha+ Zn 5 kg/ha
166
T8- NPK kg/ha of 50% RDF + 5 tonnes FYM/ha
T9- NPK kg/ha of 50% RDF + 5 tonnes FYM/ha +
PSB 3 kg/ha
T10- NPK kg/ha of 50% RDF + 5 tonnes FYM/ha +
Azotobactor 3 kg/ha
T11- NPK kg/haof 50% RDF + 5 tonnes FYM/ha + PSB
3 kg/ha+Azotobactor 3 kg/ha
T12- NPK kg/ha of 50% RDF + 5 tonnes FYM/ha +
PSB 3 kg/ha+ Zn 5 kg/ha Azotobactor 3 kg/ha
Biochemical parameters
The chlorophyll a, b and carotenoids content of leaves
were estimated at 60, 75, 90, 105 and 120 days after
sowing by Yoshida et al. 1972. Nitrogen was estimated
by AOAC (1995), Phosphorus by Koing and Johnson
(1942), Potassium by Black (1965), Zinc & Sulphur by
terbidiametric method and Carbohydrates by Anthrone
method. Moisture, Fat, Fibre and Ash were estimated by
AOAC (1980), Husk and Swelling were estimated by
Thanki and Talati (1983).
Results and discussion
The leaf chlorophyll 'a' content varied significantly due to
the effect of Chemical fertilizer, FYM and Biofertilizer at
different stages of crop growth. The maximum Chlorophyll
a content was obtained in T12 (0.061, 1.27, 1.99) at 60
75, 90 and T7 (1.60) 105 DAS and minimum was in T10
(0.054, 0.81, 0.63) at 60, 90, 105 and T8 (0.75) 75 DAS
respectively. Maximum chlorophyll 'b' was obtained in T12
(0.090, 1.28, 0.67) at 60, 90, 105 and T7 (0.46) 75 DAS
and minimum was noted in T5 (0.070), T10 (0.16), T8 (0.36)
and T10 (0.29) at 60, 75, 90 and 105 DAS respectively.
The leaf chlorophyll (a/b) ratio varied significantly
due to the effects of Chemical fertilizer FYM and
Biofertilizer treatments. T5 (0.779), T8 (7.529), T12 (1.04)
and T7 (2.475) exhibited the highest values and lowest
values were noted in T12 (0.671), T7 (2.780), T10 (0.47) &
T12 (0.237) at 60, 75, 90 and 105 DAS respectively.
Maximum chlorophyll 'a+b' content was registered in T12
(1.51), T7 (1.750), T12 (3.270), T7 (2.243) at 60, 75, 90 and
105 DAS respectively. Minimum was registered in T10
(0.124, 1.207, 0.923) at 60, 90 and 105 and T8 (0.850) 75
DAS respectively. Significantly higher carotenoid was
noted in T12 (0.215, 0.98, 1.04, 0.77) at 60, 75, 90 and
105 DAS respectively. Minimum was exhibited in T8 (0.154,
0.42, 0.42) and T10 (0.47) at 60, 75, 105 and 90 DAS
respectively.
The leaf serves as the major photosynthetic organs
Table 1. Effect of chemical fertilizer FYM and biofertilizer on biochemical parameters

Treatment 90 DAS (mg/g fresh wt.) Zinc Swelling Husk

Chlorophyll Chlorophyll Chlorophyll Chlorophyll Carotenoids (mg/kg) (%) (%)
'a' 'b' 'a/b' 'a+b'
T1 1.58 1.10 3.137 2.678 0.92 35.97 13.81 35.33
T2 1.87 1.11 2.903 2.977 0.98 37.18 13.82 36.36
T3 1.22 0.74 3.420 1.957 0.74 30.38 18.79 30.36
T4 1.22 0.62 3.522 1.843 0.76 28.96 18.77 31.83
T5 1.01 0.44 3.381 1.453 0.68 23.87 18.76 29.50
T6 1.61 1.09 3.266 2.702 0.64 35.93 13.81 35.16
T7 1.96 1.30 2.780 3.260 1.02 37.68 13.82 36.16
T8 1.76 0.36 7.529 2.117 0.58 20.49 18.76 26.16
T9 1.29 0.86 3.400 2.150 0.80 33.64 18.79 32.83
T10 0.81 0.40 4.876 1.207 0.47 22.67 18.76 29.16
T11 1.37 0.94 3.212 2.307 0.87 33.55 13.80 35.00
T12 1.99 1.28 2.921 3.270 1.04 40.26 13.83 37.50
Mean 1.474 0.853 3.696 2.327 0.791 31.71 16.29 32.97
SEm± 0.022 0.016 0.254 0.024 0.015 0.51 0.05 0.78
CD5% 0.066 0.046 0.744 0.069 0.045 1.49 0.16 2.30

Table 2. Effect of chemical fertilizer FYM and biofertilizer on biochemical parameters

Treatments Moisture Ash Fat Fiber Nitrogen Protein Carbohydrate Potassium Phosphorus Sulphur
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
T1 8.62 2.91 15.71 31.89 3.42 21.37 25.49 0.85 0.287 0.69
T2 8.64 3.07 16.12 32.76 3.51 21.94 26.32 0.91 0.314 0.76
T3 8.60 3.07 14.63 30.72 2.78 17.30 23.89 0.81 0.270 0.64
T4 8.60 2.65 14.37 30.64 2.64 16.50 22.62 0.80 0.260 0.73
T5 8.59 2.46 13.84 29.78 2.64 16.51 22.41 0.79 0.250 0.61
T6 8.63 3.00 15.96 32.45 3.12 21.62 25.81 0.86 0.290 0.65
T7 8.64 3.19 16.32 32.81 3.55 22.40 26.48 0.91 0.330 0.81
T8 8.54 2.26 13.48 29.02 2.62 16.40 26.09 0.75 0.240 0.53
T9 8.61 2.74 14.77 31.21 2.84 17.45 24.61 0.83 0.270 0.67
T10 8.57 2.37 13.62 29.37 2.63 17.45 21.75 0.78 0.240 0.58
T11 8.62 2.81 15.45 31.65 3.24 20.12 25.22 0.84 0.280 0.65
T12 8.65 3.21 16.49 33.01 3.66 22.88 26.57 0.93 0.460 0.85
G.Mean 8.61 2.89 15.06 31.27 3.05 19.33 24.77 0.84 0.290 0.68
SEm ± 0.04 0.05 0.09 0.07 0.10 0.23 0.03 0.01 0.033 0.02
C.D.5% 0.14 0.17 0.28 0.22 0.28 0.69 0.10 0.01 0.096 0.05

167
of Isabgol and much of the difference in the rate of
photosynthetic are due to variation in leaf chlorophyll
contents. The photosynthetic capability of plant increase
with chlorophyll concentration, Chloroplast account for
25% of total dry matter production and 40% of the total
nitrogen of the leaves. The maximum leaf chlorophyll
contents was achieved in young fully expanded leaf and
gradually started to decline with the advancement of age
and senescence. The leaf chlorophyll content also varied
due to soil moisture status and nutrient management etc.
The treatment combination of various nutrient sources
affected the photosynthetic pigments significantly at all
the four crop growth stages viz. 60, 75, 90 and 105 DAS.
Maximum amount of leaf chl a, b and carotenoid were
estimated with T12 (NPK kg/ha of 50% RDF + 5 tonnes
FYM/ha + PSB 3 kg/ha+ Zn 5 kg/ha Azotobactor 3 kg/
ha) followed by T7 at almost all the important growth stages.
Both T12 and T7 were able to support nutritional needs of
plants. The nutrient application also enhanced the
biosynthesis of photosynthetic pigments by creating
favorable cellular environment and providing nutrients.
Nitrogen is involved in chloroplast development and is an
essential unit of chlorophyll molecule. Similar the
phosphorus and potassium which also the major nutrient
and are involved in various vital process. These result
confirmed the findings of Pirjal et al (1971) and Yuzhenwen
et al (1995).
The result revealed that significantly maximum
moisture and ash content was attained by T12 (8.65 &
3.21) and minimum was recorded in T8 (8.54 & 2.26).
Significantly maximum fat and fiber was noted in T12 (16.49
& 33.01), and minimum in T8 (13.48 & 29.02) respectively.
The influence of different fertilizer doses with significant
maximum nitrogen and protein content was registered in
T12 (3.66 & 22.88) and minimum was registered in T8 (2.62
& 16.40).
Maximum carbohydrate and potassium was
obtained in T12 (26.57 & 0.93) and minimum was obtained
in T10 (21.75) and T8 (0.75) respectively. Significantly
higher phosphorus and sulphur content was noted in T12
(0.460 & 0.85) and the lowest was recorded in T8 (0.240&
0.53). Maximum Zinc, husk and swelling factor content
was recorded in T12 (40.26, 37.50) and T3 & T9 (18.79).
The minimum content was recorded in T8 (20.49, 26.16)
and T11 (13.80) respectively.
Ash and moisture (%) in Isabgol also affected by
treatment combination significantly, maximum ash and
moisture were estimated in T12 at par with T7. Maximum
swelling (%) was noted in T3 and T9 which was at par with
T5, T8 and T10, and higher husk content was obtained in
168
T12 which was at par with T1, T2 and T7. These results are
in conformity with the findings of Yadav et al. (2006). The
treatment combination had a significant effect on nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, and zinc. Maximum
nitrogen content was estimated in T12 at par with T1, T2
and T7. Maximum phosphorus, potassium and sulphur
content was noted in T12 followed by T2 and T7. These
results corroborates with the findings of Kalyansundara
et al. (1984), Patel et al. (1996). Maximum Zn content
was recorded in T12 which was at par with T2 and T7. The
results confirmed the finding of Singh and Chouhan (1994),
Mann and Vyas (1999), Solanki and Shaktawt (1999),
Maheshwari et al. (2000) and Rathore and Chudawast
(2003). The biochemical estimation was also made on
Isabgol seed for other macro-molecules like
carbohydrates, proteins and fat. The treatment
combinations had maximum carbohydrates, protein, fat
and fiber (%) in T12 (T11 + Zn) which is at par with T7.
These results are in conformity with the findings of Pendse
et al. (1976), Jenner et al. (1990), Schipper (1990), Galova
et al. (1999), Yoeng (2001) and Yadav et al. (2006).
It is concluded that the treatment combinations.
T12 (50% NPK of RDF + FYM + PSB + Zn + Azotobactor)
and T7 ( FYM + PSB + Azotobactor ) were able to cause
a significant improvement in various physiological
parameters like leaf photosynthetic pigment contents,
plant nutrient contents, biochemical parameters and husk
yield.
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ds varxZr joh 2008&09 esa ,dhd`r iks"k.k izca/ku }kjk jklk;fud
moZjd] QkeZ;kMZZ eSU;ksj o tSo moZjdksa ¼ih-,l-ch- o ,tksVkscSDVj½ dh
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JNKVV Res J 49(2): 170-174 (2015)
Effect of organic manures, micronutrients and chemical fertilizers
on growth and yield of Niger
B.S. Solanki*, M.R. Deshmukh** , V.K. Katara* and Alok Jyotishi**
*AICRP on Niger, ZARS, Chhindwara 480 001 (MP)
**Project Coordinating Unit, Sesame and Niger,
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Email : deshmukhmohan24@gmail.com
Abstract
Field experiment was conducted on niger cv JNC-1 at
Research Farm of Project Coordinating Unit (Sesame and
Niger), JNKVV, Jabalpur during winter season of 2007 under
irrigated production system to evaluate the effect of combined
use of fertilizers, organic manures and micronutrients on
the growth, yield, oil content and oil yield of niger. Results
revealed that application of combined nutrient management
as 100% NPK + 2.5 t FYM + 20 kg ZnSO4 + 2.5 kg FeSO4/ha
(A) or 100% NPK + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 20 kg ZnSO 4/ha (B) or
100% NPK + 2.5 t FYM + 2.5 kg FeSO4/ha (C) significantly
improved the branches/plant, capitulate/plant, seeds/
capitulam and seed yield of niger over application 100%
NPK or 50% of NPK + organic manures as well as
micronutrients. Combined nutrient management as A or B
or C were equally good and effective for increasing the NMR
and B:C ratio. These nutrient managements were
remunerative as compared to application 100% NPK or 50%
of NPK + organic manures + micronutrients.
Keywords : Organic manure, micronutrients, fertilizer,
oil content, economics
Niger [Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass] is one of the oilseed
crops predominantly grown in tribal areas of the Madhya
Pradesh and India. Its seeds contain a considerable
quantity of edible oil (38 to 43%), protein (20%) and (12%)
sugar (Gentinet and Teklewold 1995). India is the chief
producer of niger seeds in the world by contributing second
and fourth position in the acreage, and annual production
of the world. It is grown in an area of nearly 4.14 lakh
hectare in the country with an annual production of 1.08
lakh tonnes and productivity of 2.61 kg seeds/ha. Madhya
Pradesh covers nearly 1.06 lakh hectare area under this
170
crop with annual production of 0.24 lakh tonnes and
productivity of 224 kg seeds/hectare (Damodaram and
Hedge 2007).
Niger cultivation is confined on marginal and sub-
marginal lands with the use of negligible agro-inputs, owing
to its low in productivity. Niger is widely grown during
kharif (rainy season and rainfed crop in Madhya Pradesh,
but it performs well during winter season also due to its
photo incentive nature under irrigated production system.
Its productivity is better with superior quality seeds during
winter season crop than kharif season crop in Madhya
Pradesh (Agrawal et al. 1996). It has potential to produce
seed yields upto 800 kg/ha on the research farms with
the adoption of improved crop varieties and production
technologies. It responds very well to fertilizer application
considerably higher quantity in balanced manner.
Application of adequate quantity of fertilizers is
unaffordable to most of the niger growers, hence combined
nutrient management consisting of various organic,
inorganic and biological sources appears to be an efficient
alternative for its appropriate nutrient management.
Information pertaining to nutrient management in niger is
meager for the Jabalpur region of the state. Therefore to
evaluate the effect of combined use of fertilizers, organic
manures and micronutrients on the growth and yield of
winter sown niger under irrigated production system the
present investigation was carried out.
Material and methods
Field experiment was conducted on niger cv. JNC-1 at
Research Farm, Project Coordinating Unit (Sesame and
Niger) during winter season of the year 2007. The soil of
the experiment field was clay loam in texture, neutral in
reaction (pH 7.50) low in OC (0.44%) content with normal
EC (0.43 dS/m) and analyzing in low available N (198 kg/
ha) and available S (8.2 kg/ha), medium in available P
(18.6 kg/ha) and available Zn (2.16 kg/ha); high in available
K (322.6 kg/ha) and available Fe (17.86 kg/ha) contents.
Twelve treatments consisting with different nutrient
management (Table 1) were tested in a randomized block
design with four replications. The seeds were treated with
Thiram @ 3 g/kg seed and sown on October 16, 2007 in
rows 40 cm apart by drilling 5 kg seeds/ha at a depth of
3 cm. A light irrigation was given for germination of seed.
Then subsequent three irrigations were given at an interval
of 20 days through flood method of irrigation. The
recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) was 40 kg N + 30
kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O/ha. The FYM and Neem Oil Cake
(NOC) contained 0.5% N, 0.2% P and 0.5% K and 5.22
N, 1.08% P and 1.48% K respectively. The full quantity
of FYM, NOC, ZnSO4 and FeSO4, phosphorus, potassium
and one third quantity of nitrogen was applied as basal
dose as per the treatments. Remaining two third quantity
of nitrogen was top dressed at 30 DAS. FYM and NOC
were applied as per treatment by broadcast method and
then well mixed in the soil, whereas inorganic fertilizers
were placed in rows and mixed with soil at the time of
sowing. Plant population was maintained by thinning at
12 DAS. The crop was kept weed free by manual hand
weedings twice at 20 and 40 days after sowing (DAS).
The crop was harvested on February 2, 2008. Data on
various growth parameters, yield attributes and finally
seed yields were recorded. The oil content of seeds was
estimated by using NMR equipment in the laboratory of
Project Coordinating Unit (Sesame and Niger), JNKVV,
Jabalpur. The oil yield was also determined treatment
wise on the basis of oil content in seed. The economics
was calculated using the prevailing prices for the inputs
and produce during that period of time. Finally data were
statistically analysed for the interpretation of the results.
Results and discussion
Effect on growth parameters and yield attributes
The plant height significantly varied due to the effect of
different treatments. Application of 50% RDF - T 2
significantly produced shorter plants (130.1 cm) than all
other treatments which were at par. Remaining treatments
had plant-height ranging from 137.2 to 138.7 cm (Table
1). This may be due to variations in total nutrients
application were much high, which affected the plant-
height invariably. Thus, it could be said that the nutrient
171
supplied under different treatments can not be fulfilled
optimum requirement by the crop, therefore plant height
varied due to effect of different treatments. Application
50% NPK (T2) produced minimum number of branches
(5.80/plant) whereas remaining treatments produced
maximum number of branches/plant (6.86 to 7.08) which
did not vary with each other. It is evident from the earlier
discussion that these treatments synthesized more food
materials and photosynthates and ultimately produced
significantly more DMP/m2 by the plants than other nutrient
management. Because of the facts these treatments
might have resulted in the production of higher number of
branches/plant than other plants. The marked superiority
in these growth parameters with adequate nutrient supply
is advocated in niger by earlier researchers (Kachapur
and Radder 1983 a&b and Trivedi et al. 1988).
The number of capitulae/plant, seeds/capitulam
significantly varied due to different nutrient management
treatments, whereas 1000-seed weight and harvest-index
were unaffected (Table 1). The number of capitulae/plant
was maximum (33.60) with T9 - 100% NPK + 2.5 t FYM +
20 kg ZnSO4 + 2.5 kg FeSO4/ha which was at par to
those recorded with T7 (33.25), T8 (33.05) and T12 (30.08).
It means all treatments receiving 100% NPK or plus
organic manures as well as micronutrients produced
significantly higher number of capitulae/plant than those
obtained with 50% NPK or plus other nutrients except to
T12. Similarly, T9 produced maximum number of seeds/
capitulam (26.06) closely followed by rest of the
treatments except T2 (22.37), T6 and T10 (22.60), T11
(23.55), T4 (23.61) and T12 (23.66) which had significantly
lesser number of seeds/capitulam. Application of 50%
NPK (T2) was the poorest for this character. Number of
seeds/capitulam was significantly superior with the
treatments associated with 100% NPK or plus than that
of with 50% NPK or plus. The values pertaining to 1000-
seed weight was superior numerically with T9 (4.16g) and
harvest-index with T11 (14.34g) treatment than the others.
The treatment T9 produced more dry matter production
(DMP/m2) by the plants than other treatments because
of more accumulation of food materials and
photosynthates by this treatment. This treatment
produced better plant growth in terms of more branching
and in slightly taller plants than the treatments receiving
other nutrients management. Therefore, T9 resulted in
production of superiority in above said yield attributes over
others. These results also corroborated the findings of
Trivedi (1988) and Paikary et al. (2001).
Effect on seed, stover and oil yields
Seed yields are governed by various yield attributes.
 Table 1. Effect of nutrient management treatments on growth parameters, yield attributes, seed yield and stover yield of niger at Jabalpur (Madhya
Pradesh)
Nutrient management Plant Branches Capitulae Seeds Test Seed Stover Harvest
height /plant / plant /capitula weight yield yield index
(cm) (#) (#) (g) (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (%)
T1 - 100% NPK 137.8 6.93 32.50 25.04 4.02 436
JNKVV Res J 49(2): (2015) 2800 13.47
T2 - 50% NPK 130.1 5.80 24.10 22.37 4.04 341 2080 14.06
T3 - T1 + 2.5 t/ha FYM 138.0 6.91 32.85 25.36 4.11 466 2905 13.82
T4 - T2 + 2.5 t/ha FYM 137.2 6.86 27.60 23.61 4.08 358 2179 14.11
T5 - T1 + 2.5 t/ha NOC 138.3 6.95 32.80 25.36 4.02 467 2945 13.68
T6 - T2 + 0.5 t/ha NOC 138.7 6.90 26.50 22.60 4.12 354 2120 14.30
T7 - T1 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 20 kg/ha ZnSO4 138.7 7.08 33.25 25.26 4.11 488 3025 13.89
T8 - T1 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 2.5 kg/ha FeSO4 138.6 7.04 33.05 25.96 4.00 477 3000 13.71
T9 - T1 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 20 kg/ha ZnSO4 + 2.5 kg/ha FeSO4 138.6 7.05 33.60 26.06 4.16 492 3098 13.69
T10 - T2 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 20 kg/ha ZnSO4 137.5 6.94 29.90 22.60 4.12 371 2280 13.99
T11 - T2 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 2.5 kg/ha FeSO4 137.5 7.00 28.10 23.55 4.10 368 2193 14.34
T12 - T2 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 20 kg/ha ZnSO4 + 2.5 kg/ha FeSO4 137.0 7.00 30.08 23.66 4.08 385 2375 13.94
SEm± 1.6 0.12 1.28 1.06 0.04 17.9 64.4 0.86
CD (P=0.05) 4.9 0.34 3.70 3.21 NS 51.5 195.1 NS
(#) = Number; Recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) = 40 kg N + 30 kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O/ha

172
Table 2. Effect of nutrient management treatments on oil content, oil yield and economics of niger at Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh)
Nutrient management Oil Oil Cost of Gross Net Benefit :
content yield cultivation monetary monetary cost
(%) (kg/ha) (Rs/ha) returns returns ratio
(Rs/ha) (Rs/ha)
T1 - 100% NPK 32.70 143 11230 18840 7610 1.68
T2 - 50% NPK 31.65 108 10710 14680 3970 1.37
T3 - T1 + 2.5 t/ha FYM 32.17 150 12480 20092 7612 1.61
T4 - T2 + 2.5 t/ha FYM 31.76 114 11960 15409 3449 1.29
T5 - T1 + 2.5 t/ha NOC 32.10 150 12730 20152 7422 1.58
T6 - T2 + 0.5 t/ha NOC 31.04 110 12210 15220 3010 1.27
T7 - T1 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 20 kg/ha ZnSO4 32.69 160 12580 21032 8412 1.67
T8 - T1 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 2.5 kg/ha FeSO4 32.49 155 12505 20580 8075 1.64
T9 - T1 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 20 kg/ha ZnSO4 + 2.5 kg/ha FeSO4 32.60 160 12605 21229 8624 1.68
T10 - T2 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 20 kg/ha ZnSO4 32.45 120 12060 15980 3920 1.33
T11 - T2 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 2.5 kg/ha FeSO4 31.85 117 11985 15819 3834 1.32
T12 - T2 + 2.5 t/ha FYM + 20 kg/ha ZnSO4 + 2.5 kg/ha FeSO4 32.13 124 12085 16587 4502 1.37
SEm± 0.46 2.0 - 649 308 0.01
CD (P=0.05) NS 5.8 - 1870 889 0.04
Sale price of niger seed Rs 40/kg and stover 0.50/kg
Consequence upon the superiority in yield attributes with
T9 recorded significantly maximum seed yield (492 kg/
ha) among all treatments which was statistically at par
to all those treatments receiving 100% NPK plus other
nutrients viz., T7 (488 kg/ha), T8 (47 kg/ha), T5 (467 kg/ha)
and T3 (466 kg/ha). But application of 100% NPK (T1)
produced significantly lesser seed yield (436 kg/ha) than
T9, being at par to remaining treatments as mentioned
above (Table 1). The treatments associated with 50% NPK
or plus to it produced significantly lesser seed yields than
all treatments receiving 100% NPK or plus to it. Among
them T2 yielded minimum seed yield (341 kg/ha) which
was at par to all the treatments of 50% NPK or plus.
However, T12 gave the higher seed yield (385 kg/ha). The
superiority in seed yield due to micronutrient application
supplemented with 100% RDF over 100% RDF alone
attributed mainly due to effect of additional quantity of
micronutrients and organic manures by the crop. Thus, it
could be concluded that the present recommended dose
of fertilizer was not enough to meet the nutrient
requirement of niger crop under existing agroclimatic
conditions. The superiority in higher seed yields with T9,
T7, T 8, T 5 and T 3 treatments mainly attributed to the
superiority in different growth parameters and yield
attributes with the efficient utilization of the nutrients by
the plants. Several workers have emphasized for such
improved nutrient use efficiency through the application
of integrated use of fertilizers, organic manures and
micronutrients in niger under varying agroclimatic
conditions (Guggari et al. 1995 and Paikary et al. 2001).
The stover yields were also significantly maximum
(3098 kg/ha) with T9 among all treatments but it was at
par to T7 (3025 kg/ha), T8 (3000 kg/ha), T5 (2945 kg/ha)
and T3 (2905 kg/ha), than 100% RDF T1 (2800 kg/ha)
Table 1. Nutrient use efficiency was improved by combined
use of fertilizers, organic manures and micronutrients.
Better vegetative growth of plants interms of more
branching and taller plants resulted into higher stover
yields. Similar results are also reported by several
researchers (Deshmukh et al. 2002 and 2007, Thakur
and Umat 2007) from their investigations. Though oil
contents in seed ranging from 31.04 to 32.70% under
different treatment did not differ with each other (Table 2).
The oil yield/ha significantly varied with them mainly due
to variations in seed yields. The oil yield was higher (160
kg/ha) with T9 and T7 treatments which were at par to 155
kg/ha in T8. The next best treatments were T5 andT3 with
similar oil yields of 150 kg/ha. Application of 100% NPK
(T1) produced significantly lesser oil yields (143 kg/ha)
than above treatments, but it was significantly higher than
other treatments (108 to 124 kg/ha) receiving 50% NPK
+ FYM or NOC or ZnSO4 or FeSO4. The oil yield was
minimum (108 kg/ha) with 50% NPK (T2) which was at
173
par to the treatments associated with the application of
50% N + organic manures as well micronutrients viz., T4
(114 kg/ha), T6 (110 kg/ha), T11 (117 kg/ha), T10 (120 kg/
ha) and T12 (124 kg/ha). These treatments produced the
lowest seed yield, hence they produced the lower oil yields
(Table 2). Similar results are also reported by Paikary et
al. (2001), Trivedi and Ahlawat (1991 and 1993), and
Deshmukh et al. (2007).
Effect of Economic viability
The common cost for niger cultivation was Rs 10190/ha
for all treatments, the cost of fertilizers/manures/
micronutrients whatever applied under a particular
treatment alongwith cost of their application was added
with common cost of cultivation. Thus, the cost of
cultivation varied from Rs 10780/ha to 12605/ha by
supplementing 50% NPK and 100% NPK + 2.5 t FYM +
20 kg ZnSO4 + 2.5 kg FeSO4/ha respectively (Table 2).
The cost of cultivation increased due to increased quantity
of NPK fertilizers, FYM as well as NOC and micronutrients
(ZnSO4 or FeSO4 or both). T9 led to record maximum GMR
of (Rs 20152/ha) and T3 (Rs 20082/ha). The next best
treatment with regard to GMR (Rs 18840/ha) was 100%
NPK (T1) which was also significantly higher than all 50%
NPK or plus viz., T12 (Rs 16587/ha), T10 (Rs 15980/ha),
T11 (Rs 15819/ha), T6 (Rs 15220/ha), T4 (Rs 15409/ha)
and T2 (Rs 14680/ha). Application of 50% NPK - T2 alone
had minimum GMR (Rs 14680/ha). Application of 50%
NPK (T2) alone had minimum GMR (Table 2). The highest
NMR (Rs 8624/ha) was recorded with T 9 among all
treatments which was at par to T7 (Rs 8472/ha) and T8
(Rs 8075/ha). Application of 50% NPK + 0.5 t NOC/ha
(T6) led to register the lowest NMR (Rs 3010/ha). The
profitability (1.68) was maximum with application of 100%
NPK T9, which was at par to T7 (1.67) and T8 (1.64). The
B:C ratio was minimum with T6 (1.27).
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phosphorus on growth and yield on niger [Guizotia
abyssinica (L.f.) Cass]. Indian J Agron 36(3):432-
433
Trivedi SJ, Ahlawat RPS (1993) Quality studies in niger
[Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass] in relation to
nitrogen and phosphorus. Gujarat agric Univ Res J
18(2):92-93
(Manuscript Receivd : 30-04-2015; Accepted : 23-07-2015)
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 175-177 (2015)
Use of biofertilizers, organic manures and inorganic fertilizers for
autumn sown niger yield maximization
R.R. Badole, M.R. Deshmukh, B.S. Solanki, V.K. Katara and Alok Jyotishi
Project Coordinating Unit (Sesame and Niger)
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
AICRP - Niger
*ZARS Chhindwara (MP)
Email : deshmukhmohan24@gmail.com
Abstract
Field experiment on niger cv. JNC-9 was conducted during
autumn season of 2008 at Research Farm, Project
Coordinating Unit (Sesame & Niger) JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP)
with objective to evaluate the suitable integrated nutrient
management for remunerative productivity of autumn sown
season niger crop under irrigated production system. Results
revealed that integrated nutrient management consisting of
75% RDF + Azotobacter + PSB, 50% RDF + 2 t
Vermicompost/ha and 50% RDF + 5 t FYM/ha were
comparable with each other for growth parameters, yield
attributes and seed yields. Application of 100% RDF recorded
maximum seed and stover yields (665 and 3689 kg/ha),
fetched higher NMR and B:C ratio (Rs 8996/ha and 1.94)
and found remunerative for niger production.
Keywords: Biofertilizers, organics, inorganic fertilizers,
Seed, Oil yield and Economics
Niger [Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass] is one of the
important oilseed crops of tribal areas in the country and
state. Niger seeds contain a considerable quantity of edible
oil (38 to 43%), protein (20%), sugar (12%) and minerals
for human and animal meals (Gentient and Teklewod
1995). Its cakes obtained after extraction of oil are used
for cattle feed and the low grade oil-cake is used as organic
manure in the agricultural lands. It is cultivated in 4.14
lakh hectare area in the country with annual production
of 1.08 lakh tonnes and productivity of 261 kg seeds/ha.
Madhya Pradesh covers nearly 1.06 lakh hectare area
with annual production of 0.24 lakh tonnes and productivity
of 224 kg seeds/hectare (Damodaram and Hegde 2007).
175
It can be sown from July to August months under
rainfed conditions as well as during autumn season with
irrigation facilities. It has tolerance to streams of weather
fluctuations with less susceptibility to damages caused
by animals, birds, insects and diseases etc. (Sharma
and Kewat 1998). These features lure the farmers for its
cultivation in different parts of the country. In spite of these
peculiarities, the cultivation of this crop is still confined
on marginal and sub-marginal lands with the use of
negligible agro-inputs, which results in low productivity. It
is widely grown during kharif (rainy) season, but it
performs well during autumn season also due to its
photoinsentive nature. Its productivity is better with
superior quality seeds during autumn than kharif season
in Madhya Pradesh (Agrawal et al. 1996).
This crop has potential to produce seed yields upto
800 kg/ha on the research farms with the adoption of
improved crop varieties and production technologies. It
can be grown with the use of negligible quantity of manures
and fertilizers, it responds well to considerably higher
quantity of chemical fertilizers in balanced manner. Since,
the adequate quantity of fertilizer application is
unaffordable by the most of the niger growers, hence,
this quantity can be fulfill through using various organic,
inorganic and biological sources which appears to be an
alternative sources of nutrients for its proper nutrient
management of nutrients. The information pertaining to
management of nutrients in proper and balanced manner
in niger is not available for Kymore plateau zone of Madhya
Pradesh. Keeping these facts in view a field experiment
was conducted during the autumn season of 2008 to
evaluate suitable integrated nutrient management for
remunerative productivity of niger under irrigated production
system.
Material and methods
A field experiment was conducted on niger cv JNC-9 at
Research Farm, Project Coordinating Unit (Sesame and
Niger) during autumn season of 2008. The soil of the
experimental field was clay loam in texture, neutral in
reaction (pH 7.40), low in OC (0.44%) content with normal
EC (0.43 dS/m) and analysing low in available N (220 kg/
ha, medium in available P (19 kg/ha) and high in available
K (323 kg/ha) contents. Ten treatments consisting with
different nutrient management (Table 1) were tested in a
randomized block design with four replications .The
recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) was 40 kg N + 30
kg P2O5 + 20 kg K2O/ha. The Vermicompost and FYM
contained 2.1% N, 1.25% P and 0.84% K and 0.5% N,
0.8% P and 0.50% K respectively. The full quantity of
Vermicompost, FYM, phosphorus, potassium and one
third quantity of nitrogen was applied as basal dose as
per the treatments. Remaining two third quantity of nitrogen
was top dressed at 30 DAS. FYM @ 5 t/ha was applied
as per treatment by broadcasting and well mixing in the
soil whereas inorganic fertilizers were placed in rows. The
Vermicompost was applied in furrows before sowing @ 2
t/ha in allotted plots. The seeds treated with Thiram @ 3
g/kg seed were sown on October 6, 2008 in rows 30 cm
apart by drilling 5 kg seeds/ha at about 3 cm depth in all
plots. Just after the sowing a light irrigation was given for
germination of seeds. Then subsequent three irrigations
were given at an interval of 20 days through flood irrigation.
Plant population was maintained by thinning at 12 DAS.
The crop was kept weed free by hand weeding twice at
20 and 40 DAS. The crop was harvested on January 28,
2009. Data on growth parameters, yield attributes and
finally seed yields were recorded. The oil content of seeds
was estimated by using NMR equipment in the laboratory
of Project Coordinating Unit (Sesame and Niger), JNKVV,
Jabalpur. The treatmentwise oil yield was also determined
on the basis of oil content in seed. The economics was
calculated using the prevailing prices for the inputs and
produce during that period of time. Finally data were
statistically analysed for the interpretation of the results.
Results and discussion
Effect on growth parameters and yield attributes
Significantly the highest plants were noted in T5 - 50%
RDF + 2 t VC/ha (194 cm) which were higher than T2, T4,
T7, T8, T9 and T10 being comparable with each other. The
maximum number of branches/plant (13.63) was recorded
in T1 - (40 + 30 + 20 N:P:K kg/ha) among all the treatments
being significantly superior over T 8 and T 9 only. It is
176
noteable here that nutrient management under T3 (75%
RDF + Azotobacter + PSB), T 5 (50% RDF + 2 t
Vermicompost/ha), T7 (50% RDF + 5 t FYM/ha) and even
T2 (50% RDF + Azotobacter + PSB) were comparable to
T 1 (100% RDF) with regard to these both growth
parameters. Thus, it is obvious that combined use of
inorganic, organic and biological sources of nutrient with
judicious proportion might be advantageous for the proper
growth of crop. Though, application of nutrients through
organic manures only under T 10 (5 t FYM/ha + 1 t
Vermicompost/ha) was inferior to T1 (100% RDF), it was
at par to T2 (50% RDF + Azotobacter + PSB), T5 (50%
RDF + 2 t Vermcompost/ha) and T7 (50% RDF + 5 t
FYM/ha). Thus, it could be said that average growth of
crop could be achieved even in the first cropping season
with the use of organic manures and biological fertilizers.
Similar results are also reported in niger crop by Trivedi
(1988).
The yield attributes i.e. number of seeds/capitula,
test-weight and harvest-index did not differ significantly
due to effect of different nutrient management. However,
values were numerically superior with T1, T3, T5 and T7
than other treatments being at par with each other
established their marked superiority with regard of number
of capitulae/plant than the remaining nutrient management
treatments. These treatments received desired quantity
of nutrients, which resulted into production of superior
growth parameters due to greater of dry matter production,
which ultimately attributed to produce superior yield
attributes particularly significantly more number of
capitulate/plant. The treatments T8, T9, T10, T4 and T6 could
not fulfil the nutrient requirement of plants as per their
needs. Hence, they produced inferior growth parameters
and ultimately attributed to produce lesser values of
different yield attributes. Similar findings are also quoted
by the earlier researchers from their investigations (Trivedi
1988).
Effect on seed, stover and oil yields
Nutrient management through application of 100% RDF
produced maximum seed and stover yields (665 and 3689
kg/ha) among all the treatments being very close to these
obtained with the application of 75% RDF + Azotobacter
+ PSB (658 and 3737 kg/ha), 50% RDF + 2 t VC/ha (646
and 3730 kg/ha) and 50% RDF + 5 t FYM/ha (629 and
3679 kg/ha). These treatments had better growth of plants
which resulted superiority in producing the superior yield
attributes and finally attributed to produce significantly
higher seed and stover yields. The superiority in growth
parameters like plant-height and branches/plant directly
attributed to produce higher stover yield while superiority
in yield attributes particularly significantly more number
of capitulae/plant resulted into production of significantly
higher seed yields. Thus, it could be believed that nutrient
management under 75% RDF + Azotobacter + PSB, 50%
RDF + 2 t VC/ha and 50% RDF + 5 t FYM/ha were equally
good to application of recommended dose of nutrients
through fertilizers only. These results also corroborated
the findings of other workers from their studies on nutrient
management from different locations of the country
(Deshmukh et al. 2002). Though, oil contents in seed
was ranging from 32.76 to 33.80 did not deviate markedly
due to various nutrient management treatments. Oil yield
significantly varied with them ranging from minimum oil
yield of 197 kg/ha with 5 t FYM/ha + Azotobacter + PSB
to maximum yield of 221 kg/ha with application of 100%
RDF due to higher seed yields. Similar results are also
reported in niger crop by earlier researchers [Trivedi and
Ahlawat (1993) and Deshmukh et al. (2007)].
Economics of the treatments
The cost of cultivation was minimum (Rs 9480/ha) with
100% RDF, which slightly increased as Rs 9550/ha and
Rs 9865/ha when Azotobacter + PSB were combined
with 50% and 75% RDF, respectively. It was again
increased from Rs 10535/ha to Rs 11720/ha, when
different nutrient management were applied by integration
of organic, inorganic and biological sources as well as
total nutrients through organic sources only. The GMR
was minimum (Rs 16650/ha) with application of 5 t FYM/
ha + Azotobacter + PSB because of the lowest seed and
stover yields, while it was maximum (Rs 18488/ha) with
the application of 100% RDF. The later treatment was
comparable to those realized with 75% RDF + Azotobacter
+ PSB (Rs 18318/ha), 50% RDF + 2 t VC/ha (Rs 18027/
ha) and 50% RDF + Azotobacter + PSB. These
treatments were markedly higher than rest of the
treatments. Application of 100% RDF recorded highest
NMR (Rs 8996/ha) among all the treatments whereas,
the minimum NMR of Rs 5230/ha was realized with the
application of 5 t FYM/ha + Azotobacter + PSB.
Application of 100% RDF led to register significantly
maximum B:C ratio (1.94) among all the treatments, while
it was the minimum (1.44) with 5 t FYM/ha + 1 t VC/ha
being at par with the application of 5 t FYM/ha +
Azotobacter + PSB (1.45).
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References
Agrawal KK, Jain KK, Sharma RS, Kashyap ML (1996)
Response of winter niger [Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.)
Cass] to time of sowing and fertility levels. J
Oilseeds Res 13(1):122-123
Damodaram T, Hegde DM (2007) Oilseeds Situation : A
Statistical Compendium. Directorate of Oilseeds
Research, Hyderabad, 128-136
Deshmukh MR, Jain HC, Duhoon SS, Goswami U (2002)
Performance of niger (Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.)
Cass] influenced by inorganic fertilizers, FYM and
bio-fertilizers in different soil types. J Oilseeds Res
19(1):79-81
Deshmukh MR, Pandey AK, Sharma RS, Duhoon SS (2007)
Effect of integrated nutrient management on
productivity and economic viability of niger. JNKVV
Res J 41(1):32-35
Gentinet A, Teklewold (1995) An agronomic and seed quality
evaluation of niger [Guizotia abysinica (L.f.) Cass]
germplasm grown in Ethiopia. Plant Breed 144:375-
376
Sharma RS, Kewat ML (1998) Niger does well under farming
situation constraints. Indian Farming 47(11):15-24
Trivedi SJ (1988) Effect of different levels of nitrogen and
phosphorous on growth, yield attributes and yield
of niger [Guizotia abyssinica (L.f.) Cass]. MSc(Ag)
Thesis submitted to Gujarat Agricultural University,
Ahmedabad, India, p 71
Trivedi SJ, Ahlawat RPS (1993) Quality studies in niger
[Guizotia abyssinica (L.F.) Cass] in relation to
nitrogen and phosphorus. Gujarat agric Univ Res J
18(2):92-93
(Manuscript Receivd : 30-04-2015; Accepted :05-08-2015)
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 178-179 (2015)
Effect of dates of sowing on chickpea production and productivity
in rainfed rice fallow land in Madhya Pradesh
M.G. Usmani, S.K. Singh, R.K. Tiwari and S.K. Rao
College of Agriculture
Rewa 486001 (MP)
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Abstract
The effect of dates of sowing on chickpea production and
productivity in rainfed rice fallow of Madhya Pradesh was
investigated using three sowing dates within each sowing
date during the 2007-08, 2008-09 and 2009-10 seasons at
Satna district of Madhya Pradesh (MP). Sowing times
independently influenced yield in chickpea under semi-arid
conditions in M.P. The results were season dependent. There
were differences in the total yield of chickpea between the
sowing dates. These results indicate that there is good
potential for chickpea production (up to 4169.44 kg/ha) in
sowing date in 1st fortnight of November this area which
could be exploited to diversify grain legume production in
MP.
Chickpea [Cicer arietinum (L.) family leguminaceae] is
one of the important pulse crop cultivated during post
rainy season under rainfed condition. In India, chickpea
is cultivated over an area of 6.31 m ha (52.5% of world)
producing 5.08m t (55% of world) with an average
productivity of 806 kg/ha. Historically, Madhya Pradesh
has been the major pulse producing state in the country.
The primary purpose of this study is to diagnose effect of
dates of sowing on chickpea inhibiting production and
productivity of pulses in the chief pulse producing state
of Madhya Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh ranked first both
in terms of area (19.8 percent) and production (20.9
percent) of pulses in India. In Madhya Pradesh, nearly
90% of chickpea is cultivated under rainfed condition grown
under residual soil moisture during rabi. Date of sowing
is one of the important agronomic factors affecting
productivity of most of arable crops owing to changes in
environmental conditions to which phenological stages
of crop are exposed. The modified environment resulting
from different dates of sowing may thus influence the crop
178
growth and development. Chickpea is usually sown
between mid October to mid November. However, sowings
are often delayed when grown in sequence with kharif
crops. The delayed sowing in such cases results in drastic
reduction in yield. Several research workers have reported
the suitability of early maturing chickpea varieties for
delayed sowing, Hence, it was desired to workout the
optimum date of sowing for the chickpea. With this view,
an attempt was made to study the determination of
suitable planting date in order to increase chickpea yield
in Kymore and Satpura hills of MP under rainfed condition.
Material and methods
An experiment was conducted in Satna district of Madhya
Pradesh to study the yield and suitable planting date in
chickpea as influenced by dates of sowing during period
2008-09 to 2010-11. The soil of the experiment site was
classified under Vertisols with 7.8 pH, EC of 0.25 dS/m
and 0.56% organic carbon. The available N, P2O5 and
K2O status of soil was 285, 28.2 and 325 kg per ha,
respectively. Rice was incorporated before sowing the
experiment crop. The seeds of chickpea were treated with
Thiram @ 3g/kg seeds along with rhizobium @ 375g/ha
before sowing. During the crop period, the total rainfall
received was (2.0 to 37.8 mm) in 2008-09, (0.5 to 87.3
mm) in 2009-10 and (2.62 to 79.4 mm) during 2008-11.
The fertilizer dose of 25 kg N and 50 kg P2O5 /ha was
applied at sowing. The crop was harvested at 85-90 days
after sowing (DAS). At 30, 60 DAS and at harvest, five
farmers were randomly selected from district for recording
yield and sowing dates.
The dates of sowing levels showed significant
effects on yield and suitable planting date [Table 1].
Result and discussion References

Significant difference was observed in seed yield due to
different dates of sowing (Table 1). The result showed the
different sowing date affect the yield performance in
chickpea and it was observed that the yield performed
best in 1st fortnight of November i.e. 09-13 November
followed by 2nd fort night of November i.e. 19-23 November
and 1st fort night of December i.e. 01-05 December. The,
yield significantly differed due to dates of sowing (Table
1). The chickpea sowing on 1st fort night of November
recorded significantly higher seed yield over 2nd fort night
of November and 1st fort night of December. Thus, it can
be inferred that sowing of Chickpea on I fortnight of
November found optimum as evidenced by suitable
planting date and yield. These findings were more or less
in line with the result obtained by Agarwal et al. (1997),
Anwar et al. (2003), Mehar et al. (2000) and Onyari et al.
(2010).
Agarwal MC, Dhindiwal AS, Jaiswal CS, Prabhakar A, Auja
MS (1997) Status of research on Agriculture Water
Management of Northern Region. All India
coordinated project for Research on W ater
Management, Directorate of Water Management
Research (ICAR) Patna, pp 138
Anwar MR, Mckenzie BA, Hill GD (2003) The effect of irrigation
and sowing date on crop yield and yield
components of Kabuli chickpea (Cicer arietinum
L.) in a cool-temperate subhumid climate. J Agric
Sci 141: 259-271
Mehar Singh, Rakeshkumar, Singh RC (2000)
Agrotechnology for kabuli chickpea. In Proc Nation
Symp Agron : Challenges Strat Mill, Nov 15-18,
Gujarat Agric Univ Junagadh, Gujarat
Onyari CAN, Ouma JP, Kibe AM (2010) Effect of tillage method
and sowing time on phenology, yield and yield
components of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) under
semi-arid conditions in Kenya. J Appl Biosci 34:
2156 - 2165

Acknowledgement
(Manuscript Receivd : 25-03-2015; Accepted :20-06-2013)

The authors are grateful to ICRISAT, Patancheru,

Hyderabad in collaboration with JNKVV for their financial
assistance and special guidance under the research
project entitled' Enhancing of Chickpea production in
rainfed rice fallow land adopting improved pulse production
and protection technology (IPPPT).

Table 1. Influence of dates of sowing on yield and

determination of suitable planting dates of chickpea

Rainfall (mm)
Month 2008 2009 2010
October 0 110 0
November 0 109 0
December 0 0 0
January 21.7 0 0
February 0 0 0
March 0 0 0
Yield (kg/ha)
Sowing date 2008-09 2009-2010 2010-11
Early (09-13Nov) 4169.44 3600.88 3567.92
Mid (19-23Nov) 3205.36 3559.68 3312.48
Late (01-05Dec) 2233.04 2851.04 2867.52
CD (0.05) 827.73 1281.58 1751.71
CV 11.39 16.92 23.75

179
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 180-184 (2015)
Genetic divergence analysis in urdbean genotypes of India
Rajmohan Sharma
Directorate of Research Services
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Email:sharma.rajmohan@gmail.com
Abstract
Genetic divergence among 35 genotypes was estimated over
four environments. These genotypes were grouped in 4, 14,
10 and 7 clusters during the four environments viz. zaid 2010,
kharif 2010, zaid 2011 and kharif 2011 respectively. Maximum
numbers of 14 clusters were formed during kharif 2010. ADT
-5 appeared as most diverse genotype. Azad urd 1, TU 65-1,
IU 65-2, IU 83-5, IU 94-3, BARC urd-1, TU 92-3 and TU 98-14
were also exhibited true diversity. Four canonical roots
accounted for 65.78 % of total variation.
Keywords: Vigna mungo, D2 analysis, genetic divergence,
cluster analysis, canonical root analysis.
Black gram (Vigna mungo L.) or urdbean is basically a
warm season crop, however in India it is grown in zaid
and kharif, even up to 1800 m altitude. It is grown in
cropping as a sole crop, mixed crop, catch crop and
sequential crop. It is quite drought resistant but intolerant
to prolonged cloudiness. It is normally grown in areas
with an average temperature of 25-35°C and an annual
rainfall of 600-1000 mm. In higher rainfall areas it may be
grown in the dry season on residual moisture. It is
considered to have been domesticated in India from its
wild ancestral form Vigna mungo var. silvestris. Center of
genetic diversity is found in India (Zeven and de Wet 1982).
Natural distribution of V. mungo var. silvestris ranges from
India to Myanmar (Tateishi 1996). In India, it is grown in
an area about 3.06 m ha. with a total production of 1.7 m
t with an average productivity of 555 kg/ha (2013-14 source
www.iipr.res.in). Andhra Pradesh ranks first in area and
production followed by Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and
Maharashtra, while Karnataka leads in productivity
followed by Andhra Pradesh. The Guntur District ranks
first in Andhra Pradesh for the production of black gram.
180
Material and methods
The experimental material used in the present study
comprised of thirty five genotypes of urdbean collected
from the genetic stock maintained at Department of
Genetics and Plant Breeding, JNKVV, Jabalpur. The
observations were recorded for days to 50% flowering,
number of branches per plant, number of pods per plant,
yellow vein mosaic incidence, days to maturity, plant
height, biological yield per plant, 100 seed weight, harvest
Index and seed yield per plant for five randomly chosen
plants per replication per genotype. The data were
subjected to Mahalanobis's (1936) D2 analysis and the
genotypes were grouped by Tocher's method as
suggested by Rao (1952.)
Result and discussion
The analysis of variance revealed a significant difference
among the thirty five genotypes for all the characters
indicating the existence of high genetic variability among
the genotypes. The genotypes evaluated are presented
in Table 1. These genotypes were grouped in 4, 14, 10
and 7 clusters during the four environments viz. zaid 2010,
kharif 2010, zaid 2011 and kharif 2011 respectively.
Maximum number of 14 clusters were formed during kharif
2010 indicating that climatic conditions prevailing during
crop season were favourable for better expression of seed
yield per plant and its attributes. Cluster I contained the
maximum number of genotypes (29, 20, 16, and 29 during
zaid 2010, kharif 2010, zaid 2011 and kharif 2011
respectively) followed by cluster II and cluster III (Table
2). ADT - 5 formed single cluster in three out of four
environments indicating that it is most divergent genotype.
Other genotypes formed single cluster in two
environments were Azad Urd 1, TU 65-1, IU 65-2, IU 83-
5, IU 94-3, BARC Urd-1, TU 92-3 and TU 98-14. Efforts
have been made by Singh et al. (2011), Neelavathi and
Govindarasu (2010), Chauhan et al. (2008),
Elangaimannan et al. (2008), Konda et al. (2007), Shanthi
et al. (2006) and Ghafoor et al. (2001) to asses the genetic
diversity in urd bean but most of the studies are based on
single environment.
The range of intra cluster and inter cluster distance
during kharif 2010 was 0 to 40.13 and 18.58 to 271.05
(Table 3) respectively. Maximum inter cluster distance
was observed between cluster X and XIII followed by cluster
VII and cluster XIII (215.50). Minimum inter cluster distance
was observed between cluster III and IV followed by cluster
II and cluster VI (20.13).
During the season zaid 2011 the intra cluster
distance ranged between 0 to 32.43 and the inter cluster
distance was in between 39.9 to 175.2. Cluster III and
cluster VII were the most divergent clusters having highest
inter cluster distance followed by cluster III and cluster V
(166.41). Contrary to this cluster I and cluster IV followed
by cluster IV and cluster IX were least divergent clusters.
In kharif 2011 the intra cluster distance varied from
0 to 53.93 while inter cluster distance varied from 37.61
to 435.42. Maximum estimate of inter cluster distance
was recorded between cluster III and VII followed by cluster
II and VII (371.72) and cluster IV and VII (207.89). The
cluster II and III were the least divergent clusters. Selection
of genotypes from diverse clusters will be helpful in
exploitation of heterosis for seed yield per plant in urd
bean.
Canonical root analysis (Rao 1952) was carried
out to asses the extent of variation for different characters.
Four canonical roots accounted for 65.78 % of total
variation (Table 4). First canonical vector explained 32.16
% variation followed by second vector which explained
15.81 % variation whereas third and fourth vectors
explained 9.82 % and 7.99 % of total variation respectively.
The results revealed that number of branches per plant
followed by harvest index and 100 seed weight contributed
largely to major axis i.e. first vector of differentiation. But
in secondary axis plant height followed by harvest index
and number of pods per plant indicated their role in
secondary differentiation. 100 seed weight followed by
plant height and number of branches per plant contributed
largely to the differentiation in the tertiary axis. Days to
50% flowering, plant height, yellow vein mosaic incidence
and number of branches per plant contributed largely to
the differentiation in the fourth axis. Singh et al. (2011)
have also reported similar results.

Table 1. Description of genotypes

Genotype Origin Genotype Origin

Pant Urd 19 GBPUA & T, Pantnagar IU86-1 IIPR, Kanpur
Narendra - 1 NDUA & T, Faizabad IU98-843 IIPR, Kanpur
TVM-1 BARC, Mumbai IU-65-2 IIPR, Kanpur
BARC Urd-1 BARC, Mumbai TAU-1-1 PDKVV Akola and BARC, Mumbai
PU -13 PAU, Ludhiana TU-92-3 BARC, Mumbai
U-10 PAU, Ludhiana TPU-4 MPKVV, Rahuri and BARC, Mumbai
ADT-5 TNAU, Coimbatore TAU-4 PDKVV Akola and BARC, Mumbai
KU-301 CSAU&T, Kanpur TU 98-14 BARC, Mumbai
Mash 404 PAU, Lidhiana JU-2 JNKVV, Jabalpur
LBG 623 ANGRAU, RARS, LAM, Guntur JU-8-6 JNKVV, Jabalpur
Co-5 TNAU, Coimbatore IU 83-5 IIPR, Kanpur
T-91 IIPR, Kanpur IU 62-219 IIPR, Kanpur
T-9 IIPR, Kanpur IU 83-4 IIPR, Kanpur
TAU-1 PDKVV Akola and BARC, Mumbai IU 94-3 IIPR, Kanpur
LBG-20 ANGRAU, RARS, LAM, Guntur IU 88-10 IIPR, Kanpur
TU 92-14 BARC, Mumbai PDU-1 IIPR, Kanpur
TU-65-1 BARC, Mumbai Azad Urd - 1 CSAUA & T, Kanpur
TU31-13 BARC, Mumbai

181
Table 2. Cluster composition in urdbean

Cluster Season Genotypes

No. Name
I E1 29 TAU-1, LBG-20, Mash 404, KU 301, Narendra - 1, PDU-1, IU-65-2, T-9, TVM1, T-91, TU-92-3, LBG
623, PU -13, IU 83-5, TU-65-1, TAU-1-1, ADT 5, U-10, TU98-14, IU86-1, TAU-4, IU94-3, IU62-219,
Pant Urd 19, IU83-4, Azad Urd 1, TU 92-14, IU98-843, IU 83-5
E2 20 TVM1, TU31-13, U-10, LBG-20, TPU-4, Pant Urd 19, IU86-1, KU 301, IU62-219, TAU-1, Co-5, IU88-10,
Mash 404, TAU-1-1, IU83-4, T-91, TAU-4, T-9, TU 92-14, Narendra - 1
E3 16 TAU-4, JU-2, TVM 1, IU-65-2, Narendra - 1, IU94-3, IU88-10, TAU-1-1, TU31-13, Pant Urd 19, IU62-
219, Mash 404, TPU-4, JU-8-6, PU -13, LBG 623
E4 29 IU98-843, TU98-14, PDU-1, LBG 623, TU 92-14, JU-2, TAU-1-1, TU31-13, JU-8-6, TPU-4, IU88-10,
TAU-4, IU83-4, T-9, TAU-1, LBG-20, KU 301, IU86-1, IU62-219, T-91, Co-5, TU-92-3, Pant Urd 19, U-
10, Mash 404, Narendra - 1, IU 83-5, PU -13, TVM 1
I E1 1 BARC Urd1
E2 1 PDU-1
E3 5 KU 301, TAU-1, T-9, LBG-20, IU83-4
E4 1 TU-65-1
III E1 3 JU-8-6, IU88-10, JU-2
E2 1 IU-65-2
E3 3 BARC Urd 1, TU-92-3, IU86-1
E4 1 Azad Urd 1
IV E1 2 TU31-13, Co-5
E2 1 IU 83-5
E3 1 U-10
E4 1 IU-65-2
V E1 -
E2 1 JU-8-6
E3 1 TU98-14
E4 1 ADT 5
VI E1 -
E2 1 IU98-843
E3 5 TU-65-1, Azad Urd 1, PDU-1, IU98-843, TU 92-14
E4 1 IU94-3
VII E1 -
E2 1 ADT 5
E3 1 ADT 5
E4 1 BARC Urd1
VIII E1 -
E2 1 TU98-14
E3 1 T-91
E4 -
IX E1 -
E2 - PU -13
E3 1 Pant Urd 19
E4 -
X E1 -
E2 3 BARC Urd1, TU-92-3, JU-2
E3 1 IU 83-5
E4 -
XI E1 -
E2 1 Azad Urd 1
E3 -
E4 -
XII E1 -
E2 1 IU94-3
E3 -
E4 -
XIII E1 -
E2 1 TU-65-1
E3 -
E4 -
XIV E1 -
E2 1 LBG 623
E3 -
E4 -
Where E1- Zaid 2010, E2- Kharif 2010, E3- Zaid 2011, E4- Kharif 2011

182
 Table 3. Intra and inter cluster distances in urd bean for four seasons (zaid 2010, kharif 2010, zaid 2011 and kharif 2011)
Cluster Season I I III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV
I E1 38.69 74.76 61.25 69.19 64.32 53.92 176.10 114.99 80.11 93.25 - - - -
E2 40.13 64.91 62.52 69.25 57.36 69.33 67.36 93.17 61.87 72.29 121.88 58.51 133.51 127.01
E3 28.42 50.93 113.32 39.90 51.84 69.73 48.52 48.21 65.68 62.02
E4 53.93 101.09 126.85 87.33 109.99 93.21 169.69 - - - - - - -
I E1 - 50.72 126.85 72.18 129.13 87.67 80.82 134.90 177.88 124.51 - - - -
E2 - 0.00 26.24 56.83 61.13 20.13 92.74 23.61 75.71 128.49 25.46 47.23 61.55 109.31
E3 - 27.88 89.13 80.06 80.78 71.32 117.72 64.36 66.40 133.90 - - - -
E4 - 0.00 37.61 109.07 187.92 65.92 371.71 - - - - - - -
III E1 - - 0.00 120.70 73.22 72.08 266.75 138.08 52.39 163.08 - - - -
E2 - - 0.00 18.58 27.34 38.94 64.79 24.91 120.11 84.10 74.50 25.95 122.57 109.47
E3 - - 32.43 88.21 166.41 154.15 175.20 109.75 107.87 198.42 - - - -
E4 - - 0.00 84.42 202.71 89.75 435.42 - - - - - - -
IV E1 - - - 0.00 75.87 132.04 131.70 88.01 134.76 136.79 - - - -
E2 - - - 0.00 31.10 45.54 32.40 47.99 140.50 59.73 122.87 36.80 187.23 124.61
E3 - - - 0.00 69.20 110.19 56.14 53.26 46.82 92.33 - - - -
E4 - - - 0.00 132.41 98.79 207.89 - - - - - - -
V E1 - - - - 0.00 64.92 305.92 79.44 51.58 167.53 - - - -
E2 - - - - 0.00 62.54 49.32 66.55 102.37 76.48 144.85 57.33 139.40 132.67
E3 - - - - 0.00 50.03 75.59 113.70 54.88 63.79 - - - -
E4 - - - - 0.00 190.05 166.37 - - - - - - -
VI E1 - - - - - 0.00 210.97 100.72 74.18 140.59 - - - -
E2 - - - - - 0.00 76.15 35.96 76.85 130.44 53.42 37.04 89.63 74.82
E3 - - - - - 55.03 92.30 132.07 114.95 99.25 - - - -
- - - - - 0.00 253.63 - - - - - - -
VII E1 - - - - - - 0.00 248.35 366.75 200.73 - - - -
E2 - - - - - - 0.00 104.77 102.52 52.21 162.60 78.69 215.50 160.66
E3 - - - - - - 0.00 84.09 146.08 44.17 - - - -
E4 - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -

183
VIII E1 - - - - - - - 58.81 112.42 274.88
E2 - - - - - - - 0.00 122.98 153.78 48.22 44.90 89.36 90.86
E3 - - - - - - - 0.00 77.23 117.34 - - - -
E4 - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
IX E1 - - - - - - - - 0.00 173.25
E2 - - - - - - - - 0.00 163.31 123.35 114.22 86.39 142.58
E3 - - - - - - - - 0.00 130.27 - - - -
E4 - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
X E1 - - - - - - - - - 0.00
E2 - - - - - - - - - 32.65 201.46 82.37 271.05 206.85
E3 - - - - - - - - - 0.00 - - - -
E4 - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
XI E1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
E2 - - - - - - - - - - 0.00 76.67 58.33 107.54
E3 - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
E4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
XII E1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
E2 - - - - - - - - - - - 0.00 125.04 63.92
E3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
E4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
XIII E1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
E2 - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.00 95.83
E3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
E4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
XIV E1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
E2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.00
E3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
E4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Note : Bold figures denotes intra cluster distances
Table 4. Value of canonical vectors and % of variation explained

Character CR1 CR2 CR3 CR4

Days to 50 % Flowering -0.099 -0.053 -0.159 0.356
No. of branches / plant 0.839 0.065 0.293 0.146
No. of pods/ plant -0.088 0.118 0.081 -0.152
YMV incidence -0.117 -0.006 -0.117 0.171
Days to maturity -0.015 0.094 0.091 -0.868
Plant height -0.403 0.488 0.539 0.203
Biological yield/plant -0.098 -0.804 0.196 -0.034
100 seed weight 0.165 -0.020 0.542 -0.010
Harvest Index 0.241 0.288 -0.488 -0.052
Seed yield/plant 0.078 0.036 -0.488 -0.056
% of variation explained 32.16 15.81 9.82 7.99
Cumulative variation 32.16 47.97 57.79 65.78

mM+n ds 35 tuu nzO;ksa dk pkj fofHkUu okrkoj.kksa esa vuqokaf'kd
fofo/krk gsrq ewY;kadu fd;k x;kA ftlds vk/kkj ij bu tuu nzO;ksa dks
pkj okrkoj.kksa esa Øe'k% tk;n 2010] [kjhQ 2010] tk;n 2011 ,oa
[kjhQ 2011 ds varxZr 4] 14] 10 ,oa 7 DyLVj esa foHkDr fd;k
x;kA [kjhQ 2010 esa lokZf/kd 14 DyLVj fufeZr fd;sA lokZf/kd
fofo/krk ,-Mh-Vh-&5 }kjk iznf'kZr gqbZA tuu nzO;ksa vktkn mM+n&1] Vh-
;w- 65&1] vkbZ- ;w- 65&2] vkbZ- ;w- 83&65] vkbZ- ;w- 94&3] ch-
,- vkj- lh- mM+n&1] Vh- ;w- 92&3 ,oa Vh- ;w- 98&14 }kjk Hkh
mYys[kuh; fofo/krk iznf'kZr dh xbZA
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29 (3) : 186-190
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analysis of components of yield and some growth
parameters in urdbean (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper).
Indian J Plant Genetic Resources 24 (3) : 346-348
Tateishi (1996) Systematic of the species of Vigna subgenus
Ceratotropis. In "Mungbean Germplasm :
Collection, Evaluation and Utilization for Breeding
Program" JIRCAS Working Report No. 2 : 9-24
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Wageningen
(Manuscript Receivd :28-03-2015; Accepted :05-07-2015)

184
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 185-188 (2015)

Effect of nitrogen scheduling and dosages on aerobic rice

Anjir Pandey, R.K. Tiwari*, S.K. Tripathi, I.M. Khan and S. Singh
Department of Agronomy
Jawaharlal Nehur Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
College of Agriculture
Rewa 486001 (MP)

Abstract growth stages of kharif crops increased its production

A field experiment was conducted during kharif season of
2014 on sandy clay-loam soil at Rewa (MP) to study nitrogen
scheduling and dosages on aerobic rice. the application of
125 kg N/ha resulted in significantly higher growth
parameters, yield attributes and yield (28.19 q/ha),
consequently maximum net income upto Rs 21671/ha with
B:C ratio 1.91 from aerobic rice var. Pusa Sugandha-3. Out
of different N-scheduling treatments, nitrogen applied in 3
splits (1/3 10-12 days after emergence + 1/3 after tillering +
1/3 at panicle initiation stage) recorded maximum growth
parameters, yield attributes and yield (34.62 q/ha), thereby
gave highest net income upto Rs.31545/ha with B:C ratio
2.34. There was no interaction effect between treatments for
yield parameters.
Keywords: Nitrogen scheduling, dosages, aerobic rice
Rice (Oryza sativa) is an important kharif cereal crop of
Madhya Pradesh covering an area of 15.59 lakh .hectares
with production upto 14.12 lakh tonnes. It is sown with
different methods under upland and lowland conditions.
The nitrogen requirement of rice plqnts is rather high and
most of the Indian soils are very low in its content. The
applied nitrogen is rapidly mineralized in soil and either
absorbed by the rice crop in the ammonical form or
escapes in gaseous state or leaches down into sub-soil
layer beyond root-zone of the plants.
Nitrogen is a key nutrient III determining the level
of crop productivity. The efficiency of applied nitrogen is
very low and varies from 20 to 25% in upland rice crop
due to the oxidized condition prevailing in uplands and
concomitant heavy nitrogen loss through percolating
water. Hence, fractional (split) application of nitrogen in
right amount and proportion, and when it is needed the
most, seems to be a practical preposition. Splitting the
application of nitrogen at the appropriate physiological
efficiency compared to application of all the quantity of
fertilizer-N at sowing (De Rajat, 1979). In view of the above
facts, the present research on N-scheduling for aerobic
rice was taken up.
Material and methods
The field experiment was conducted during kharif season
in 2014 at the JNKVV College of Agriculture, Rewa (MP).
The soil was sandy clayloam in texture having pH 6.7,
electrical conductivity 0.40 dS/m, organic carbon 6.62 g/
kg, available N, P2O5 and K2O 236, 18.5 and 352 kg/ha,
respectively. The total rainfal lduring June to October was
814.2 mm. The treatments comprised two nitrogen levels
(120 and 150 kg/ha) in the main-plots and six N-
scheduling and dosages in the sub-plots as detailed
below:
Nitrogen IeveIs-2 (Main plots)
120 kg/ha
150 kg/ha
Nitrogen scheduling-6 (sub plots)
N-2 splits (1/2 Basal + 1/2 PI stage)
N-2 splits (1/210-12 DAE +1/2 PI stage)
M-3 splits (1/3 Basal + 1/3 AT+ PI stage)
N-3 splits (1/3 10-12 DAE + 1/3 AT +1/3 PI stage)
N-4 splits (1/4 Basal + 1/4 AT stage + PI stage +
Y. at Flowering stage)
N-4 splits (1/4 DAE + 1/4 AT stage + PI stage +
Y. at Flowering stage)

185
The experiment as laid out in split-plot design with three
replications. The rice variety Pusa Sugandha-3 was sown
on 4th July 2014 @ 50 kg seed/ha in rows 20 cm apart
and keeping 10 cm distance between plants. The crop
was grown as per recommended package of practices.
An uniform dose of P 60 K 50 was applied in all the
treatments. The crop was harvested on 25 October, 2014.
Results and discussion
Yield attributes
The data (Table 1) reveal that all the yield - attributing
characters were enhanced significantly due to increased
supply of nitrogen upto 150 kg N/ha over 120 kgN/ha.
The number of panicles were 274/m2 in 150 kg N/ha as
against only 244/m2 in 120 kg N/ha. The number of grains
was 115/panicle over 75/panicle in case of 120 kg N/ha.
Similarly the number of filled grains was upto 93/panicle,
while it was only 53/panicle in 120 kg N/ha. The increased
yield - attributes under 150 kg N/ha was due to significantly
increased growth parameters in this N level. The number
of unfilled grains/panicle as well as 1000-grain weight did
not change upto significant extent due to lower and higher
nitrogen levels. These findings are in close agreement
with those of Singh et al. (2008), Singh Braham (2008),
Reddy et al. (2011) and Reddy et al. (2013).
The splitting and timing of N application treatments
exerted significant influence upon yield - attributing
characters of aerobic rice. The nitrogen splitted three times
(1/3 10-12 DAE + 1/3 AT + 1/3 PI stages ) as in S4 proved
the best which enhanced the yield- attributes upto
maximum extent. The number of panicles were 265/m2,
number of grains upto 1 16/panicle and number of filled
grains (89/panicle). The number of unfilled grains was also
found highest in case of S4 (N-scheduling treatment),
however the test weight of 1000-grains remained identical
in all the N scheduling treatments.
The second best N-scheduling treatment was S3
having 3 splits at 1/3 basal + 1/3 AT + 1/3 PI stages. This
treatment gave 263 panicles/m2, 100grains/panicle and
75 filled grains/panicle. On the other hand, SI treatment
having 2 splits of N at 1/2 basal + 1/2 PI stage recorded
significantly lowest 249 panicles/m2, 76 grains/panicle
and 52 filled grains/panicle. The other treatments viz. S2,
S5 and S6 attained the intermediate position with respect
to yield- attributes, giving identical influence to each other.
The best performance of S4 and then S3 N-scheduling
treatments on yield - attributes was exactly in accordance
with the growth characters recorded in these treatments.
The present results are in close agreement with those of
186
Sathiya et al. (2008), Ayub Muhammad et al. (2008),
Sathiya and Ramesh (2009) and Singh et al. (2013).
Productivity and Economics
The data (Table 2) indicate that grain and straw yield as
well as harvest index of aerobic rice did not influence due
to fertility levels. However, grain yield was higher in case
of 150 kg N/ha (28.19 q/ha) as against 25.22 q/ha from
120 kg N/ha. Similarly straw yield was also higher from
due to 150 kg N/ha (73.52 q/ha) as against 55.80 q/ha
from 120 kg N/ha. The position of harvest index was
reverse. It was higher (31 %) in case of 120 kg N/ha over
28% in case of 150 kg N/ha. The increased grain and
straw yield due to increase N supply was exactly in
accordance with the yield attributing characters under
increased supply of nitrogen. Consequently the net
income values (Rs 21671/ha) and B:C ratio (1.91) were
found maximum due to increased .supply of nitrogen upto
150 kg/ha. This net income was higher by Rs.5382/ha as
against lower dose of nitrogen supply.
The beneficial effect of higher dose of nitrogen upto
150 kg ha -I has also been reported by Singh et al. (2008),
Singh Braham (2008), Reddy et al. (2011) and Reddy et
al. (2013).
As regards with the N-scheduling treatments, S4
having 3 N splits (1/3 10-12 DAE + 1/3 AT + 1/3 PI stage)
recorded significantly higher grain and straw yield i.e.
34.62 and 83.43 q/ha, respectively over all the remaining
Nscheduling treatments. This was however, followed by
S3, S4 and S6 treatments producing identical grain and
straw yield. On the other hand, SI and S2 recorded the
lowest productivity parameters. These productivity
paraineters are exactly in accordance with the yield-
attributing parameters recorded from these treatments.
The beneficial effect of 2 to 4 splitting of N for increased
rice yield has also been reported by Sathiya et al. (2008)
and Ayub Muhammad et al. (2008), Sathiya and Ramesh
(2009) and Singh et al. (2013).
The economical gain was also found according to
the grain yield under different N-scheduling treatments.
Accordingly, S4 having 3 N splits resulted in maximum
net income (Rs 3l545/ha) as well as B:C ratio (2.34).
This was almost equally followed by S3, Ss and S6 (Rs
18673 to Rs 19791/ha) and B:C ratio (1.79 to 1.83). The
minimum net income (Rs 11353/ha) and B:C ratio (1.49)
was recorded from S2 treatment having 2 splits of N
application. This was, however, followed by SI giving lower
income (Rs I309l/ha) and B:C ratio (1.57).
Table 1. Yield attributes of aerobic rice as influenced by nitrogen levels and scheduling of N application

Treatments Panicles Grains Filled Unfilled 1000-grain

/m2 /panicle grain grain weight
/panicle /panicle (g)
Nitrogen levels
F1 - 120:60:50 N:P:K kg/ha (100% of RDF) 244 75 53 21 19
F2 - 150:60:50 N:P:K kg/ha (125% of RDF) 274 115 93 22 22
CD (P-0.05) 10.18 28.02 35.56 0.72 1.33
Schedulling of N application
S1 - 2 splits (½ basal + ½ PI stage) 249 76 52 24 20
S2 - 2 splits (½ 10-12 DAE + ½ PI stage) 257 85 74 12 20
S3 - 3 splits (1/3 basal + 1/3 AT + 1/3 PI stage) 263 100 75 25 20
S4 - 3 splits (1/3 10-12 DAE + 1/3 AT + 1/3 PI stage) 265 116 89 27 21
S5 - 4 splits (1/4 basal + 1/4 AT stage + 1/4 PI stage 258 98 74 24 21
+ ¼ flowering stage)
S6 - 4 splits (1/4 DAE + 1/4 AT stage + 1/4 PI stage 262 93 74 19 21
+ ¼ flowering stage)
CD (P=0.05) 9.70 11.09 15.62 1.58 NS
Interaction Sig Sig Sig Sig NS
DAE = Days after emergence, AT = Active tillering stage, PI = Panicle initiation stage

Table 2. Productivity and economics of aerobic rice as influenced by nitrogen levels and scheduling of N application

Treatments Grain Straw Harvest Net B:C

yield yield index income ratio
(q/ha) (q/ha) (%) (q/ha)
Nitrogen levels
F1 - 120:60:50 N:P:K kg/ha (100% of RDF) 25.2 55.80 31 16289 1.70
F2 - 150:60:50 N:P:K kg/ha (125% of RDF) 28.19 73.52 28 21671 1.91
CD (P-0.05) NS NS NS - -
Schedulling of N application
S1 - 2 splits (½ basal + ½ PI stage) 23.00 52.83 31 13091 1.57
S2 - 2 splits (½ 10-12 DAE + ½ PI stage) 22.11 47.47 32 11353 1.49
S3 - 3 splits (1/3 basal + 1/3 AT + 1/3 PI stage) 26.38 73.63 27 19427 1.83
S4 - 3 splits (1/3 10-12 DAE + 1/3 AT + 1/3 PI stage) 34.62 83.43 30 31545 2.34
S5 - 4 splits (1/4 basal + 1/4 AT stage + 1/4 PI stage + ¼ flowering stage) 26.79 63.49 30 18673 1.79
S6 - 4 splits (1/4 DAE + 1/4 AT stage + 1/4 PI stage + ¼ flowering stage) 27.35 67.10 29 19791 1.83
CD (P=0.05) 6.32 12.73 2.89 - -
Interaction NS NS NS - -
DAE = Days after emergence, AT = Active tillering stage, PI = Panicle initiation stage

187
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(Manuscript Receivd : ; Accepted : )

188
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 189-192 (2015)
Computation of thermal indices for soybean in Madhya Pradesh
H.K. Rai, Arpit Suryawanshi and D.D. Dangi
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
E-mail: rai.hkr.hitendra@gmail.com
Abstract
Field experiment was conducted during Kharif season of
2012 at research farm of JNKVV, Jabalpur (230 13' N latitude,
790 57' E longitudes and elevation of 393 meter amsl) to
estimate the different thermal indices including Growing
degree days (GDD), Heliothermal unit (HTU), Heat use
efficiency (HUE) and Photothermal index (PTI) for soybean
Cv. JS 97-52 using standard procedures. The results
showed that maximum values of GDD (392.1 0C), HTU
(2347.66 0C hours), PTI (18.4 0C/day) and HUE (5.95 kg/0C)
were required for emergence to end of true vegetative, seed
filling to physiological maturity, sowing to emergence and
first flower to full bloom stages, respectively. The result further
indicates that total thermal unit (GDD) required for soybean
was 1776.1 0C, while average heat use efficiency for entire
growing period was 3.01 kg/0C.
Keywards : Soybean, GDD, HTU, PTI and HUE
Temperature plays a key role in the physiological and
morphological development of the crops. Temperature
primarily affects growth duration with lower temperature
increasing the length of time that the crop could intercept
radiation. The effect of temperature on crop is accounted
through the concept of heat unit which is based on the
fact that crops have a certain amount of temperature
requirement for the completion of each stages of its
ontogeny. The seasonal variation in crops and varieties
can be effectively answered through its heat unit
requirement. Varughese and Iruthayaraj (1995) observed
howed that heat unit requirements for Rabi crops were
less than for kharif crops for all physiological phases. In
the present investigation, different thermal indices for
soybean was estimated under Jabalpur conditions using
a set of data observed through experiment conducted
during kharif season of 2012.
189
Material and methods
A field experiment with soybean (Glycine max L. Merril)
Cv. JS 97-52 was conducted during kharif season of 2012
at the research farm of JNKVV, Jabalpur (230 13' N, 790
57' E and 393.0 meter altitude) in the south-eastern part
of the Madhya Pradesh. The soil of the experimental site
was Vertisols belonging to fine Montmorillonitic,
Hypothermic family of Typic Haplustarts. The experimental
site has sub-tropical climate characterized by hot dry
summers and cool dry winter. It lies under the "Kymore
Plateau and Satpura hills" agro climatic zone of Madhya
Pradesh. The mean maximum temperature during the
month of May-June varies between 42.5 to 46.4 0C and is
the hottest month, while the mean minimum temperature
varies between 4.2 to 8.7 0C during December-January,
which are the coldest month of the year. The average
annual rainfall of the region is about 1200 mm which is
mostly received between June to September and a little
rainfall (75 to 175 mm) received in the month from October
to May. The mean maximum and minimum relative
humidity of the region varies between 86.16 to 91.2%
and 62.7 to 67.3%, respectively. Average pan evaporation
is about 3.93 mm/day. Thermal indices including growing
degree days (GDD), heliothermal unit (HTU), heat use
efficiency (HUE) and photothermal index (PTI) for different
phenophases of soybean crop were estimated using
following equations:
1. Growing degree days (GDD)
i=ds
GDD (0C day) = (Tm - Tb)
2. Heliothermal Unit (HTU)
i=d s
HTU (0C day) = (Tm - Tb)i x Di
i=de
3. Heat use efficiency (HUE)
Biological yield (kg/ha)
HUE (kg/ha per 0C day) = --------------------------------------
GDD (0C day)

4. Photothermal Index (PTI)

Accumulation of GDD for a
phenophase (0C day)
PTI (0C day/day) = ----------------------------------------------------
Days taken for the phenophase
(day) Fig. 1. Accumulation of heat units during different
phenophases of soybean
Where,
- Summation of Accumulation of heliothermal unit in soybean
i - Day (number)
Ds - Day of start for the phenophase Accumulation of Helio-thermal unit (HTU) was also
determined and the results are graphically presented in
De - Day of end for the phenophase the Figure 2. The results revealed that the accumulated
helio-thermal unit for different phenophases was ranged
Tm - Mean temperature for the day
from 237.7 to 2347.7 °C days. The highest value of
Tb - Base temperature (for soybean- 10 0C) accumulated HTU (2347.7 °C days) was recorded for pod
filling to maturity stage of soybean. Similar finding was
Di - Sunshine hour of the day also reported by Kumar et al. (2008). It was further noticed
that accumulated helio-thermal unit between sowing to
Results and discussion emergence, emergence to vegetative phase, first flower
to full bloom and full bloom to poding phases were
comparables. It may be because of cloudy conditions
Various thermal indices (GDD, HTU, HUE and PTI) were during these phenophases resulting in lower helio-thermal
estimated for soybean crop and the results thus obtained unit accumulation.
are described in this section of the manuscript under
following heads: Heat use efficiency for different phenophases of soybean

Accumulation of GDD at different phenophases Heat use efficiency (HUE) was also computed using
periodically measured values of the dry matter
Accumulation of heat unit in terms of growing degree days
(GDD) was estimated for different phenophases of soybean
crop and the results thus obtained are depicted in figure
1. The data clearly reveled that accumulation of GDD from
sowing to emergence was lowest (92 0C day) and it was
maximum (392.1 0C day) for emergence to completion of
vegetative phase. Almost comparable accumulation of
GDD was obtained for reproductive phases including
vegetative to first flower, first flower to full bloom, full bloom
to poding, poding to pod filling and pod filling to maturity
stages of soybean. Similar pattern of GDD accumulation
in soybean have been also reported by various
researchers from different parts of the world (Mcnaughton Fig. 2. Accumulation of helio-thermal units during
et al. 1985; Dhingra et al. 1985, Sharma 1994). different phenophases of soybean

190
accumulation and GDD for different phenophases of (17.76 0C day/day) and poding to pod filling (17.15 0C
soybean crop and the results thus obtained are depicted day/day) phases and lowest (14.61 0C day/day) for pod
in figure 3. Result clearly indicated that HUE ranged from filling to maturity phase, respectively.
0.97 to 5.95 kg/ha per 0C day with lowest value for sowing
- emergence and highest for first flower- full bloom stages.
Further, a sharp increase in HUE from end of vegetative
phase till full bloom stage and thereafter a consistent
decrease was noticed till maturity stage. It may be due
to higher photosenthates accumulation of photosenthates
per unit time during first flower to full bloom stage. The
results obtained in the present study in confirmation with
the findings of Balakrishnan and Naterajaratanam (1981).

Fig. 5. Relationship between GDD and plant biomass

of soybean

Relationship between GDD and plant biomass of soybean

Accumulation of growing degree days and photosenthates

in soybean was regressed and is depicted in Fig 5. It is
clearly evident for the figure that a linear relationship
Fig. 3. Variation in heat use efficiency of soybean
(R2=0.963) exists between GDD and plant biomass.
during different phenophases

Conclusion
Photothermal Index for different phenophases of soybean

The results of the present study showed that rapid

Photo thermal index (PTI) for soybean was estimated
accumulation of heat unit (GDD) takes place during the
using accumulated GDD for different phenophases and
vegetative phases while buildup of photothermal units
the number of days required completing the corresponding
(HTU) was more pronounced during the reproductive
phenophase and the results thus obtained are depicted
phases. Further, the heat use efficiency (HUE) was
in Fig 4. It is evident for the data that maximum
highest for full bloom stage of the crop and a linear
photothermal index (18.4 0C day/day) was obtained for
relationship exists between accumulation of thermal units
sowing to emergence followed by first flower to full bloom
and plant biomass in soybean. Therefore, it can be
concluded from the study that consideration of different
thermal indices has greater importance for enhancing the
productivity of soybean crop and need to be matched
through agronomic manipulations.

,d iz{ks= iz;ksx }kjk o"kZ 2012 esa lks;kchu dh Qly esa o`f+) ,oa
fodkl gsrq vko';d rkiØe ds fofHkUu ?kVdksa dh x.kuk dh x;h ftlls
irk pyrk gS fd e?;izns'k esa lks;kchu dh Qly esa mfpr o`f) ,oa
fodkl gsrq vf?kdre xzkbs xa fMxzh Mst ¼392-2 fMxzh lsVa hxzMs ½] gsfy;ksFkeZy
;wfuV ¼2347-66 fMxzh lsaVhxzsM /kaVs½] QksVksFkeZy baMsDl ¼18-4 fMxzh
Fig. 4. Photothermal Index for different phenophases of lsaVhxzsM izfr fnu½ rFkk m"ek iz;ksx {kerk ¼5-95 fdyksxzke izfr fMxzh
soybean lsaVhxzsM½ Øe'k% Qly mxus ls ysdj iw.kZ okuLifrd o`f)] nkuk Hkjko
191
ls fQft;ksyksftdy esP;ksfjVh] cqokbZ ls ikS?k mxus rd rFkk izFke iq"Ik
fudyus ls iw.kZ iq"iu rd dh voL;kvksa ds fy, Fkh A tcfd lks;kchu
dh Qly dky esa dqy m"ek dh vko';drk 1776-1 fMxzh lsaVhxzsM ,oa
vkSlr m"ek iz;ksx {kerk 3-01 fdyksxzke izfr fMxzh lsaVhxzsM ikbZ xbZ A

References

Varughese K and Iruthayaraj MR (1995) Seasonal variation

in yield and heat unit requirement of maize (Zea
mays L.). Crop Res 10(1):67-73
Mcnaughton HG, Warrington IJ and Turnbulk HL (1985) The
effects of temperature and day length on the rate of
development of pigeonpea. Annals of Bot 56(5):597-
611
Dhingra KK, Kaur H, Dhaliwal LK and Singh J (1985).
Photological behaviour and heat unit requirement
of soybean genotype under different date of sowing.
J Res Panjab Agril Univ 32: 129-135
Sharma NN (1994). Response of soybean to sowing date in
the hill zone of Assam. Ann Agril Res 15: 489-490
Balakrishnan K and Naterajaratanam N (1981). Influence of
sowing dates on the phenology and transpiration
rate in pigeonpea. Madras Agric J 74 (3):121-128
Kumar A, Pandey V, Shekh AM and Kumar M (2008). Growth
and yield response of soybean (Glycine max L.) in
relation to temperature, photoperiod and sunshine
duration at Anand, Gujarat, India. American-
Eurasian J Agronomy 1(2): 45-50

(Manuscript Receivd : 30-04-2015; Accepted : 17-06-2015)

192
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 193-199 (2015)
Effect of micronutrients and biofertilizer application on growth and
yield contributing characters in onion
Pratibha Singh, S.K. Sengupta, P.K. Jain and B.K. Verma
Department of Horticulture
College of Agriculture
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
E-mail:pratibha_atul08@yahoo.com
Abstract
An investigation was made to determine the effect of
micronutrients and biofertilizers application on growth and
yield contributing characters in onion (Allium cepa L.) at
Horticulture Complex, Maharajpur, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi
Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur (MP). Treatments were arranged
in Factorial RBD during Rabi season of 2013-14. Result
were found to be significant in most of the growth and yield
attributing parameters of onion. The number of leaves per
plant (15.57), plant Height (72.92 cm) neck thickness of bulb
(6.12 mm), average weight of bulb (58.56 g), bulb Diameter
(5.17 cm), bulb yield per plot (15.17 kg) and bulb yield per
hectare (303.42 q/ha) were observed significantly maximum
in treatment M2 - (Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn
0.2%). Number of leaves per plant (15.13), plant Height
(73.38 cm), neck thickness of bulb (6.19 mm), average weight
of bulb (57.87 g), bulb Diameter (5.23 cm), bulb yield per plot
(15.03 kg) and bulb yield per hectare (300.71 q/ha) were
recorded significantly maximum in treatment B2 - Azospirillum
5Kg/ha as soil application before transplanting. However
minimum values were found under the control i.e. M1 and B0.
Keywords: Onion, biofertilizer, micronutrients.
Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the most important
commercial vegetable crops and is widely grown in almost
all over the world (Mishra et al. 2013). Onion has its own
distinctive flavour and is used in soups, different dishes,
salads, sandwiches and is also cooked alone as a
vegetable. Its pungency is due to the presence of Allyl
propyl disulphide, a volatile oil. It contains carbohydrates,
protein, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and ascorbic
acid.
193
The area and production of onion in India is about
1.203 million hectares and 19.4 million tonnes of bulb,
respectively, with an average yield of 16.1 MT /ha (NHB,
2014). The yield is very low as compared to the world
average yield of 19.1 t /ha. Intensive cropping, imbalanced
fertilization and minimal usage of micro nutrients and
limited application of organic manures have resulted in
the depletion of soil fertility in India. Boron and zinc are
the most important micro-nutrients and are essential for
cell division, nitrogen and carbohydrate metabolism and
water relation in plant growth. Application of boron can
increase bulb size and yield of onion (Smriti et al. 2002).
Response of onion to zinc application has also been
reported (Lal and Maurya 1981). Mishra et al. (1990) have
shown that application of ZnSO4 (0.5%) and FeSO4 (1.0%)
as foliar spray recorded significantly higher plant height
and other growth parameters in onion. Bio fertilizers refer
to living organisms, which augment plant nutrient supplies
in symbiotic or asymbiotic way. Among the asymbiotic,
nitrogen fixing-bacteria, Azotobacter and Azospirillum
contribute to significant improvement in crops yield by
15-20 per cent while reducing the depletion of soil nutrients.
In addition to these beneficial effects, biofertilizers allow
the saving of at least 20-30 kg/ha inorganic N fertilizers,
as they possess a tremendous potentiality in nitrogen
fixation.
Material and methods
The experiment was conducted at Horticulture Complex,
Department of Horticulture, JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP) during
2013-14 to study the effect of micronutrients and
biofertilizer application on growth and yield attributing
characters in onion (Allium cepa L.). The two factors were
chosen as a treatment. Factor A consisted of
micronutrient and Factor B related with biofertilizers. The

Bulb yield

237.60
303.42
296.66
293.60
284.31
283.86
(q/ha)

11.85
treatments consist of foliar spray of five micronutrients

4.10
combination M1 - (Fe 0%,B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0%),
M2 - (Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%),
M3 - (Fe 1.0%, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4%),

Bulb yield
M4 - (Fe 1.5%, B 0.3%, Zn 1.5%, Cu 0.6 %, Mn 0.6 %),

11.88
15.17
14.83
14.68
14.21
14.19
/plot

0.59
0.20
(kg)
M5 - (Fe 2.0%, B 0.4%, Zn 2.0 %, Cu 0.8 %,Mn 0.8 %),
M6 - (Fe 2.5%, B 0.5%, Zn 2.5%, Cu 1.0 %,Mn 1.0 %).
water spray as control and along with soil application of
biofertilizers viz. B0-Control, B1-Azotobacter 5 kg/ha and

diameter
B2 - Azospirillum 5Kg/ha. Foliar sprays of micronutrients

Bulb

(cm)

4.49
5.17
5.15
5.14
5.06
4.97
0.05
0.16
were done at 45 days after transplanting. The nursery
sowing was done on 15 November 2013. The crop was
transplanted (spacing of 15 cm × 10 cm), fertilized and
irrigated as per the recommended practices. The

Average wt
of bulb
experiment was laid out in a Factorial randomized block

45.31
58.56
52.86
50.97
49.62
48.75
0.80
2.31
(g)
design with three replications. The source of micronutrient

Table 1. Effect of micronutrients application on vegetative growth and yield attributes parameters of onion
for iron, boron, zinc, copper and maganese were Ferrous
sulphate, Borax, Zinc Sulphate, Cupper Sulphate and
Maganese Sulphate respectively. Ten plants were

thickness
of bulb
(mm)
Neck
selected from each plot as a unit for all observations on

8.04
6.12
6.23
6.33
6.61
6.71
0.13
0.37
growth and yield. Based on the net plot yield, yield per
hectare was calculated and expressed in q/ha.
Number of
leaves/

Results and discussion

13.33
15.57
14.55
14.51
14.26
14.20
0.13
0.39
Growth Parameters
Plant height

Plant Height
63.06
72.92
71.67
70.93
67.60
66.53
(cm)

0.43
1.26
The application of micronutrients Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn
0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% (M2) was recorded significantly
maximum plant height (72.92 cm) which was closely
M2 - (Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%)
M3 - (Fe 1.0%, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4%)
M4 - (Fe 1.5%, B 0.3%, Zn 1.5%, Cu 0.6 %, Mn 0.6%)
M5 - (Fe 2.0%, B 0.4%, Zn 2.0 %, Cu 0.8 %,Mn 0.8%)
followed by M3 - (Fe 1.0%, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, M6 - (Fe 2.5%, B 0.5%, Zn 2.5%, Cu 1.0 %,Mn 1.0%)
Mn 0.4%) (71.67 cm) and M4 - (Fe 1.5%, B 0.3%, Zn
1.5%, Cu 0.6 %, Mn 0.6 %) (70.93 cm) as compared to
M1 - (Fe 0%, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0%) (control
M1 - (Fe 0%,B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0%)

without micronutrients) which was 63.06 cm zinc and

boron play an essential role in improving plant growth,
through the biosynthesis of endogenous hormones which
is responsible for promotion of plant growth (Bhatt et al.
2004, Hansch et al. 2009). The improved growth
characters as a result of foliar application of micronutrient
Micronutrients application

which would have enhanced photosynthesis and other

metabolic activities, which lead to increase in cell division
and elongation. This result are in agreement with the
results reported by Smriti et al. (2002) and Manna (2013)
in onion crop.
CD (P=0.05)
Treatments

Application of Azospirillum 5 kg/ha (B2) was noted

SEm±

significantly maximum (73.38 cm) plant height followed

by Azotobacter 5 kg/ha (B1 ) ( 70.38 cm) as compared

194
to (B0 - no biofertilizer) (62.59 cm). Increase in plant height
due to Azospirillum inoculation have also been reported
by (Mengistu and Singh 1999) in onion. The similar results
were observed by, Chattoo et al. (2007), Ranjan et al.
(2010), Jawadagi et al. (2012), Ghanti and Sharangi (2009),
Navale and Wani (2006) and Kumar (2010).
Number of leaves
The application of micronutrients Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn
0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% (M2) was recorded significantly
maximum (15.57) number of leaves which was closely
followed by M3 - (Fe 1.0%, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%,
Mn 0.4%) (14.55 leaves) and M4 - (Fe 1.5%, B 0.3%,Zn
1.5%, Cu 0.6 %, Mn 0.6 %) (14.51 leaves ) as compared
to M1 - (Fe 0%,B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0%) which was
13.33 leaves. Increase in number of leaves/plant this may
be due to the improved growth characters as a result of
foliar application of micronutrient which would have
enhanced photosynthesis and other metabolic activities,
which lead to increase in cell division and elongation.
The same trends were recorded by in onion Sliman et al.
(1999), EL-Gamelli et al. (2000), El-Shafie et al. (2002),
Chattoo et al. (2007), El-Tohamy et al. (2009), Alam et
al. (2010), Abd El-Samad et al. (2011), Ballabh et al.
(2012), Jawadagi et al. (2012), Manna (2013) and Trivedi
and Dhumal (2013).
Application of Azospirillum (5 kg /ha) (B2) was noted
significantly maximum (15.13) number of leaves followed
by Azotobacter 5 kg/ha (B1 ) (14.50 leaves) as compared
to (B0 - no biofertilizer) (13.58 leaves). Application of
Azospirillum and PSB enhanced the leaf number. The
enhanced plant growth characters might be due to higher
nutrient availability as well as better nutrient uptake by
the crops. Similar results were recorded by Mengistu and
Singh (1999), Navale and Wani (2006), Ranjan et al.
Fig. 1. Effect of micronutrients application on vegetative
growth and yield attributes parameters of onion
195
(2010), Singh and Sachan (1998), Naruka and Singh
(2002) in garlic and Shanti and Balakrishnan (1989) in
aggregatum onion.
Neck thickness of bulb
Application of micronutrients Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5
%, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% (M2) was recorded significantly
minimum neck thickness of bulb (6.12 mm) which was
followed by M3 (Fe 1.0%, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%,
Mn 0.4%) (6.23 mm) and M4 - (Fe 1.5%, B 0.3%,Zn
1.5%, Cu 0.6 %, Mn 0.6 %) (6.33 mm) as compared to
M1 - (Fe 0%,B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0%) (control
without micronutrients) (8.04 mm). It may be due to zinc
and boron play an essential role in improving plant growth,
through the biosynthesis of endogenous hormones which
is responsible for promotion of plant growth (Bhatt et al.
2004; Hänsch et al. 2009).
Treatment Azospirillum 5 kg /ha (B2) application
was noted significantly minimum (6.19 mm) neck
thickness of bulb followed by Azotobacter 5 kg/ha (B1)
(6.40 mm) as compared to (B0 - no biofertilizer) (7.42
mm). The similar results were observed by Chattoo et al.
(2007), Ranjan et al. (2010) and Kumar (2010).
Yield attributing parameters
Average weight of bulb
Foliar application of micronutrients Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn
0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% (M2) was recorded significantly
maximum average weight of bulb (58.56 g) followed by
M3 (Fe 1.0%, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4%)
(52.86 g) and M4 - (Fe 1.5%, B 0.3%, Zn 1.5%, Cu 0.6 %,
Fig. 2. Effect of Biofertilizers application on vegetative
growth and yield attributes parameters of onion
Mn 0.6 %) (50.97 g) as compared to M1 - (Fe 0%, B 0%,
Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0%) (45.31 g). The similar results
were observed by Yadav et al. (2003) and Singh and Tiwari
(1995).
Azospirillum 5 kg /ha (B2 ) soil application was
noted significantly maximum (57.87 g) average weight of
bulb followed by Azotobacter 5Kg/ha (B1) (53.22 g) as
compared to (B0 - no biofertilizer) (41.94 g). The similar
results were observed by Mengistu and Singh (1999),
Ranjan et al. (2010), Aswani et al. (2005), Kumar (2010),
Jawadagi et al. (2012), Saranghem and Singh (2014) and
Meena et al. (2015).
Bulb Diameter
Application of micronutrients Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5
%, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% (M2) was recorded significantly
maximum bulb diameter (5.17 cm) which was closely
followed by M3 (Fe 1.0%, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%,
Mn 0.4%) (5.15 cm) and M4 - (Fe 1.5%, B 0.3%, Zn 1.5%,
Cu 0.6 %, Mn 0.6 %) (5.14 cm) as compared to M1 - (Fe
0%, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0%) (4.49 cm). This may
be due to the micronutrient application especially boron
which enhances the enzyme activity which in turn trigger
the physiological processes like protein and carbohydrate
metabolism in plants. Similar results were reported by
Lal and Maurya (1981), Alam et al. (2010), Manna (2013)
and Singh and Tiwari (1995).
Application of Azospirillum 5 kg /ha (B2) was noted
significantly maximum (5.23 cm) bulb diameter followed
by Azotobacter 5 kg/ha (B1) (5.14 cm) as compared to
(B0 - no biofertilizer) (4.62 cm). The diameter influence
the yield of onion and consumer preference. The similar
results were observed by Mengistu and Singh (1999),
Navale and Wani (2006), Kumar (2010), Jawadagi et al.
(2012).

Effect of micronutrients and biofertilizer on onion crop

Table 2. Effect of Biofertilizers application on vegetative growth and yield attributes parameters of onion

Treatments Plant height Number of Neck Average wt Bulb Bulb yield Bulb yield
(cm) leaves/ thickness of bulb diameter /plot (q/ha)
plant of bulb (g) (cm) (kg)
(mm)
Biofertilizer
B0 - No biofertilizer 62.59 13.58 7.42 41.94 4.62 13.16 263.33
B1 - Azotobacter 5Kg/ha 70.38 14.50 6.40 53.22 5.14 14.28 285.68
B2 - Azospirillum 5Kg/ha 73.38 15.13 6.19 57.87 5.23 15.03 300.71
SEm± 0.31 0.09 0.09 0.56 0.04 0.14 2.90
CD (P=0.05) 0.89 0.27 0.26 1.63 0.11 0.41 8.38

196
Bulb yield
Significantly maximum 15.17 kg/plot was exhibited under
the micronutrient treatment (M2)- Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn
0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% closely followed by M3 (Fe
1.0%, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4%) (14.83 kg/
plot) and M4 - (Fe 1.5%, B 0.3%,Zn 1.5%, Cu 0.6 %, Mn
0.6 %) (14.68 kg/plot) over to treatment M1 - (Fe 0%,B
0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0%) (11.88 kg). The similar results
were observed by Sindhu and Tiwari (1996).
Azospirillum (5 kg/ha) (B2) soil application was
noted significantly maximum (15.03 kg) bulb yield per
plot followed by Azotobacter 5 kg/ha (B1) (14.28 kg) as
compared to (B0 - no biofertilizer) (13.16 kg). The similar
results were observed by Navale and Wani (2006) and
Kumar (2010). Biofertilizers application on increased the
availability of nitrogen to onion plant. The higher bulb yield
may be due to greater root proliferation, more uptake of
nutrients and water, more photosynthesis area and
enhance food accumulation.
The foliar application of micronutrients Fe 0.5%, B
0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% (M2) was recorded
significantly maximum bulb yield (303.42 q/ha) followed
by M3 (Fe 1.0%, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4%)
(296.66 q/ha) and M4 - (Fe 1.5%, B 0.3%, Zn 1.5%, Cu
0.6 %, Mn 0.6 %) (293.60 q/ha) as compared to M1 - (Fe
0%, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0%) (237.60 q/ha). This
may be due to zinc, which is one of the most important
elements in the carbohydrates metabolism, most
enzymes that play a role in carbohydrates metabolism
are activated by zinc. In addition to carbonic anhydrase,
Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate and Aldolase enzymes are
activated by zinc. These enzymes are active in the
chloroplasts and cytoplasm, six-carbon sugar molecule
are separated between chloroplasts and cytoplasm by
Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate and three-carbon sugars
molecule in photosynthesis are transported from
cytoplasm to chloroplasts by Aldolase. The activity of
these enzymes decreased in zinc deficiency condition,
in resulting carbohydrate accumulation in plant leaves.
Similar finding were reported by Meena and Singh (1998),
Sliman et al. (1999), Gamelli et al. (2000), El-Shafie et
al. (2002), El-Tohamy et al. (2009), Alam et al. (2010),
Abd El-Samad et al. (2011), Ballabh et al. (2012), Manna
(2013), Trivedi and Dhumal (2013) in onion. The similar
results were observed by Yadav et al. (2003), Malakouti
(2008).
Soil application of Azospirillum (B2) 5 kg/ha was
noted significantly maximum (300.71 q/ha) bulb yield per
plot followed by Azotobacter (B1) (285.68 q/ha) as
compared to B0- no biofertilizer (263.33 q/ha). The similar
results were observed by Yadav et al. (2005), Aswani et
197
al. (2005), Ranjan et al. (2010), Jawadagi et al. (2012),
Mengistu and singh (1999), Sarangthem and Singh (2014).
The application of micronutrients shows positive
effect towards the growth, yield and yield parameters of
onion. Growth parameters such as plant height, number
of leaves were highly responsive to foliar spray of
micronutrients. Yield parameters highly responded to
micronutrients so application of micronutrients may
provide highest yield.
The increase in growth and yield parameters in
the inoculated treatments can be attributed to the multiple
effects of Azospirillum such as their ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen moreover, its role in solublization
of phosphate and general improvement in nutrient uptake
of the plant due to root proliferation might have also
considerably contributed to enhanced growth and yields
of the inoculated treatments in these findings.
lw{e iks"kd rRoksa ,oa tSo moZjdksa dk I;kt ds ikS/kks ds fodkl vkSj mit
ij izHkko dk v/;;u gkVhZdYpj dkEiysDl egkjktiqj t-us-d`-fo-fo-
tcyiqj esa o"kZ 2013&14 ds nkSjku fd;k x;kA ikap lw{e iks"kd rRoksa
vkSj nks tSo moZjdks dks fu;af=r mipkjks ds lkFk QsDVksfj;y jsaMekbTM
Cykd fMtkbu esa rhu ckj nksgjkrs gq, ijh{k.k fd, x,A ijh{k.k ds
ifj.kke ls ;g Kkr gqvk fd mipkj M2 ¼ Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn
0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%½ ls vf/kdre ifRr;ksa dh la[;k 15-
57] ikS/kks dh yackbZ 72-92 ls-eh-] dan xnZu dh eksVkbZ 6-12 fe-eh-
] vkSlr dan dk Hkkj 58-56 xzke] dan dh xksykbZ 5-17 ls-eh- 15-
17 fdyks@IykV vkSj 303-42 fDoa@gSDVs;j dan dh mit ikbZ xbZA blh
izdkj,tksfLikjye 5 fdyks@gSDVs;j dh nj ls jksikbZ ds iwoZ feVVh esa
feykus ij vf/kdre ifRr;ks dh la[;k 15-13] ikS/kks dh ÅWpkbZ 73-
38 ls-eh-] dan xnZu dh eksVkbZ 6-19 fe-eh-] vkSlru dan dk Hkkj
57-87 xzke] dan dh xksykbZ 5-23 ls-eh-] 15-03 fdyks@IykV vkSj
300-71 fDoa@gSDVs;j dan dh mit izkIr gqbZ tks fd fu;af=r mipkj
ls vf/kd gSA
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(Manuscript Receivd : 25-02-2015; Accepted : 15-05-2015)

199
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 200-204 (2015)
Effect of micronutrient complex and biofertilizer application on growth
and yield in onion (Allium cepa L.)
Pratibha Singh, S.K. Sengupta, B.K. Verma and P.K. Jain
Department of Horticulture
College of Agriculture
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
E-mail:pratibha_atul08@yahoo.com
Abstract
An investigation was made to determine the effect of
micronutrient complex and biofertilizers application on growth
and yield in onion (Allium cepa L.) at Horticulture Complex,
Maharajpur, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya,
Jabalpur (MP). Treatments were arranged in Factorial RBD
during Rabi season of 2013-14. Results revealed that
significantly maximum plant height (78.13 cm), number of
leaves /plant (17.83), neck thickness of bulb (5.60 mm),
average weight of bulb (73.76 g), bulb diameter (5.35 cm)
and bulb yield/ha (335.46 q/ha) was observed in treatment
T14 - (M2 + B2) (Fe 0.5 %, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%
+ Azospirillum). However, minimum values of these traits
were found under the control treatment T1 - (M1 + B0 ) (Fe 0%,
B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0% + no biofertilizer).
Keywords: Onion, biofertilizer, micronutrients
Onion (Allium cepa L.) is a bulbous biennial herb of family
Alliaceae. It is commonly called as "Queen of kitchen"
for its unique usage throughout the year in the form of
salads, condiments or for cooking with other vegetables.
The pungency in onion is due to sulphur compound "ally
propyl disulphide" in the volatile oil and the outer skin
colour is due to the presence of "querctin". Onion bulb is
rich in minerals like phosphorus (50mg/100g), iron (0.7mg/
100g), calcium (18mg/100g), carbohydrates (11.0g/100g),
protein (1.2g/100g), vitamins 'C' (11mg/100g), fibers (0.6g/
100g) and nicotinic acid (0.4mg/100g). The productivity
of onion in India is very low (16 t /ha) in comparison to
other countries. Micronutrients play an active role in the
plant metabolic process from cell wall development to
respiration, photosynthesis, chlorophyll formation,
enzymes activity, nitrogen fixation etc. Ballabh and Rana
(2012). Foliar application of micro-nutrients was
successfully used for correcting their deficits and
200
improving the mineral status of plants as well as increasing
the crop yield and quality. (Kolota and Osinska 2001).
Producing of good quality onion bulbs is an important
target by onion growers whom have an inadequate
knowledge about beneficial role of micronutrients in
increasing yield and quality of onion for local and foreign
markets. Biofertilizer inoculation like Azotobacter,
Azospirillum, PSB helps the plants to attain better
vegetative growth and increases yield by 10-30 percent
(Mohondas 1999, Tilak and Annapurna 1993). Bio-
fertilizers refer to living organisms, which augment plant
nutrient supplies in symbiotic or asymbiotic way. Among
the asymbiotic, nitrogen fixing-bacteria, Azotobacter and
Azospirillum contribute to significant improvement in crops
yield by 15-20 per cent while reducing the depletion of
soil nutrients (Motsara et al. 1995). In addition to these
beneficial effects, biofertilizers allow the saving of at least
20-30 kg/ha inorganic N fertilizers, as they possess a
tremendous potentiality in nitrogen fixation (Tilak 1991).
Material and methods
The experiment was conducted at Horticulture Complex,
Department of Horticulture, JNKVV, Jabalpur (MP) during
2013-14 to study the effect of micronutrient complex and
biofertilizer application on growth and yield in onion (Allium
cepa L.). The two facters were chosen as a treatment.
Facter A consisted of micronutrient and Facter B related
with biofertilizers. The treatments consist of foliar spray
of micronutrients and soil application of biofertilizers
combination, T1 - (M1 + B0 ) (Fe 0%, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu
0%, Mn 0% + no biofertilizer, T2 - (M2 + B0) (Fe 0.5%, B
0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%+ no biofertilizer), T3
- (M3 + B0) (Fe 1.0%, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn
0.4%+ no biofertilizer), T4-(M4 + B0) (Fe 1.5%, B 0.3%,
Zn 1.5%, Cu 0.6 %, Mn 0.6 % + no biofertilizer), T5- (M5 +
B0 (Fe 2.0%, B 0.4%, Zn 2.0 %, Cu 0.8 %, Mn 0.8 % +
no biofertilizer), T6- (M6 + B0) (Fe 2.5%, B 0.5%, Zn 2.5%,
Cu 1.0 %, Mn 1.0 % + no biofertilizer), T7 - (M1 + B1) (Fe
0 %, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0% + Azotobacter), T8 -
(M2 + B1) (Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn
0.2% + Azotobacter), T9 - (M3 + B1) (Fe 1.0 %, B 0.2%,
Zn 1.0 %, Cu0.4%, Mn 0.4% + Azotobacter), T10 - (M4 +
B1) (Fe 1.5 %, B 0.3%, Zn 1.5 %, Cu0.6 %, Mn 0.6% +
Azotobacter), T11 - (M5 + B1) (Fe 2.0 %, B 0.4%, Zn 2.0
%, Cu 0.8%, Mn 0.8% + Azotobacter), T12 - (M6 + B1) (Fe
2.5 %, B 0.5%, Zn 2.5 %, Cu 1.0%, Mn 1.0% +
Azotobacter), T13 - M1 + B2 (Fe 0%, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu
0%, Mn 0% + Azospirillum), T14 - (M2 + B2) (Fe 0.5 %, B
0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%+ Azospirillum), T15 -
(M3 + B2) (Fe 1.0 %, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4
%+ Azospirillum), T16 - (M4 + B2) (Fe 1.5 %, B 0.3%, Zn
1.5 %, Cu 0.6%, Mn 0.6 % + Azospirillum), T17 - (M5 +
B2) (Fe 2.0 %, B 0.4%, Zn 2.0 %, Cu 0.8 %, Mn 0.8 % +
Azospirillum), T18 - (M6 + B2) (Fe 2.5 %, B 0.5 %, Zn 2.5
%, Cu 1.0%, Mn 1.0 % + Azospirillum). Foliar sprays of
micronutrients were done at 45 days after transplanting.
The nursery sowing was done on 15 November 2013. The
crop was transplanted (spacing of 15 cm × 10 cm),
fertilized and irrigated as per the recommended practices.
The experiment was laid out in a Factorial randomized
block design with three replications. The source of
micronutrient for iron, boron, zinc, copper and maganese
were Ferrous sulphat, Borax, Zinc Sulphate, Cupper
Sulphate and Maganese Sulphate respectively. Ten plants
were selected from each plot as a unit for all observations
on growth and yield. Based on the net plot yield, yield
per hectare was calculated and expressed in q/ha.
Results and discussion
Plant growth parameters
Plant height
The significantly maximum plant height (78.13 cm) were
recorded in T14 - (M2 + B2) (Fe 0.5 %, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %,
Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% + Azospirillum) followed by T15 - (M3 +
B2) (Fe 1.0 %, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4 % +
Azospirillum) (76.73 cm), T16 - (M4 + B2) (Fe 1.5 %, B
0.3%, Zn 1.5 %, Cu 0.6%, Mn 0.6 % + Azospirillum)
(75.43) and T8 - (M2 + B1) (Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %,

Table 1. Effect of micronutrient complex and biofertilizer application on vegetative growth and Yield attributes parameters
of onion

Treatment code Treatment Plant Number of Neck Average wt Bulb Blub

symbol height leaves/plant thickness of bulb diameter yield
(cm) (mm) (g) (cm) (q /ha)
T1 M1 + B0 54.03 11.50 9.53 37.96 3.63 234.53
T2 M2 + B0 66.46 14.20 6.76 45.96 4.90 270.40
T3 M3 + B0 66.30 14.16 6.80 45.00 4.87 269.60
T4 M4 + B0 65.83 14.16 7.00 41.26 4.87 269.06
T5 M5 + B0 62.16 13.83 7.10 41.20 4.83 268.66
T6 M6 + B0 60.77 13.66 7.36 40.26 4.65 267.73
T7 M1 + B1 67.43 14.20 7.30 47.36 4.88 237.46
T8 M2 + B1 74.16 14.70 6.00 55.96 5.27 304.40
T9 M3 + B1 72.00 14.66 6.10 55.56 5.24 299.60
T10 M4 + B1 71.53 14.60 6.20 55.33 5.22 296.93
T11 M5 + B1 69.10 14.43 6.40 53.36 5.15 288.00
T12 M6 + B1 68.06 14.40 6.40 51.76 5.09 287.73
T13 M1 + B2 67.73 14.30 7.29 50.60 4.96 240.80
T14 M2 + B2 78.13 17.83 5.60 73.76 5.35 335.46
T15 M3 + B2 76.73 14.83 5.80 58.03 5.35 320.80
T16 M4 + B2 75.43 14.76 5.80 56.33 5.33 314.80
T17 M5 + B2 71.53 14.53 6.33 54.30 5.20 296.26
T18 M6 + B2 70.76 14.53 6.36 54.23 5.16 296.13
SEm± 0.76 0.23 0.22 1.38 0.09 7.11
CD (P=0.05) 2.19 0.68 0.64 4.00 0.28 20.54

201
Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% + Azotobacter) (74.16) as compare
to T1- control (M1 + B0 ) (Fe 0%, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%,
Mn 0% + no biofertilizer (54.03 cm). probable reason for
this may be zinc involves in auxin metabolism in vegetative
growth that increases leaf length. Tisdale et al. (1985)
reported that zinc is involved in auxin metabolism and
other enzymatic reactions that increase leaf length. It
may be due to collective effect of nitrogen and zinc that
stimulate plant growth and thus increases leaf length.
Similar results were recorded by Choudhary et al. (2014).
Number of leaves /plant
Significantly maximum 17.83 and 14.83 leaves/plant were
observed in treatment combination T14 - (M2 + B2) (Fe 0.5
%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%+ Azospirillum)
and T15 - (M3 + B2) (Fe 1.0 %, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu
0.4%, Mn 0.4 %+ Azospirillum) respectively and which
were at par with each other. Therefore, the lowest 11.50
leaves /plant was noted under treatment T1 - (M1 + B0 )
(Fe 0%, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0% + no biofertilizer).
Increase in number of leaves /plant this may be due to
the improved growth characters as a result of foliar
application of micronutrient which would have enhanced
photosynthesis and other metabolic activities, which lead
to increase in cell division and elongation. The enhanced
plant growth characters might be due to higher nutrient
availability as well as better nutrient uptake by the crops.
Similar results were recorded by Choudhary et al. (2014)
Neck thickness of bulb
Application of treatment T14 - (M2 + B2) (Fe 0.5 %, B 0.1%,
Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%+ Azospirillum) (5.60 mm)
Fig. 1. Effect of micronutrient complex and biofertilizer
application on plant height and average weight of bulb of
onion
202
was recorded significantly minimum neck thickness of
bulb, followed by T15 - (M3 + B2) (Fe 1.0 %, B 0.2%, Zn
1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4 %+ Azospirillum) (5.80 mm), T16
- (M4 + B2) (Fe 1.5 %, B 0.3%, Zn 1.5 %, Cu 0.6%, Mn
0.6 % + Azospirillum) (5.80 mm) and T8 - (M2 + B1) (Fe
0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% +
Azotobacter) (6.00 mm) over the treatment combination
T1 control (M1 + B0 ) (Fe 0%, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn
0% + no biofertilizer) (9.53 mm). Similar results were
recorded by Choudhary et al. (2014).
Yield attributing parameters
Average weight of bulb
Application of different combinations of micronutrients and
biofertilizer significantly influenced the average weight of
bulb of onion (Table 1). The highest fresh weight of bulb
(73.76 gm) was found in T14 - (M2 + B2) (Fe 0.5 %, B
0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%+ Azospirillum) and
the second highest value was in T15 - (M3 + B2) (Fe 1.0 %,
B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4 % + Azospirillum)
(58.03). The lowest value was recorded in T1 - (M1 + B0 )
(Fe 0%, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0% + no biofertilizer)
(37.96). The results of fresh weight of bulbs are in
agreement with the findings of Satbir et al. (1989) they
stated that fresh weight of bulb significantly increased by
foliar application of Zn and B.
Bulb diameter
Significantly maximum 5.35, 5.35, 5.33, 5.27, 5.24, 5.22,
5.20, 5.16 cm of onion bulb diameter were recorded under
Fig. 2. Effect of micronutrient complex and biofertilizer
application on bulb diameter, neck thickness and number
of leaves of onion
the treatment combination of T14 - (M2 + B2) (Fe 0.5 %, B
0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%+ Azospirillum), T15 -
(M3 + B2) (Fe 1.0 %, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4
%+ Azospirillum), T16 - (M4 + B2) (Fe 1.5 %, B 0.3%, Zn
1.5 %, Cu 0.6%, Mn 0.6 % + Azospirillum), T8 - (M2 + B1)
(Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2% +
Azotobacter), T9 - (M3 + B1) (Fe 1.0 %, B 0.2%, Zn 1.0
%, Cu0.4%, Mn 0.4% + Azotobacter), T10 - (M4 + B1) (Fe
1.5 %, B 0.3%, Zn 1.5 %, Cu0.6 %, Mn 0.6% +
Azotobacter), T17 - (M5 + B2) (Fe 2.0 %, B 0.4%, Zn 2.0
%, Cu 0.8 %, Mn 0.8 % + Azospirillum) and T18 - (M6 +
B2) (Fe 2.5 %, B 0.5 %, Zn 2.5 %, Cu 1.0%, Mn 1.0 % +
Azospirillum) respectively and which were at par with each
other. However, it was lowest (3.63 cm) in treatment
combination T1 - (M1 + B0 ) (Fe 0%, B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu
0%, Mn 0% + no biofertilizer). This may be due to the
micronutrient application especially boron which enhances
the enzyme activity which in turn trigger the physiological
processes like protein and carbohydrate metabolism in
plants. Similar results were reported by Singh and Tiwari
(1995), Manna (2013) and Choudhary et al. (2014).
Bulb yield (q /ha)
Data (Table-1) revealed that the bulb yield of onion
responded significantly due to different combinations of
micronutrients and biofertilizer. Foliar application of
treatment combination T14 - (M2 + B2) (Fe 0.5 %, B 0.1%,
Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn 0.2%+ Azospirillum) was recorded
significantly superior and it was recorded 335.48 q /ha
bulb yield followed by T15 - (M3 + B2) (Fe 1.0 %, B 0.2%,
Zn 1.0 %, Cu 0.4%, Mn 0.4 % + Azospirillum) (320.80 q
/ha), T16 - (M4 + B2) (Fe 1.5 %, B 0.3%, Zn 1.5 %, Cu
0.6%, Mn 0.6 % + Azospirillum) (314.80 q /ha) and T8 -
Fig. 3. Effect of micronutrient complex and biofertilizer
application on bulb yield of onion
203
(M2 + B1) (Fe 0.5%, B 0.1%, Zn 0.5 %, Cu 0.2%, Mn
0.2% + Azotobacter) (304.40 q /ha) as compare to
treatment combination T1 i.e. Control (M1 + B0 ) (Fe 0%,
B 0%, Zn 0%, Cu 0%, Mn 0% + no biofertilizer) (234.53 q
/ha). Onion yield increment could be due to the fact that
nitrogen supply to the plant increased carbohydrate
synthesis with increase the rate of metabolism. It
increases the bulb weight and thus increases total yield.
Similar results were recorded by Choudhary et al. (2014),
Ballabh and Rana (2012) they reported that onion plants
received Fe, Zn and/or Mn resulted in the heaviest bulb
yield compared to the control plants. They also added
that foliar application of Zn was found to give the best
effect. Moreover, many authors supporting the obtained
data. All of them summarized that foliar application of
micro-nutrients had a positive significant effect on onion
bulb yield. This could be due to the increase in nutrient
availability and uptake of nutrients resulting in faster
synthesis and translocation of photosynthate from source
(leaves) to sink (bulb).
References
Ballabh Khashti, Rana DK (2012) Response of
micronutrients on qualitative and quantitative
parameters of onion (Allium cepa L.). Progressive
Hort 44(1): 40-46
Choudhary MK, Kavita A, Maurya IB, Singh B, Sharma MK,
Hatwal PK (2014) Effect of biofertilizers and
micronutrients on growth and yield of garlic (Allium
sativum L.) var. 'G-282'. Progr Hort 46(2): 367-371
EI-Gamili AE, Hanna AB, EI-Hadi AHA (2000) The effect of
some foliar fertilizers application on growth, bulb
yield, quality and storageability of Giza 20 onion
cultivar (Allium cepa L.). Annals of Agri Sci Moshtohor
38: 1727-1737
Kolota E, Osinska M (2001) Efficiency of foliar nutrition of
field vegetables grown at different nitrogen rates.
Acta Hort 563: 87-91.
Manna D (2013) Growth, yield and bulb quality of onion (Allium
cepa L.) in response to foliar application of boron
and zinc. SAARC J Agri 11: 149-153
Motsara MR, Bhattacharya P, Srivastaba B (1995) Biofertiliser
technology marketing and usage. Fertilizer
Development Consultation Organization New Delhi,
pp 183.
Mohandas S (1999) Biofertilizer for Horticulture crops. Indian
Horticulture 43: 32-37
Singh MV (2005) Micronutrient deficiencies in Indian soils
and field usable practices for their correction. Indian
Institute of Soil Sciences Nabibagh Berasia Road
Bhopal - 462058
Singh DP, Tiwari RS (1995) Effect of micronutrients on growth
and yield of onion (Allium cepa L.) variety Pusa Red.
Recent Hort 2: 70-77
Satbir Singh-Sindhu, Tiwari RS, Sindhu SS (1989) Effect of
micronutrients on the growth characters of onion
(Allium cepa L.) cv. Pusa red. Harayana J Hortic Sci
18(1-2): 146-149
Tisdale SL, Nelson WL, Beaton JD (1985) Micronutrients
and other beneficial elements in soils and
fertilizers. In soil fertility and fertilizers, Zinc, pp.387-
388.Macmillan Publishing Company 866 third
avenue, New York, 10022
Tilak KVBR, Annapurna K (1993) Bacterial fertilizers Proceed
Indian Nat Acad Sci 59 (3-4): 315-324
Tilak KVBR (1991) Bacterial fertilizers, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research New Delhi pp. 65

(Manuscript Receivd :2-03-2015; Accepted :15-06-2015)

204
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 205-207 (2015)
Effect of growth regulators, micronutrients and bio-fertilizers on
fruiting of mango cv Langra under Jabalpur condition
Akshata Tomar and S.K. Pandey
Department of Horticulture
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
Email: akshatatomar20@gmail.com
Abstract
The present investigation was carried out at Fruit Research
Station, Imalia, College of Agriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur
during 2012-14 on 40 years old pruned trees of mango cv.
Langra. The experiment was comprised of 19 treatments of
different levels of growth regulators (GA 3 and NAA),
micronutrients (ZnSO4 and Borax), bio-fertilizers (PSB and
Azotobacter) and vermicompost. The results indicated that
the application of vermicompost (30kg) + PSB (250g) +
Azotobacter (250g) + GA3 40ppm significantly influenced the
number of fruits at initial stage, at marble stage and fruits at
pre-harvest stage. Fruit set per panicle and fruit drop also
showed significant difference over control.
Keywords: Azotobacter, PSB, GA3, vermicompost, fruit
set
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belongs to family
Anacardiaceae and is characterized by the presence of
resinous canal. It is one of the most important fruit crop
of India and referred to as the "King of Fruits" because of
its taste, excellent flavour and attractive fragrance. Mango
is a delicious fruit and holds a great degree of nutritive
value. There is need to study the effect of integrated nutrient
management on fruiting behaviour of mango. Integrated
nutrient management refers to maintenance of soil fertility
and plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining
the desired crop productivity through optimization of the
benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrient in an
integrated manner.
Material and methods
The present investigation was conducted at the Fruit
Research Station, Imalia, College of Agriculture, JNKVV,
205
Jabalpur, during the year 2012-14 on 40-year-old pruned
trees of mango cv. Langra. The experiment was planned
with 19 treatments combination with three replications in
randomized block design (one tree per treatment per
replication). Parameters like number of fruits at initial
stage, marble stage and pre-harvest stage was recorded
and fruit set per panicle and fruit drop was calculated by
appropriate formula.
Results and discussion
The result of this study revealed that the maximum number
of fruits at initial stage (23.83), marble stage (4.15) and
pre-harvest stage (0.63) and fruit set per panicle (2.62%)
were recorded with the application of Vermicompost (30kg)
+ PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + GA3 (40ppm)
closely followed by the application of Vermicompost (30kg)
+ PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + NAA (40ppm) which
might be due to combined effect of vermicompost, bio-
fertilizers and growth regulators. Application of bio-
fertilizers along with vermicompost provides nitrogen fixer
which is not only increased the availability of nitrogen to
the plant roots but also increased their translocation from
root to flower through plant foliage. Growth regulators
provides better supplementation of deficient nutritional
condition of plant in terms of better supply of water,
balanced nutrients and other compounds vital for their
proper growth and development in plant which may provide
equal opportunity to increase fruit set. Minimum fruit drop
was obtained with the positive effect of combined
application of growth regulators vermicompost and bio-
fertilizers which might provide good availability and uptake
of macro and micronutrients, availability of photosynthates
and adequate hormonal balance which reduces the fruit
drop. Foliar application of NAA provides the optimum
availability of auxin and nutrients which delays the
Table 1. Influence of growth regulators, micronutrients and bio-fertilizers on number of fruits at initial stage, marble
stage and pre-harvest stage

Treatments Initial Marble Pre-harvest

stage stage stage
T1= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) 17.88 2.92 0.27
T2= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) 20.60 2.77 0.23
T3= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + NAA (20 ppm) 22.87 3.73 0.53
T4= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + NAA (40 ppm) 23.06 3.97 0.60
T5= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + GA3 (20 ppm) 23.58 3.88 0.58
T6= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + GA3 (40 ppm) 23.83 4.15 0.63
T7= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + ZnSO4 (0.5%) 15.03 3.25 0.33
T8= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + ZnSO4 (1%) 15.35 3.25 0.30
T9= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + Borax (0.25%) 19.22 3.35 0.38
T10= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + Borax (0.5%) 21.07 3.43 0.42
T11= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + NAA (20 ppm) 22.25 3.53 0.43
T12= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + NAA (40 ppm) 21.30 3.55 0.47
T13= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + GA3 (20 ppm) 21.91 3.70 0.48
T14= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + GA3 (40 ppm) 22.20 3.75 0.53
T15= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + ZnSO4 (0.5%) 14.88 2.97 0.30
T16= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + ZnSO4 (1%) 14.90 3.25 0.35
T17=Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + Borax (0.25%) 16.38 3.18 0.35
T18= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + Borax (0.5%) 16.02 2.98 0.30
T19= Control 19.18 2.50 0.20
CD at 5% 2.35 0.80 0.13

Table 2. Influence of growth regulators, micronutrients and bio-fertilizers on fruit set per panicle and fruit drop

Treatments Fruit set Fruit drop

per panicle (%)
(%)
T1= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) 1.50 98.49
T2= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) 1.12 98.86
T3= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + NAA (20 ppm) 2.33 97.65
T4= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + NAA (40 ppm) 2.60 97.05
T5= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + GA3 (20 ppm) 2.47 97.53
T6= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + GA3 (40 ppm) 2.62 97.33
T7= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + ZnSO4 (0.5%) 2.19 97.79
T8= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + ZnSO4 (1%) 2.05 97.93
T9= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + Borax (0.25%) 2.00 97.99
T10= Vermicompost (30 kg) + PSB (250g) + Azotobacter (250g) + Borax (0.5%) 1.97 98.09
T11= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + NAA (20 ppm) 1.95 98.12
T12= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + NAA (40 ppm) 2.29 97.70
T13= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + GA3 (20 ppm) 2.10 97.78
T14= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + GA3 (40 ppm) 2.40 97.58
T15= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + ZnSO4 (0.5%) 2.04 98.02
T16= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + ZnSO4 (1%) 2.35 97.64
T17= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + Borax (0.25%) 1.90 97.88
T18= Vermicompost (15 kg) + PSB (125g) + Azotobacter (125g) + Borax (0.5%) 1.85 98.19
T19= Control 0.96 98.95
CD at 5% 0.77 0.84

206
formation of abscission zone and ultimately reduces fruit
drop. Reduction in the fruit drop as a response of GA3
might be due to an increase in initial growth of ovaries,
ultimately reduced magnitude of the peak of abscission.
The findings are in confirmatory with Kumar and Kumar
(2013), Nkansah et al. (2012), Yadav et al. (2011) Ruby
and Brahamachari (2004), Gofur et al. (1998), Haidry et
al. (1997) and Rawash et al. (1983).

References

Gofur MA, Shafique MZ, Helali MOH, Ibrahim M, Rahman M

M (1998) Effect of application of plant hormone on
the control of fruit drop, yield and quality
characteristics of mango (Mangifera indica L).
Bangladesh J Sci and Indust Res 33(4): 493-498
Haidry GA, Jalal-Ud-Din B, Ghaffoor A, Munir M (1997)
Effect of naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) on the fruit
drop, yield and quality of mango (Mangifera indica
L) cultivar Langra. Scientific Khyber (Pakistan).
10(1): 13-20
Kumar M, Kumar R (2013) Response of organic manures
on growth and yield of mango (Mangifera indica L)
cv. Dashehari. Hortflora Res Spec 2(1): 64-67
Nkansah GO, Ofosu-Anim J, Mawuli A (2012) Gibberellic
Acid and Naphthalene Acetic Acid affect fruit
retention, yield and quality of Keitt Mangoes in the
Coastal Savanna Ecological Zone of Ghana.
American J Pl Physiol 7: 243-251
Rawash MA, El-Hammady A., El-Nabawy S, Khalifa AS, El-
Masry H (1983) Regulation of flowering and fruiting
in mango trees by using some growth regulators.
Annals Agri Sci, Ain-Shams Univ 28(1): 227-240
Ruby Rani, Brahmachari VS (2004) Effect of growth
substances and calcium compounds on fruit
retention, growth and yield of Amrapali mango.
Orissa J Hort 32(1): 15-18
Yadav AK, Singh JK, Singh HK (2011) Studies on integrated
nutrient management in flowering, fruiting, yield and
quality of mango cv. Amrapali under high density
orchard. Ind J Hort 68(4): 453-460

(Manuscript Receivd : 27-11-2015; Accepted : 30-06-2015)

207
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 208-213 (2015)

Population dynamics of sugarcane early shoot borer in Madhya

Pradesh

A.K. Choudhary, P.K. Amrate and A. Chatterjee

Zonal Agricultural Research Station
Powarkheda 461 110 (MP)
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482004 (MP)
Email: arun10091959@rediffmail.com

Abstract season when continuous long spells (>12 days) are

Weekly field infestation of early shoot borer, Chilo infuscatellus
Sneller and its moth captures at pheromone traps and
meteorological parameters from 2009 to 2012 were
investigated at AICRP on Sugarcane, Zonal Agriculture
Research Station, Powarkheda, Hoshangabad, Madhya
Pradesh to ascertain it's population dynamics. The pooled
data revealed that ESB infests the sugarcane from 2 nd week
of February to 2nd week of July and its peak activity (1.3 to 2.10
per cent/week) was observed from last week of March to
second last week of May whereas the cumulative infestation
ranged from 17.20 to 25.20 per cent. For initiation of ESB
infestation, 26-27 0 C maximum and 9 0 C minimum
temperature, <93 per cent morning and <53 per cent evening
RH and scanty rains were appeared to be conducive. While
for built up of peak activity, 39 to 40 0C maximum and 13 to 17
0
C minimum temperature, 69 to 72 per cent morning and 20
to 24 per cent evening RH were seemed to be favourable.
The moth captures at pheromone traps coincide with the
field infestation. Multiple regression analysis revealed that
the moth captures at pheromone traps (positive) and
minimum temperature (negative) strong significant and the
number of rainy days (positive) showed significant influence
on pest build up. Whereas, the maximum temperature and
amount of rain fall positive and relative humidity of morning
and evening showed negative non-significant influence. The
determinant factor (R2=0.964) suggested a very good account
of variability.
Keywords: Early shoot borer, Infestation, Population
dynamics, Standard meteorological week
The Crambid moth borer, Chilo infuscatellus Snellen.,
(Crambidae: Lepidoptera) is important pest in all over
sugarcane growing areas in India and infests the crop at
tillering stage in spring. It is the internode borer in rainy
common. It is the most detrimental problem encounters
to the spring planted and/or ratoon sugarcane. The spring
crop receives high infestation as compared to autumn
crop. Late planted or ratoon crop normally receives severe
infestation which causes gaps and drastically reduces
the economical returns. Maximum yield loss reaches up
to 42 per cent when the incidence is at 60 day-old crop
(Lakshminarayana 1983). It destroys 58 per cent of shoots
in different states, causing reduction up to 33 per cent in
cane yield, 0.25-3.0 units in sugar recovery and 27 per
cent in jaggery (Chaudhary 1973; Khan and
Krishnamurthy Rao 1956; Patil and Hapse 1981). The
population dynamics of Chilo infuscatellus, moth captures
at pheromone trap and possible effects of meteorological
parameters were studied so that effective management
strategies can be formulated.
Material and methods
During 2009 to 2012 an investigation was made at Zonal
Agricultural Research Station, Powarkheda,
Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh on sugarcane variety,
Co 86032 which was planted in 0.2 ha and all
recommended packages of practice were followed except
application of insecticides. At third day of each Standard
meteorological week (SMW) observations on infestation
of early shoot borer and their natural enemies were
recorded. The dead hearts were counted at randomly
selected five places on 100 tillers at each place. After
recording counts, the dead hearts were removed to avoid
recounting of the same in future. Three pheromone traps
were installed in the second fortnight of February till harvest

208
of crop in one acre of sugarcane crop (separate lure
block). The moth captures were recorded daily in the
morning hours. The recorded data were subjected to
asses the field infestation (per cent) and moth captures
per day per trap. Meteorological Standard Week (SMW)
wise meteorological data on average temperature
(minimum & maximum), average relative humidity (morning
& evening), total rainfall and rainy days from was recorded
from locally stationed meteorological observatory for the
period under study. The relationship between the field
infestation with moth captures at pheromone trap and
weather parameters were worked out by correlation and
regression analysis.
Results and discussion
During 2009 to 2012, the cumulative infestation of early
shoot borer (ESB) ranged from 17.20 to 25.20 per cent.
The infestation initiated from 2nd week of February to 2nd
week of March. The peak activity (<1 per cent/week) of
borer was observed from 2nd week of March to 2nd week of
June. The maximum infestation of ESB (2.20 to 3.4 per
cent /week) recorded from 4th week of April to 2nd week of
May in different years (Table 1). Rao and Ramesh (2004)
also found that the peak period of the sugarcane early
shoot borer was May and September.

Early shoot borer

Chilo infuscatellus Snellen

Eggs Caterpillar Pupa Adult

Early shoot borer - Nature of Damage

Dead Heart Exit Hole Tunneling

209
Table 1. Infestation of Early shoot borer and moth captures at pheromone trap during 2009 to 2012

Early Shoot borer 2009 2010 2011 2012

Cumulative infestation 17.6 (-) 17.2 (-) 20.4 (-) 25.2 (-)
Initiation 0.40 (10) 0.20 (9) 0.20 (10) 0.40 (6)
Peak Activity 0.8-2.4 1.0-2.2 1.0-2.20 1.0-3.40
(13-23) (13-21) (14-23) (10-20)
Peak infestation (per cent /week) 2.40 (19) 2.20 (19) 2.20 (17) 3.40 (16)
Disappeared After 0.20 (25) 0.20 (26) 0.20 (28) 0.2 (24)
Particulars Number Number Number Number
Moth captures - started 0.1 (13) 0.05 (10) 0.05 (9) 0.07 (7)
Moth captures - Peak 0.57 (20) 0.48 (21) 0.52 (21) 0.79 (18)
Moth captures - terminated 0.05 (23) 0.05 (25) 0.05 (28) 0.07 (24)
Note - the values are for the per cent infestation of ESB / number of moths captured at pheromone trap, while the
values in the parenthesis are of corresponding SMW

Table 2. Standard Meteorological Week wise Early shoot borer field infestation, moth captures at pheromone trap
and Weather data, Zonal Agricultural Research Station, Powarkheda (Average 2009 to 2012)

SMW Temperature (0C) RH per cent Rainfall Rainy days ESB ESB Moth/day/
Max Min Morn Even (mm) infestation cumulative trap
(%) (%)
2 25.83 7.45 95.50 54.75 3.00 0.50 0.00 0.00 0.00
3 25.13 6.93 92.25 54.50 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
4 26.58 7.93 94.25 53.75 0.70 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00
5 26.20 9.33 93.75 53.25 0.50 0.25 0.00 0.00 0.00
6 27.80 9.23 90.50 50.75 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.10 0.00
7 28.10 9.40 92.50 40.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.02
8 30.48 10.43 91.75 47.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.15 0.04
9 32.73 12.20 90.50 43.50 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.35 0.09
10 33.23 12.23 94.25 38.75 0.00 0.00 0.55 0.90 0.05
11 35.45 12.05 89.25 35.75 0.00 0.00 0.45 1.35 0.06
12 37.68 14.53 78.00 27.25 0.00 0.00 0.70 2.05 0.09
13 39.43 13.83 83.50 21.75 0.00 0.00 1.30 3.35 0.17
14 39.43 17.38 72.75 24.25 1.38 0.50 1.50 4.85 0.26
15 40.85 18.88 69.25 20.00 0.00 0.00 1.70 6.55 0.31
16 42.23 20.68 65.50 17.25 0.00 0.00 2.00 8.55 0.38
17 42.30 20.50 59.00 18.50 0.00 0.00 2.00 10.55 0.44
18 42.43 24.38 65.75 18.25 1.55 0.50 1.85 12.40 0.42
19 42.68 24.15 58.75 17.25 4.10 0.25 2.10 14.50 0.41
20 44.40 25.25 63.25 18.00 3.50 0.50 1.75 16.25 0.41
21 43.68 26.00 61.50 15.00 0.00 0.00 1.30 17.55 0.39
22 43.00 27.63 64.50 20.00 2.85 0.50 0.90 18.45 0.27
23 41.23 25.25 74.25 22.50 3.20 0.50 0.80 19.25 0.23
24 42.45 24.25 86.00 25.75 25.20 1.25 0.35 19.60 0.15
25 39.43 24.65 87.00 30.25 38.18 2.75 0.25 19.85 0.05
26 37.98 24.75 93.25 40.50 44.90 3.25 0.15 20.00 0.01
27 37.05 24.63 97.75 44.75 70.75 4.75 0.05 20.05 0.00
28 35.70 24.10 97.00 51.75 43.55 3.50 0.05 20.10 0.01
29 35.08 24.25 97.00 56.75 100.38 3.50 0.00 20.10 0.00
n 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28
Max 44.40 27.63 97.75 56.75 100.38 4.75 2.10 20.10 0.44
Min 25.13 6.93 58.75 15.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1018.48 502.20 2298.50 961.75 343.73 22.75 20.10 256.95 4.24
Av. 36.37 17.94 82.09 34.35 12.28 0.81 0.72 9.18 0.15

210
 The average data of 2009-12 (Table 3) reveals that initiation of ESB infestation, 26-270C maximum and 90C
the early shoot borer infests the sugarcane from 2nd week minimum temperature, <93 per cent morning and <53
of February to 2nd week of July. This is in agreement with per cent evening RH and scanty rains were appeared to
the finding of Raza Muhammand et al. (2012) who reported be conducive. While, for built up of peak activity, 39 to 40
0
that adults of Chilo infuscatellus (Snellen) emerged from C maximum and 13 to 17 0C minimum temperature, 69
over wintering larvae during fourth week of February. The to 72 per cent morning and 20 to 24 per cent evening RH
peak activity (1.3 to 2.10 per cent/week) of ESB was seems to be favourable. Present finding is in conformity
observed from last week of March to second last week of with the finding of Srivastava and Rai (2012) who also
May. The maximum ESB infestation (2.10 per cent/week) reported that the shoot borers (Chilo infuscatellus) attacks
was recorded at 1st week of May. During this period no in the early phase during the months of plant growth i.e.
activity of bio-agent was observed, except the negligible April-June. Samsona and Kumara (1983) also reported
presence of a larval parasitoid, Sturmiopsis inferns. For

F ig . 1 : S ta n d a r d m e t e o r o lo g i c a l w e e k w i s e C h i lo in f e s c a te llu s f ie ld in f e s t a io n , m o t h c a p t u re s a t p h e r o m e n tr a p a n d
w e a t h e r p a r a m e te r s , P o w a r k h e d a , M a d h y a P r a d e s h (a v e r a g e : 2 0 0 9 - 1 2 )

3 .0 1 20
E a rly sh oo t bo rer fie ld in fe s ta tion (% ) a nd m o th

M a x . tem p ( O C ), M in tem p (O C ), R H % (m 0 r n in g ) , R H
2 .5 1 00
c a p ture s a t ph e ro m o ne tra p (/da y /tra p)

% (e v en in g ), R ain fa ll (m m )
2 .0 80

1 .5 60

1 .0 40

0 .5 20

0 .0 0
5

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

23

25

27

29
11

13

15

17

19

21

24

26

28
M e te o r o lo c a l S t a n d a r d W e e k s
M o t h p e r d a y p e r tr a p E S B ( % in f e s ta tio n ) M ax T e m p o C
M in . T em p o C R H % ( M o r n in g ) R H % ( E v e n in g )
R a in f a l l ( m m )

Table 3. Correlation and Regression statistics of ESB infestation, moth captures at pheromone trap and meteorological
parameters (2009 -2012)

Particulars Correlation t values Coefficients t-values

Moth captures per day per trap 0.95419 16.261** 4.256599 4.9333**
Mean maximum temperature (0C) 0.75578 5.885** 0.055113 1.7472
0
Mean minimum temperature ( C) 0.43767 2.482** -0.09043 -4.9379**
Mean RH per cent (morning) -0.92270 -12.204** -0.01244 -1.0652
Mean RHper cent (evening) -0.87504 -9.218** -0.00499 -0.4247
Total Rain fall (mm) -0.37082 -2.036* 0.002661 0.6859
Total Rainy Days -0.37074 -2.035* 0.208542 2.5496*
Intercept (Constant) - - 0.681616 0.4581
** Significant at 1per cent , * Significant at 5per cent
Regression Multiple R R2 Adjusted R2 SE F calc.
0.9819 0.9641 0.9516 0.1678 76.7712
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Y = 0.682 + 4.257*X + 0.055*X - 0.09*X - 0.012*X - 0.005*X +0.003*X + 0.209*X
Note - X1 - Moth capture per day per trap, X2-Mean Max Temp 0C., X3-Mean Min Temp 0C, X4-Mean RH per cent
(morning), X5-Mean RH per cent (evening), X6-Total Rain fall (mm), X7- Total Rainy Days

211
that sugarcane borer (Eldana saccharina Walker, Chilo
zacconius Bleszynski and Sesamia spp.) population
increase considerably during dry season and declined
gradually during rainy season.
The moth captures in pheromone trap started (0.02
moths/day/trap) at 3rd week of February. Maximum moths
capture was recorded before two weeks of the maximum
field infestation in the last week of April. After 2nd week of
July no moths were captured. Similarly as present findings
Raza Muhammand et al. (2012) also find that moths of
Chilo infuscatellus trapped in light traps coincided with
the larval infestations.
Multiple regression analysis indicated that moth
captured at pheromone trap and minimum temperature
had strong and significant influence on pest build up as
the t values (4.933 and - 4.938, respectively) suggested
strong significant account of variability. The number of
rainy days had good influence on ESB field infestation (t
value 2.550, statistically significant at 5 per cent). The
maximum temperature and amount of rain fall showed a
positive, while the mean relative humidity of morning and
evening indicated a negative, but non-significant impact
on ESB infestation. The determinant factor (R2=0.964)
suggested a very good account of variability due to the
factors on field infestation of ESB (Table 3).
The multiple regression equation obtained is as
under -
Y = 0.682 + 4.257*X1 + 0.055*X2 - 0.09*X3 - 0.012*X4 -
0.005*X5 +0.003*X6 + 0.209*X7
where, X1 - Moth capture per day per trap, X2-Mean Max
Temp 0C., X3-Mean Min Temp 0C, X4-Mean RH per cent
(morning), X5-Mean RHper cent (evening), X6-Total Rain
fall (mm), X7- Total Rainy Days
212
Shahbaj Ahmad (2011) also recorded 70.4 per cent
cumulative effect of abiotic factors in fluctuating C.
infuscatellus infestation and said that the regression
equation was fitted best. The findings are also in
conformation of the Rao and Ramesh (2004) who reported
that the ecological factors i.e., maximum and minimum
temperature had significant effect (positive correlation) on
light trap catches and relative humidity exerted a weak
negative correlation. But their finding that multiple
regression analysis showed that the number of rainy days
exhibited significantly negative effect on light trap catches
is in contradiction with present findings.
vxzruk ruk os/kd ds [ksrksa esa lkIrkfgd izdksi] mldh QSjksesu iziap ij
idM+h xbZ 'kyHk ,oa ekSle izpky ds ekSle ekud lIrkguqlkj vkSlr
vkadM+ksa ¼o"kZ 2009 ls 2012½ dk vUos"k.k vxzruk os/kd dh tula[;k
xfr'khyrk irk yxkus gsrq vf[ky Hkkjrh; lefUor xUuk vuqla/kku
ifj;kstuk] vkWpfyd —f"k vuqla/kku ifj;kstuk] iokj[ksM+k gks'kaxkckn
¼e iz½ esa fd;k x;kA vUos"k.k o"kksZ ds vkSlr ekSle ekud lIrkfgd
vkWdM+s O;Dr djrsa gS fd xUus ds vxzruk os/kd izdksi Qjojh ds nwljs
lIrkg ls tqykbZ ds nwljs lIrkg ds e/; jgrk gS] tcfd dhV dk xaHkhj
izdksi ¼1.3 ls 2.1 izfr'kr izfr lIrkg½ ekpZ ds vafre lIrkg ls ebZ
ds }rh; lIrkg e/; ik;k x;kA fofHkUu vUos"k.k o"kksZ esa os/kd dhV dk
lap;h izdksi 17.20 ls 25.20 izfr'kr ik;k x;kA vxzruk os/kd ds
izdksi dh 'kqq:vkr gsrq 260-270 lsYlh;l vf/kdre] 90 lsYlh;l ds
cjkcj ;k T;knk U;wure] izkr% dkyhu lkisf{kd vknZzrk 93 izfr'kr ls
de rFkk lka;dky lkisf{kd vknZzrk 53 izfr'kr ls de gksuk lgk;d
ik;k x;kA tcfd os/kd dhV ds xaHkhj izdksi gsrq vf/kdre ,oa U;wure
rkieku Øe'k% 390 ls 400 rFkk 130 ls 170 lsYlh;l] izkr% dky ,oa
lka; dky dh lkisf{kd vknZzrk Øe'k% 69 ls 7272 rFkk 20 ls 24
izfr'kr mi;qDr ikbZ xbZA
vxzrik os/kd dk [ksr esa izdksi ,oa QSjksesu iziap ij idM+h xbZ dhV
'kyHk la[;k dh xfr'khyrk ,d nwljs ls esy [kkrh ikbZ xbZA cgqleJ;.k
fo'ys'.k ls fudys fu"dZ"kkuqlkj os/kd dhV izdksi] QSjksesu iziap ij
idM+h xbZ dhV 'kyHk la[;k /kukRed ,oa fnu ds U;wure rkieku ls
_.kkRed l'kDr lkFkZd :i ls lacaf/kr ikà x;hA tcfd lIrkg esa dqy
o"kkZ fnolksa ls /kukRed lkFkZd :i ls izHkkfor djrk ikà x;hA fnu dk
vf/kdre rkieku ,oa dqy o"kkZ /kukRed tcfd izkr%dky ,oa lka;dky
dh lkisf{kd vknzZrk _.kkRed ij vlkFkZd :i ls os/kd dhV izdksi dks
izHkkfor djrh ikbZ xbZA fu'ps; xq.kd ¼R2 = 0.964½ ,d vPNh
ifjoZfrrk ,oa cgqleJ;.k dh vPNh ifj'kq)rk bafxr djrk ik;k x;kA
References
Chaudhary JP (1973) Some important insect pests of
Sugarcane. Haryana Agric Uni Magazine 78-83
Khan MQ, Krishnamurthy R (1956) Assessment of loss due
to Chilotraea infuscatellus Snellen in sugarcane.
Proc Int Soc Sugarcane Techno 9 : 870-879
Lakshminarayana K (1983) Pest Management in Andhra
Pradesh. pp. 63-70. In: Balasubramanyan, M and
Solayappan AR (Eds). Sugarcane Pest Management
in India. Tamil Nadu Cooperative Sugar Federation,
Madras
Patil AS, Hapase DG (1981) Research on sugarcane borers
in Maharashtra State. Proceedings of National
Symposium on Stalk Borer 165-175
Rao N Venugopala, Ramesh T Babu (2004) Monitoring of
the sugarcane early shoot borer, Chilo infuscatellus
Snellen population by using light traps. J Entomol
Res 28 (3): 233-239
213
Raza Muhammad, Maqsood Anwar Rustamani, Nazir Ahmad,
Qadeer Ahmad (2012) Effect of Different Infestation
Levels of Chilo infuscatellus (Snellen) on Quantity
and Quality Parameters of Sugarcane. J Basic and
Applied Sci 8 (2): 702-705
Sampsona MA, Kumara R (1983) Population dynamics of
the stem-borer complex on sugar-cane in Southern
Ghana. International J Tropical Insect Sci 4 (special
1-2): 25-31
Shahbaj Ahmad (2011) Development and implementing
strategic IPM module of sugarcane stem borer,
Chilo infuscatellus (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera), PhD
thesis, Deptt. Of Entomology, University of
Agriculture, Faislabad, Pakistan, pp 49
Srivastava Ashok K, Rai Mahendra K (2012) Review:
Sugarcane production: Impact of climate change
and its mitigation. Biodiversitas 13 (4): 214-227
(Manuscript Receivd :11-01-2015; Accepted :20-04-2015)
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 214-218 (2015)

Impact of harvesting stages on seed quality of soybean during

storage

V.R. Shelar, A.P. Karjule and K.C. Gagare

Seed Technology Research Unit
Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth
Rahuri 413 722 (Maharashtra)

Abstract which is converted into vitamin A in the intestine. The

Soybean crop was grown with recommended package of
practices so as to raise good crop. The crop was harvested
at 85, 90, 95 and 100 days after sowing (DAS). Before
harvesting the maturity symptoms were recorded at these
stages. Seeds after drying were subject to storage in gunny
bags under ambient conditions. The bimonthly observations
were recorded for germination, moisture content, vigour index
I & II and electric conductivity of seeds harvested at different
stages. There was significant difference in germination
percent age of seed harvested at different stages. The
significantly highest initial germination was observed in the
seeds when the crop was harvested at physiological maturity
and remains highest at subsequent storage period up to 12
months. The minimum seed certification standards (MSCS)
for germination were maintained for 12, 10, 8 and 6 months
of storage. The vigour index decreased whereas, electrical
conductivity was increased with delay in harvesting stages.
The maturity symptoms recorded at 85 DAS were yellowing
of leaves, stem and basal 2-3 leaves were dried however,
upper 2-3 leaves were still green. These symptoms
resemble the symptoms of physiological maturity. Hence it
is concluded that soybean for seed production should be
harvested at physiological maturity stage which retain its
viability during storage above MSCS up to 12 months in
soybean cv. JS 335.
Keywords: Seed quality, storage, soybean
Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merril] occupies second place
among the oilseed in India (Rasad et al. 2007). Soybean
contains about 20 per cent oil and 40 per cent high quality
protein. Soybean protein is rich in valuable amino acid
lycine (5%) in which most of the cereals are deficient. In
addition, it contains a good amount of minerals, salts
and vitamins (thiamine and riboflavin) and its sprouting
grains contain a considerable amount of Vitamin C,
Vitamin A is present in the form of precursor carotene,
poor seed storability is major problem in soybean. The
harvesting time is one of the critical steps in soybean
seeds production. The changes associated with seed
deterioration are manifested in various seed and seedling
characters among different stages (Dadlani and Agrawal
1983). Loss of Seed viability during storage and resultant
poor stand are the major constraints in soybean seed
production and it is common phenomenon in many crop
seeds but it is well marked in soybean. Production of
high quality seed, which retains its viability· through a
storage season, is a major challenge.
Non-availability of short duration high yielding, good
quality seed on adequate scale are the major constraint
in achieving higher productivity (Pawar et al. 2011).
Soybean seeds were used for next sowing by various
farmers. It is important to seed have good germination
and vigour at the time of sowing. In view of this an
experiment was conducted to see the effect of different
harvesting stages on seed quality of soybean during
storage.
Material and methods
The soybean variety JS 335 was sown at Seed Technology
Research Unit farm in the second fort night of June during
2004-05 to 2006-07. The crop was sown in four replications
with spacing 45 X 15 cm. The crop was grown with
recommended package of practices so as to raise good
crop. The soybean crop was harvested at 85, 90, 95 and
100 DAS. Before harvesting the maturity symptoms was
recorded at these stages. Crop was allowed to dry in the
field itself before threshing. After proper drying the seed
was stored in gunny bags and stored in godown at ambient
conditions. The bimonthly observations for seed quality
parameters viz. germination, moisture content, vigor index
and electrical conductivity from different harvesting stages

214
was recorded separately as per ISTA (Anonymous 1999).
The data generated from the experiments were subjected
to statistical analysis in Factorial Completely Randomized
Design (FCRD) whenever, necessary as prescribed by
Panse and Sukhatme (1985). Transformation of data was
carried out prior to statistical analysis as suggested by
Steel and Torrie (1981).
Results and discussion
The maturity symptoms of the crop harvested at different
stages are presented in Table 1. From the table it is seen
that the symptoms recorded at 85 days after sowing was
similar to physiological maturity. At this stage there was
yellowing of leaves and plant along with peduncle was
observed. Though the basal 2-3 leaves were dried, upper
2-3 leaves were still green. At 90 days after sowing i.e. 5
days after physiological maturity yellowing of all leaves.
Stems and pod was observed. The drying of lower leaves
and few pod was also noticed and only 2-3 yellow leaves
and few pod was also noticed and 2-3 yellow leaves were
on same plant and defoliation of remaining plant was
observed. At 95 days after sowing drying whole plant
including leaves and pod was observed. Only few leaves
and pods of same plants were yellowish. Some plants
were completely dried and shattering of few pods was
observed. At 100 days after sowing, all plants had 2-3
yellow leaves at the tip. Shattering of seeds from same
pods was observed. As soon as the plant starts changing
colour of its leaves, there are no more photosynthetically
active and function for supplying food. Hence there is no
any harm in harvesting the crop when they start changing
their colour from green to yellow. Similar types of
symptoms and observations were recorded by Fehr et al.
(1971) at physiological maturity of soybean and stated
that change of pod colour or leaves colour to yellow can
be used as an index for harvesting of soybean.
The pooled data of three years studies effect of
different harvesting stages on seed quality parameters of
soybean during storage are presented in Table 2. There
is significant difference in germination due to different
harvesting stages and storage periods. It is significantly
higher in seed harvested at physiological maturity,
however at par with the crop harvested at five days after
physiological maturity, during most of the storage period.
Highest initial germination (93%) observed when the crop
was harvested at 85 days after sowing and remains highest
at subsequent storage period up to 12 months. The MSCS
for germination was maintained up to 12 months of storage
when the crop was harvested at 85 DAS. The MSCS for
germination was maintained up to 10 months when the
crop was harvested at 90 days after sowing. The lowest
initial germination (86%) was recorded when the crop was
harvested at 100 days after sowing. The MSCS for
germination was maintained only for 8 and 6 months at
95 and 100 DAS, respectively. The per cent germination
of soybean seed decreased with advancement of storage
period (Rasad et al. 2007). The difference in a per cent
germination of seed in the two cultivar was non-significant
during early period of storage but become significant at

Table 1. Symptoms of maturity at the time of harvesting

Stage of Harvesting
Physiological maturity
5 days after physiological maturity
10 days after physiological maturity
15 days after physiological maturity
Symptoms
Maturity period is 85 days
Yellowing of peduncle of third leaf from top
Yellowing of lower leaves, stem and basal 2-3 leaves are dried. Two-three
upper leaves are still green
Maturity period is 90 days
Yellowing of all leaves, stem and pods
Drying of lower leaves, peduncle and few pods
Only 2-3 yellow leaves are remain on plants. Some plants are completely
defoliated
Maturity period is 95 days
Drying of whole plants, including leaves and pods. Only few pods and leaves
of some plants are yellowish
Some plants are completely dried, defoliated and shattering of seed of few
pods
Maturity period is 100 days
All plants were completely dried and defoliated
Only few plants have 2-3 yellow leaves at the tip
Shattering of seed of some pods

215
 Table 2. Year wise and pooled analysis of three years data of effect of different harvesting stages on storability and seed quality of soybean during
storage (A1 - Physiological maturity, A2 - 4 days after physiological maturity, A3 - 10 days after physiological maturity, A4 - 15 days after physiological
maturity, B1 - Initial, B2 - 2 month of storage, B3 - 4 month of storage, B4 - 6 month of storage, B5 - 8 month of storage, B6 - 10 month of storage, B7
- 12 month of storage
Treatment Germination (%) Virour index-I Vigour Index-II Moisture content Electrical conductivity of
(GxSDW) (GxRS) (%) seed leachate
(mm hos/cm/g)
2004 2005 2006 Mean 2004 2005 2006 Mean 2004 2005 2006 Mean 2004 2005 2006 Mean 2004 2005 2006 Mean
-05 -06 -07 -05 -06 -07 -05 -06 -07 -05 -06 -07 -05 -06 -07
A1B1 92 92 94 90 94 108 100 101 2955 3128 3146 3076 9.43 10.1 8.92 9.47 0.758 0.698 0.697 0.715
A1B2 90 90 92 91 90 104 106 100 2798 2880 2875 2851 9.13 9.98 9.05 9.39 0.791 0.715 0.726 0.742
A1B3 87 88 90 89 87 101 102 97 2617 2824 2812 2751 8.88 9.588 9.00 9.15 0.825 0.781 0.785 0.795
A1B4 85 82 85 84 84 86 86 85 2450 2370 2403 2408 9.75 8.85 9.22 9.27 0.826 0.808 0.806 0.812
A1B5 88 75 76 80 78 73 74 75 2287 2250 2277 2271 10.4 9.95 8.95 9.77 0.839 0.818 0.828 0.828
A1B6 76 73 73 74 73 69 68 70 2039 2030 2126 2065 10.9 10.1 9.05 10.0 0.860 0.706 0.855 0.816
A1B7 71 71 70 70 68 67 67 67 1840 1974 1964 1926 9.95 9.88 8.97 9.60 0.885 0.839 0.879 0.870
A2B1 92 91 91 92 93 106 106 102 2849 3011 3012 2957 9.05 9.95 9.00 9.33 0.754 0.700 0.712 0.721
A2B2 90 89 90 90 90 104 104 99 2693 2766 2755 2738 9.06 9.98 9.15 9.40 0.790 0.730 0.737 0.750
A2B3 85 88 88 87 84 101 102 96 2558 2720 2720 2666 8.93 9.45 8.95 9.11 0.830 0.783 0.820 0.813
A2B4 82 88 82 82 81 84 82 82 2296 2282 2321 2300 9.83 8.80 9.17 9.27 0.834 0.815 0.825 0.825

216
A2B5 78 74 75 76 76 70 71 72 2152 2138 2163 2151 10.4 9.98 8.87 9.74 0.862 0.823 0.836 0.840
A2B6 72 72 72 72 70 68 67 68 1902 2037 2098 2012 10.9 10.2 9.07 10.0 0.882 0.847 0.865 0.865
A2B7 69 70 69 69 68 66 67 67 1766 1890 1882 1846 10.1 9.93 9.60 9.86 0.910 0.843 0.888 0.882
A3B1 85 89 89 88 86 02 104 97 2543 2750 2760 2687 9.15 10.0 10.1 9.73 0.790 0.726 0.781 0.769
A3B2 84 88 88 87 82 101 101 95 2429 2720 2682 2610 9.10 9.88 10.2 9.71 0.798 0.768 0.805 0.793
A3B3 81 85 85 84 79 97 99 92 2261 2643 2617 2507 8.98 9.53 9.76 9.42 0.837 0.805 0.850 0.834
A3B4 78 73 75 75 75 73 76 75 2145 1978 2022 2048 9.90 8.75 9.30 9.32 0.841 0.828 0.912 0.869
A3B5 71 71 70 71 68 67 67 67 1868 1917 1916 1900 10.3 9.95 9.95 10.1 0.860 0.839 0.948 0.894
A3B6 67 69 67 68 64 65 61 63 1681 1856 1804 1780 10.9 10.0 9.80 10.3 0.895 0.856 0.981 0.923
A3B7 62 67 62 64 58 62 57 59 1540 1748 1599 1629 10.1 9.93 9.92 9.97 0.931 0.861 0.995 0.941
A4B1 85 88 87 86 85 100 100 95 2493 2720 2685 2633 9.15 9.98 10.4 9.85 0.823 0.736 0.811 0.794
A4B2 83 88 85 85 79 101 99 93 2342 2713 2635 2563 9.18 9.88 10.1 9.73 0.849 0.770 0.831 0.820
A4B3 79 85 84 83 75 96 96 89 2219 2535 2547 2434 9.05 9.53 10.4 9.66 0.879 0.810 0.864 0.854
A4B4 75 72 74 74 71 70 72 71 1988 1915 1988 1964 10.0 8.75 10.5 9.78 0.884 0.844 0.912 0.886
A4B5 70 70 65 68 67 66 60 64 1791 1890 1740 1807 10.5 9.95 10.2 10.2 0.900 0.860 0.967 0.919
A4B6 62 68 63 64 58 63 57 59 1550 1823 1683 1685 12.0 9.98 10.2 10.7 0.930 0.884 0.990 0.944
A4B7 60 67 60 62 54 62 55 57 1374 1729 1569 1557 10.2 9.93 10.8 10.3 0.939 0.886 1.003 0.953
SEm± 1.37 3.19 46.50 0345 0.01
CD 3.90 9.02 131.55 0.976 0.03
nine month of storage (Gupta and Aneja 2004).
The vigour index I and II showed significant
differences due to harvesting stages and storage periods.
The VI-I and VI-II decreased with progressive harvesting
stages and storage periods. Vigour index-I was
significantly decreased with increase in the storage period
of seed. It was significantly higher in the crop harvested
at 5 days after physiological maturity at initial storage
period (102) followed by crop harvested at physiological
maturity at initial storage period (101). The vigour index-II
was significantly highest (3076) when the crop was
harvested at 85 days after sowing however it was at par
with vigour index of crop harvested at 90 DAS (2957). The
significantly lower (2633) vigour index was observed when
the crop was harvested at 100 days after sowing. Decrease
of the vigour index-II in BARl Masur-2 might be due to
lower germination percentage and seedling length (Khare
and Satpute 1999). Similar varietal difference was reported
by Matthews (1973) in peas. Borate et al. (1993) observed
that vigour index-T1 was higher (2568) in large size seeds
and lower (2111) in small size seeds of groundnut.
Varieties of BARl Masur responded significantly to
harvesting stage, producing higher seed vigour index-II in
2005 (Khatun et al. 2009).
No significant differences observed in moisture
content due to different harvesting stages. But crop
harvest at physiological maturity content numerically less
moisture content as compared to 15 days after
physiological maturity accompanied with the good
germination in all the storage stages. The moisture content
of the seed increased with storage period however, the
increase was lower in polythene gunny bag of 400 gauge
as compared to gunny bag (Rasad et al. 2007). Electrical
conductivity of seed leachate differed significantly due to
harvesting stages and storage periods. Electrical
conductivity was increased with progressive storage
periods in all the harvesting stages. The initial electrical
conductivity was significantly lower (0.715) when the crop
was harvested at 85 days after sowing, than the seeds of
crop harvested at 95 and 100 days after sowing. However,
it was at par with electrical conductivity of the seeds of
crop harvested at 90 days after sowing. Similar trend was
maintained during all the periods of storage.
In electrical conductivity test which evaluate seed
vigor and viability, the damaged seed coat allows seed
matters to exit and damaged seed has more exudation
and higher rate of electrical conductivity. Verasilpa et al.
(2001) and Rahman et al. (2004) also verify this subject.
At accelerated aging test when seeds undergo high
temperatures and moisture, the seeds with intact seed
coat and without internal damage tolerate this sever
217
condition better and show better germination result in
comparison with damaged seeds. Rahman et al. (2004)
and Francisco et al. (2001) also found similar results. As
seed deterioration progresses, the cell membranes
become less rigid and become more water permeable. It
allows the cell contents to leakage into solution with the
water and increasing electrical conductivity. It provides a
rapid indication of seed viability for seed lots (Jyoti and
Malik 2013).
Conclusion
In consequence, based on the results of this experiment,
Seed quality, germination, vigor index I, vigor index II and
electrical conductivity are highly influenced by harvesting
time of crop and storage period of seed. There was a
distinct reduction in capacity to germinate, vigour index I
& II and increased electrical conductivity when crop
harvest after physiological maturity which cause
numerous harmful effect on seed quality during the storage
period of seed. Harvesting of soybean at physiological
maturity stage found to be superior for laboratory
germination and storability of seed than the crop harvested
after physiological maturity stage.
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(Manuscript Receivd : 01-03-2015; Accepted : 30-06-2015)

218
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 219-227 (2015)
Mechanical damage due to threshing and processing methods and
its effect on seed quality of soybean seed
K.C. Gagare, R.W. Bharud, V.R. Shelar, A.P. Karjule and S.N. Mate
Seed Technology Research Unit
Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth
Rahuri 413 722 (Maharashtra)
Abstract
Investigation were made to determine effect of mechanical
damage due to different threshing and processing methods
on seed quality of soybean during storage. The mechanical
damage to the soybean seed due to threshing and
processing were detected by sodium hypochlorite test
showed that the lowest mechanical damage (10. 28 %) was
reported in variety JS -9305 (V 2). Among the threshing
methods, the lowest mechanical damage (8.62 %) was
recorded in stick beating threshing method (T1). The seed
sample collected before processing (P 1) showed minimum
mechanical damage (10.22 %). The variety JS-9305 (V 2)
recorded the highest germination (88.14%) at 0 days of
storage irrespective of threshing methods and processing.
The highest germination (89.42%) was recorded when seed
threshed with stick beating (T1) 0 days of storage irrespective
of varieties and processing and the seeds processed upto
seed grader (P2 location) records highest initial germination
(87.67%)0 days of storage. The variety JS-9305 (V2) recorded
highest vigour index (2729.99) at 0 days of storage
irrespective of threshing methods and processing. The
threshing method (T1: threshed with stick beating) recorded
the highest vigour index (2806.78) at 0 days of storage
irrespective of varieties and processing and the seeds
processed upto seed grader (P2 location) records highest
vigour index (2856.29) at 0 days of storage. The same trend
was observed up to 360 days during storage. The variety JS-
9305 (V2) recorded the lowest electrical conductivity (518.25
µs/cm) at 0 days of storage irrespective of threshing methods
and processing. The threshing method (T 1: threshed with
stick beating) recorded the lowest electrical conductivity
(485.25 µs/cm) at 0 days of storage irrespective of varieties
and processing and the seed sample collected before
processing (P1) recorded the lowest electrical conductivity
(454.11 µs/cm) at 0 days of storage. The lowest seed
mycoflora (3.54%) was recorded in the variety JS-9305 (V 2)
at 0 days of storage irrespective of threshing methods and
processing. The threshing method (T1: threshed with stick
beating) recorded the lowest seed mycoflora (3.38%) at 0
days of storage irrespective of varieties and processing and
219
the seed sample collected before processing (P 1) recorded
lowest seed mycoflora (3.11 %) at 0 days of storage. The
same trend was observed up to 360 days during storage.
Keywords: Mechanical damage, threshing methods,
processing locations, processing plant sequence,
germination vigour index, electrical conductivity ,seed
mycoflora
Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merril] has become a miracle
crop of the twentieth century and is designated as a
'Golden bean'. It is a triple beneficiary crop, a unique food,
a valuable feed and an industrial raw material with
considerable potential. Among the various pulses,
soybean is recognized as an excellent source of high
quality protein and oil. The problems in soybean production
are increasing because of its seed quality, which is
dependent on handling of seeds during harvesting,
processing and storage. One of the major problems
encountered in soybean production in India is lack of
availability of good quality seeds at the time of planting
as many of the seeds lots produced may loss their viability
quickly because of improper handling during post harvest
operations. Soybean seed loses its viability faster than
other crops (Priestley et al. 1985) especially under tropical
conditions (Delouche et al. 1973).
The soybean seed coat is very thin and low in lignin
content provides little protection to the fragile radical which
lies in a vulnerable position directly beneath the seed
coat. Carbonell and Krzyzanowski observed the
occurrence of genetic variability in seed resistance to
(ICHH) mechanical damage among different soybean
cultivars. Franca Neto and Henning (1984) reported that
the mechanical damage is one of the causes of great
loss in soybean seed quality during harvest poured into
graders from the top. Therefore experiment was
conducted to find out the extent of mechanical damage
due to different threshing, processing methods on seed
quality of soybean varieties during storage.
Material and methods
The soybean varieties viz. JS 335(V1), JS 93-05 (V2) and
JS 95-60 (V3) were sown in Kharif 2012. The soybean
was threshed by different threshing methods viz. Hand
beating with stick (T1), threshing with the help of multi-
crop thresher (T2) at 400 rpm : [Model - Anand make]
RPM 400, concave clearance 2.5 cm, puly size - 4 inch
(small) and 12 inch (big), total no. of bitters 16 and
threshing with the help of combine harvester (T 3)
specification : [Make - Class - Crop Tiger 30-wheel]. During
processing the seed samples were collected from two
different processing plants sequences viz. from first
processing plant sequence the seed sample was collected
from unprocessed seed sample (P1), seed grader (P2),
bucket elevator (P3), specific gravity separator (P4) and
from second processing plant sequence the seed sample
was collected from inclined flight belt conveyor-I (P5), seed
grader (P6), inclined flight belt conveyor - II (P7) and specific
gravity separator (P8).
The mechanical damage was detected by sodium
hypochlorite test as per Henning et al. (2006) and Van
Utrecht et al. (2000).
Total no. swollen seeds
Mechanical counted after conduct of test
= ------------------------------------------------ x 100
damage (%) Total no. of seeds kept for
conduct of test
The germination (%) was worked out by four
replications of 100 seed from different treatment
combinations were germinated using between paper
method (BP) at 25± 2°C in germinator for 8 days
(Anonymous 1999). The germination percentage was
worked out on the basis of normal seedlings only.
Total no. of normal seedlings
counted after germination test
Germination (%) = ----------------------------------------------- x 100
Total no. of seeds kept for
germination test
The vigour index was worked out by those seedlings
which were used to record the seedling length. The ten
normal seedlings from each replication was selected for
calculation of vigour index (Abdul-Baki and Anderson
(1973) and was calculated as under.
220
Average seedling Average germination
Vigour index = length (cm) x percentage
The electrical conductivity (µs/cm) of the soybean
seed was worked out by four replications of 50 seeds
was randomly counted from different treatment
combinations and soaked in distilled water at 25°C for 24
hours. The solution and seeds was gently stir/swirled for
10 to 15 seconds prior to evaluation. Then the electrical
conductivity of the solute was measured in µs/cm (Loeffler
et al. 1988).
Seed mycoflora was determined by blotter test
(Anonymous 1099). Three layers of blotter papers soaked
in sterilized distilled water and was placed in petridish.
Ten seed in four replications of each treatment
combination was placed in each petridish at equidistance
and the pertridishes was kept in incubator at 20± 2°C for
7 days beneath near ultraviolet (NUV) light with a cycle of
12 hour light and 12 hour darkness. The seeds was then
examined on 8th day under stereoscopic binocular
microscope. The fungi was identified on the basis of
sporulation and their fruiting structures.
Results and discussion
There was significant difference in mechanical damage
to soybean seed due to different methods of threshing
and processing (Table 1). The data revealed that the lowest
damage (10.28%) was recorded in variety JS-9305 (V2).
The highest mechanical damage was observed in variety
JS-9560 (V3) (14.06%). Among the threshing methods,
the lowest mechanical damage (8.62%) was recorded
due to threshing with stick beating (T1). Threshing with
combine harvester (T3) recorded the highest mechanical
damage (15.87%). The mechanical damage to soybean
seeds collected at different processing locations showed
significant difference. The seed sample collected before
processing (P1) showed the minimum damage (10.22%)
which was at par with mechanical damage of soybean
seed drawn in inclined flight belt conveyor-I (P5) (10.26%).
The highest mechanical damage was recorded in soybean
seed collected at specific gravity separator (P8) (14.44
%) from second processing plant sequence which was
at par with the soybean seed collected at specific gravity
separator (P4) (14.18%) of first processing plant.
There was significant difference on germination of
soybean seed due to variety, different methods of threshing
and processing (Table 2). The data revealed that the variety
JS-9305 (V2) recorded the highest initial germination
(88.14%) and maintains the germination (70.42%) above.
Minimum Seed Certification Standards (70%) up to 330
days of storage irrespective of threshing and processing was significantly higher than the varieties (V1: JS-335)
methods. The threshing method (T1: threshed with stick and (V3: JS-9560) irrespective of threshing methods and
beating) recorded the highest initial germination (89.42%) processing (Table 3). The threshing method (T1: threshed
and maintains the germination (71.49%) above Minimum with stick beating) recorded the highest vigour index
Seed Certification Standards (70%) up to 330 days of (2806.78) at 0 days of storage and maintains the vigour
storage irrespective of varieties and processing methods index (1468.39) up to 360 days of storage which was
and the seeds processed upto seed grader (P2 location)in significantly higher than the other threshing methods viz.,
first processing plant sequence records highest initial multi-crop thresher at 400 rpm (T2) and combine harvester
germination (87.67%) and maintains the germination (T3) irrespective of varieties and processing and the seeds
(74.37%) above Minimum Seed Certification Standards processed upto seed grader (P2 location) records highest
(70%) up to 300 days of storage. vigour index (2856.29) at 0 days of storage and maintains
the vigour index (1388.88) up to 360 days of storage which
The variety JS-9305 (V2) recorded the highest vigour was significantly higher than the seed samples collected
index (2729.99) at 0 days of storage and maintains the from other processing locations of processing plant
vigour index (1409.84) up to 360 days of storage which sequences irrespective of varieties and threshing methods.
The variety JS 93-05 (V2) recorded the lowest
Table 1. Effect of varieties, threshing methods and electrical conductivity (518.25 µs/cm) at 0 days of storage
processing locations on mechanical damage of soybean and maintains the lowest electrical conductivity (1884.29
seed detected by sodium hypochlorite test µs/cm) up to 360 days of storage which was significantly
lower than the varieties (V1: JS-335) and (V3: JS 95-60)
Treatment Mechanical irrespective of threshing methods and processing (Table
damage (%) 4). The threshing method (T1: threshed with stick beating)
Varieties recorded the lowest electrical conductivity (485.25 µs/
cm) at 0 days of storage and maintains lowest (1670.79
V1 - JS 335 12.40
µs/cm) up to 360 days of storage which was significantly
V2 - JS 93-05 10.28 lower that the other threshing methods viz., multi-crop
V3 - JS 95-06 14.06 thresher at 400 ppm (T2) and combine harvester (T3)
SEm± 0.108 irrespective of varieties and processing and the seeds
the seed sample collected before processing (P1) records
CD at 5% 0.302
lowest electrical conductivity (451.11 µs/cm) at 0 days of
Threshing methods storage and maintains lowest (1633.88) up to 360 days
T1 - Stick beating 8.62 of storage which was significantly lowest than the seed
T2 - Multi crop thresher 12.24 sample collected from other processing locations of
processing plant sequences irrespective of varieties and
T3 - Combine harvester 15.87
threshing methods.
SEm± 0.108
The variety JS 93-05 (V2) recorded the lowest seed
CD at 5% 0.302
mycoflora (3.54%) at 0 days of storage and maintains
Processing locations the lowest mycoflora (17%) up to 360 days of storage
First processing plant which was significantly lower than the varieties (V1 : JS-
P1 - Seed collected before processing 10.22 335) and (V3 : JS-9560) irrespective of threshing methods
and processing (Table 5). The threshing method (T1 :
P2 - Seed grader 11.30
threshed with stick beating) recorded the lowest seed
P3 - Bucket elevator 13.78 mycoflora (3.38%) at 0 days of storage and maintains
P4 - Specific gravity separator 14.18 lowest (17.87%) up to 360 days of storage which was
P5 - Second processing plant significantly lower than the other threshing methods viz.,
multi-crop thresher at 400 rpm (T2) and combined harvester
P6 - Inclined flight belt conveyor-I 10.26
(T5) irrespective of varieties and processing and the seeds
P6 - Seed grader 11.78 the seed sample collected before processing (P 1)
P7 - Inclined flight belt conveyor-II 12.00 irrespective of varieties and processing and the seeds
P8 - Specific gravity separator 14.44 the seed sample collected before processing (P1) records
lowest mycoflora (3.11%) at 0 days of storage and
SEm± 0.176
maintains lowest (15.67%) up to 360 days of storage which
CD at 5% 0.493

221
 Table 2. Effect of varieties, threshing methods and processing on germination percentage of soybean seed

Treatments Germination per cent (days after storage)

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
V1 - JS 335 85.92 84.62 83.04 81.72 80.54 79.42 78.17 76.21 74.79 72.62 70.92 67.50 63.62
(68.37 67.16 65.90 64.86 63.97 63.19 62.28 60.95 59.97 58.55 57.44 55.31 52.96
V2 - JS 93-05 88.14 86.46 84.58 83.35 82.61 81.21 80.46 79.12 77.65 76.21 74.03 70.42 65.29
(70.13 68.70 67.16 66.20 65.59 64.55 64.02 62.98 61.95 60.99 59.51 57.19 53.99
V3 - 95-60 81.83 80.72 79.24 78.39 77.33 76.54 76.10 74.57 73.39 71.25 69.00 78.78 58.29
(64.91 64.10 63.04 62.42 61.68 61.14 60.81 59.78 59.03 57.65 56.25 50.10 49.81
SEm± 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.12
CD at 5% 0.63 0.60 0.54 0.52 0.43 0.41 0.47 0.39 0.37 0.38 0.38 0.35 0.35
Threshing methods
T1 - Stick beating 89.42 87.93 86.83 85.72 84.83 83.97 82.82 80.99 79.78 78.37 76.32 71.49 68.58
(71.00 69.15 67.93 64.20 66.52 65.50 64.73 63.67 62.52 61.47 60.03 57.85 54.76
T2 - Multi crop thresher 85.50 84.61 82.58 81.29 80.04 79.62 78.82 77.50 76.18 74.29 72.21 65.54 62.21
(67.79 67.07 65.43 64.45 63.52 63.22 62.65 61.72 60.82 59.57 58.22 54.11 52.09
T3 - Combine harvester 80.97 79.26 77.44 76.44 75.61 73.57 73.08 71.42 69.87 37.42 65.42 59.67 56.42
(64.71 63.87 62.87 61.98 61.32 60.32 59.90 58.49 57.81 56.42 55.21 50.75 50.03
SEm± 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.12

222
CD at 5% 0.63 0.60 0.54 0.52 0.43 0.41 0.47 0.39 0.37 0.38 0.38 0.35 0.35
Processing locations
P1 - Seed collected before processing 83.22 81.78 80.44 79.56 78.67 77.78 76.67 75.56 74.33 72.00 69.89 64.63 60.78
(66.03 64.89 63.89 63.25 62.64 62.01 61.24 60.47 59.65 58.15 56.81 53.58 51.28
P2 - Seed grader 87.67 86.30 84.96 83.78 83.11 81.56 80.89 79.22 78.11 76.11 74.37 69.33 66.67
(69.80 68.59 67.50 66.49 65.97 64.78 64.25 63.04 62.26 60.89 59.70 56.52 54.81
P3 - Bucket elevator 82.26 81.70 79.52 77.96 76.89 75.33 75.18 72.89 71.56 69.78 67.11 61.44 58.56
(65.32 65.03 63.27 62.15 61.38 60.34 60.30 58.72 57.86 56.75 55.06 51.70 49.97
P4 - Specific gravity separator 85.33 84.22 82.67 81.93 80.56 79.78 78.67 77.44 75.89 74.11 72.00 66.89 63.78
(67.78 66.84 65.61 65.02 63.98 63.44 62.65 61.78 60.70 59.55 58.17 55.01 53.06
P5 - Inclined flight belt conveyor-I 83.22 81.67 79.89 79.37 78.07 77.26 76.33 74.78 73.89 71.44 69.33 62.44 59.22
(66.03 64.82 63.50 63.23 62.23 61.68 61.00 59.95 59.36 57.79 56.47 52.29 50.37
P6 - Seed grader 87.67 86.00 84.67 83.33 82.44 81.33 80.22 78.18 77.00 75.44 73.70 67.78 64.89
(69.81 68.32 67.21 66.15 65.44 64.61 63.78 62.31 61.46 60.43 59.27 55.55 53.74
P7 - Inclined flight belt conveyor-II 87.67 85.78 84.26 82.18 81.67 80.63 79.78 78.22 76.56 74.78 73.11 66.44 63.11
(69.85 68.06 66.91 65.25 64.86 64.09 63.43 62.31 61.18 59.99 58.88 54.73 52.67
P8 - Specific gravity separator 85.33 84.04 81.89 81.11 79.89 78.78 78.18 76.78 74.89 73.22 71.00 65.56 62.22
(67.75 66.69 65.03 64.40 63.48 62.72 62.30 61.31 60.03 58.96 57.52 54.20 52.13
SEm± 0.37 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.25 0.24 0.27 0.23 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.20 0.20
CD at 5% 1.02 0.98 0.89 0.84 0.70 0.67 0.76 0.64 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.57 0.57
 Table 3. Effect of varieties, threshing methods and processing on vigour index of soybean seed

Treatments Vigour index I (days after storage)

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

V1 - JS 335 2691.91 2522.85 2411.50 2324.83 2252.78 2173.44 2100.06 1981.48 1893.26 1796.93 1698.14 1556.68 1288.07

V2 - JS 93-05 2729.99 2548.83 2441.75 2381.14 2281.14 2186.44 2119.06 2030.95 1961.52 1875.63 1727.08 1590.80 1409.84
V3 - 95-60 2465.62 2337.82 2232.66 2128.86 2128.86 2074.49 2032.81 1959.66 1890.15 1788.49 1666.07 1246.43 1129.19
SEm± 39.732 7.899 23.783 6.414 6.414 6.209 6.353 5.674 6.178 6.185 5.723 6.985 4.742

CD at 5% 111.075 22.082 66.739 17.930 17.930 17.359 17.761 15.862 17.272 17.290 16.000 19.529 13.257
Threshing methods
T1 - Stick beating 2806.78 2463.91 2551.13 2460.87 2400.16 2323.50 2259.75 2139.60 2068.67 1988.29 1864.98 1651.79 1468.39

T2 - Multi crop thresher 2631.63 2486.88 2371.25 2284.39 2209.32 2153.57 2090.04 2014.55 1938.17 1840.55 1710.72 1451.83 1254.50
T3 - Combine harvester 2449.11 2278.72 2163.53 2115.14 2053.31 1957.30 1902.14 1817.94 1738.09 1632.22 1515.60 1290.28 110.21

SEm± 39.732 7.899 23.873 7.325 6.414 6.209 6.353 5.674 6.178 6.185 5.723 6.985 4.742

223
CD at 5% 111.075 22.082 66.739 20.477 17.930 17.359 17.761 15.862 17.272 17.290 16.000 19.529 13.257
Processing locations

P1 - Seed collected before processing 2538.28 2413.25 2326.08 2253.43 2173.05 2099.62 2022.22 1956.10 185.25 1766.11 1611.73 1400.52 1221.01

P2 - Seed grader 2856.29 2649.54 2538.41 2424.90 2369.34 2275.25 2211.21 2107.45 2016.28 1916.11 1771.40 1571.08 1388.46
P3 - Bucket elevator 2514.00 2339.09 2145.57 2119.21 2056.98 1983.11 1925.67 1812.33 1743.26 1664.78 1531.10 1296.53 1139.63

P4 - Specific gravity separator 2849.98 2521.29 2413.11 2349.10 2266.77 2200.94 2128.99 2043.34 1956.27 1871.06 1769.23 1553.66 1351.63

P5 - Inclined flight belt conveyor-I 2471.98 2379.25 2271.98 2210.53 2149.08 2079.33 2010.57 1922.83 1873.75 1751.37 1638.77 1351.86 1165.33
P6 - Seed grader 2664.74 2558.11 2460.68 2359.69 2306.88 2225.02 2155.24 2041.26 1974.97 1894.28 1776.76 1536.37 1354.42

P7 - Inclined flight belt conveyor-II 2561.52 2430.49 2357.58 2265.04 2210.61 2120.61 2089.80 1989.79 1922.27 1823.81 1723.96 1485.77 1284.17

P8 - Specific gravity separator 2576.59 2467.65 2382.36 2312.51 2234.72 2174.45 2128.11 2052.47 1947.76 1875.29 1753.83 1521.30 1300.95
SEm± 64.882 12.899 38.984 11.961 10.473 10.140 10.375 9.266 10.089 10.100 9.346 11.407 7.744

CD at 5% 181.384 36.061 108.985 33.439 29.280 28.347 29.004 25.903 28.205 28.235 26.128 31.890 21.649
 Table 4. Effect of varieties, threshing methods and processing on electrical conductivity of soybean seed

Treatments Electrical conductivity ( s/cm)I (days after storage)

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

V1 - JS 335 540.62 652.83 798.79 941.08 1044.58 1135.12 1345.45 1371.201528.87 1611.41 1678.83 1836.25 1929.79
V2 - JS 93-05 518.25 633.62 769.95 898.16 974.08 1100.54 1322.12 1419.501495.20 1573.91 1651.66 1787.37 1884.29
V3 - 95-60 573.95 684.75 826.29 1032.48 1108.16 1200.12 1443.83 1581.661671.25 1771.75 1883.16 2018.29 2129.40
SEm± 0.322 0.277 0.310 0.335 0.335 0.261 0.804 0.380 0.281 0.3330 0.578 0.312 0.283
CD at 5% 0.900 0.776 0.867 0.936 0.936 0.730 2.247 1.062 0.785 0.922 1.65 0.873 0.791
Threshing methods
T1 - Stick beating 485.25 571.41 684.41 816.62 816.62 959.04 1172.08 1212.121325.45 1399.77 1483.00 1584.00 1670.79
T2 - Multi crop thresher 531.45 661.45 814.25 918.87 918.87 1103.87 1343.91 1383.871485.25 1570.79 1654.95 1821.75 1933.50
T3 - Combine harvester 616.12 738.33 896.37 1136.23 1136.23 1372.87 1595.41 1776.371884.62 1986.58 2075.70 2236.16 2339.20

224
SEm± 0.322 0.277 0.310 0.335 0.335 0.261 0.804 0.380 0.281 0.330 0.578 0.312 0.283
CD at 5% 0.900 0.776 0.867 0.936 0.936 0.730 2.247 1.062 0.785 0.922 1.615 0.873 0.791
Processing locations
P1 - Seed collected before processing 454.11 548.11 668.88 844.33 921.66 939.22 1073.88 1155.441231.88 1268.33 1356.33 1540.22 1633.88
P2 - Seed grader 517.66 624.5 768.11 933.33 985.55 1088.88 1364.22 1248.001542.22 1669.66 1774.55 1902.11 1999.11
P3 - Bucket elevator 569.55 688.33 821.00 957.00 1024.66 1190.88 1452.88 1630.551732.00 1795.55 1838.88 2015.77 2109.33
P4 - Specific gravity separator 619.44 741.00 876.11 1020.63 1077.22 1237.11 1562.77 1677.221792.22 1916.22 1996.88 2083.00 2179.11
P5 - Inclined flight belt conveyor-I 474.77 595.11 753.55 901.5 963.11 1005.33 1105.88 1195.551264.00 1317.55 1398.55 158.33 1693.66
P6 - Seed grader 533.88 644.88 785.66 958.00 1029.88 1136.44 1404.55 1489.441545.22 1661.44 1755.44 1900.33 2005.00
P7 - Inclined flight belt conveyor-II 557.11 674.66 829.22 988.88 1093.55 1224.33 1452.33 1539.771600.55 1693.55 1818.66 1943.55 2050.44
P8 - Specific gravity separator 627.66 739.88 884.22 1054.22 1162.2 1339.88 1547.22 1723.661812.77 1896.55 1963.77 2071.77 2178.77
SEm± 0.526 0.453 0.507 0.547 0.494 0.426 1.312 0.620 0.459 0.593 0.943 0.510 0.462
CD at 5% 1.469 1.267 1.416 1.529 1.382 1.191 3.669 1.734 1.282 1.506 2.637 1.426 1.292
 Table 5. Effect of varieties, threshing methods and processing on germination percentage of soybean seed

Treatments Germination per cent (days after storage)

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
V1 - JS 335 4.46 4.87 5.62 6.21 6.71 7.54 9.75 11.29 12.79 14.21 14.87 17.17 18.92
12.01 12.64 13.60 14.32 14.90 15.84 18.03 19.54 20.8 22.08 22.59 24.34 25.68
V2 - JS 93-05 3.54 4.08 5.12 5.21 6.04 6.42 7.17 8.87 10.42 12.83 13.25 15.04 17.00
10.63 11.50 12.97 13.09 14.10 14.55 15.42 17.26 18.77 15.12 21.10 22.76 24.27
V3 - 95-60 4.54 5.25 6.46 6.75 7.83 9.21 11.54 12.62 13.33 22.80 16.71 18.12 21.25
12.12 13.10 14.60 14.94 16.13 17.54 19.76 20.73 21.36 0.11 24.02 25.08 27.33
SEm± 0.19 0.17 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.29 0.12 0.18 0.11
CD at 5% 0.52 0.46 0.48 0.42 0.38 0.39 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.34 0.51 0.30
Threshing methods
T1 - Stick beating 3.38 3.96 5.29 5.67 5.92 6.67 8.12 9.79 11.29 13.29 13.54 15.71 17.87
10.37 11.37 13.12 13.45 14.02 14.39 15.63 17.66 19.26 21.14 21.18 22.88 24.4
T2 - Multi crop thresher 4.54 5.04 5.62 6.00 7.17 8.25 9.92 11.17 12.46 14.25 15.29 16.79 19.54
12.15 12.85 13.59 14.04 15.41 16.56 18.16 19.38 20.56 22.11 22.93 24.11 26.12
T3 - Combine harvester 4.62 5.21 6.29 6.50 7.50 8.25 10.42 11.83 12.80 14.62 16.00 17.83 19.75
12.24 12.97 14.40 14.87 15.70 16.98 19.41 20.52 21.16 22.48 23.68 25.14 26.80
SEm± 0.19 0.17 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.18 0.11

225
CD at 5% 0.52 0.46 0.48 0.42 0.38 0.39 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.29 0.34 0.51 0.30
Processing locations
P1 - Seed collected before processing 3.11 4.11 5.44 5.56 6.22 7.00 7.89 9.67 10.44 12.00 13.11 14.33 15.67
9.95 11.49 13.39 13.43 14.28 15.20 16.19 18.03 18.81 20.21 21.17 22.19 23.23
P2 - Seed grader 3.67 4.33 5.44 5.78 6.44 7.67 9.22 10.78 11.56 13.56 14.67 16.11 18.67
10.86 11.89 13.38 13.81 14.51 15.92 17.52 19.09 19.84 21.58 22.49 23.64 25.55
P3 - Bucket elevator 3.22 3.89 4.56 5.00 5.56 5.78 6.56 8.56 9.78 11.33 11.22 14.22 14.44
10.22 11.30 12.20 12.82 13.56 13.82 14.66 16.94 18.17 19.65 19.36 21.86 22.27
P4 - Specific gravity separator 4.22 4.33 5.33 5.67 6.33 7.56 9.44 10.33 11.89 14.11 15.11 16.56 18.67
11.64 11.81 13.14 13.69 14.45 15.80 17.70 18.62 20.09 22.03 22.83 23.97 25.54
P5 - Inclined flight belt conveyor-I 4.00 5.22 5.67 5.67 6.56 7.44 10.56 11.33 12.33 14.11 14.67 16.11 18.89
11.43 13.11 13.67 13.68 14.74 15.67 18.71 19.46 20.46 22.00 22.44 23.60 25.70
P6 - Seed grader 4.67 5.33 6.11 6.33 7.11 7.89 10.22 11.56 12.89 14.78 16.22 17.56 20.67
12.26 13.20 14.21 14.51 15.40 16.22 18.53 19.76 20.96 22.56 23.69 24.71 26.99
P7 - Inclined flight belt conveyor-II 5.00 5.00 6.11 6.89 8.11 8.78 10.78 12.56 13.44 15.11 16.22 17.67 20.78
12.82 12.81 14.24 15.14 16.48 17.15 19.08 20.69 21.46 22.84 23.70 24.81 27.07
P8 - Specific gravity separator 5.56 5.67 7.22 7.56 8.56 9.67 11.22 12.67 15.11 17.44 18.33 21.67 24.67
13.52 13.69 15.54 15.88 16.94 18.04 19.47 20.80 22.88 24.66 25.18 27.70 29.74
SEm± 0.30 0.27 0.28 0.25 0.22 0.23 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.17 0.20 0.30 0.17
CD at 5% 0.82 0.76 0.78 0.69 0.62 0.64 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.48 0.55 0.83 0.48
was significantly lowest than the seed samples collected
from other processing locations of processing plant
sequences irrespective of varieties and threshing methods.
The highest mechanical damage was recorded in
soybean variety JS 65-60 (V3) when seed was collected
at specific gravity separator (P8) (24%) in second seed
processing plant sequence. The results are in conformity
with Sonawski and Kuzniar (1999) who reported that the
soybean seed is very susceptible to mechanical damage
that occurs during handling and processing after harvest
and it reduces seed quality. Weathering, fungi, insects,
artificial drying and mechanical damage during harvest,
handling, threshing and storage are the causes of the
soybean seed damage/injuries.
The mechanical damage due to different methods
of threshing and processing showed minimum damage
in variety JS 93-05 (V2). This might be due to small seed
size of variety JS 30-05. The highest mechanical damage
was observed in variety JS 95-60 (V3) which might be
attributed to its bold seed size. Bhatia et al. (1996)
observed that the soybean seed is highly susceptible to
field weathering and mechanical damage which adversely
affect its longevity.
The significant difference in mechanical damage
and broken seeds after processing and handling was
observed due to soybean cultivars. The cultivar which had
larger seed size and thinner seed coat had more
mechanical damage. The similar observations was made
by Verasilpa et al. (2001). The threshing with stick beating
(T1) recorded the lowest mechanical damage and having
higher germination and vigour with lower electrical
conductivity and seed mycoflora infection. These results
are in conformity with those of Ujjinaiah and Shreedhara
(1998) who found significantly higher mechanical damage
was recorded in multi crop thresher as compared to
beating with stick. The injuries directly affected seed
germination and thus reduces seed vigour and storage
potential. Delouche (1974) observed the mechanical
injuries can occur at any time during harvesting, drying
and conditioning of seeds and results cracks or breaks
in the seed coat or cotyledon where it would no longer be
classified as a part of pure seed fraction which causes
lower germination.
Conclusion
The mechanical damage to the soybean seed during
threshing and processing revealed that the lowest damage
was observed in variety V2 : JS 93-05 threshed with stick
beating with higher germination and vigour with lower
electrical conductivity and seed mycoflora infection. The
226
seed sample collected before processing showed
minimum damage and lower electrical conductivity and
seed mycoflora infection.
From the present study it was revealed that the
soybean seed is highly susceptible to field weathering
and mechanical damages during threshing and processing
which adversely affect is longevity. Management during
harvesting and seed processing frequently increases
mechanical seed injuries and this problem has been proved
to be one of the most important causes of low seed quality.
The soybean seed threshed with steak beating could
reduce the mechanical damage to the seed at the time of
harvesting. Due to delicate seed coat, the minimum seed
coat damage during post harvest handling of the soybean
seed resulted in to higher quality and longevity during
storage. From the above investigation, it can be concluded
that for best quality of soybean seed during storage it is
recommended to thresh the seed with stick beating and
processed upto seed grader (P2 and P6 location) in first
and second processing plant sequence which maintained
the germination above MSCS (70%) upto 330 days of
storage and higher vigour with lower electrical conductivity
and seed mycoflora infection could be achieved.
References
Abdual-Baki AA, Anderson JD (1973) Vigour determination
in soybean seed by multiple criteria. Crop Sci 13 :
630-632
Anonymous (1999) International rules for seed testing. Seed
Sci and Tech 13(2) : 299-513
Bhatia VS, Bhatnagar PS, Joshi OP (1996) Screening of Indian
soybean genotypes for seed longevity as affected
by field weathering. Soybean Genetics Newsletter
23 : 102-104
Carbonell SAM, Krzyzanowsk FC (1995) The pendulum test
for screening soybean genotypes for seed resistant
to mechanical damage. Seed Sci Technol 23 : 331-
339
Delouche JC (1974) Maintaining soybean seed quality. In
soybean : production, marketing and use, Y-69 :
46-62. TVA Bull V-19, Alabama : Muscle Sholas
Delouche JC, Matthews RK, Dougherty GM and Boyd AH
(1973) Storage of seeds in subtropical and tropical
regions. Seed Sci and Tech 1 : 663-692
Franca Neto JB, Henning AA (1984) Qualidades fisiologica
e sanitaria de sementes de soja (Physiological and
Pathological qualities of soybean seeds) EMBRAPA
- National Soybean Research Centre, Circular
Technica 09 : 39 Londrina, Parana, Brazil
Henning A, Krzyzanowski, Fransico C, Franca Neto, Jose B,
Costa Nilton P (2006) Technologies that add value
to soybean seed news. The International Seed
Magazine www.Seed News
Loeffler TM, Tekrony DM, Egli DB (1988) The bulk conductivity
test as an indicator of soybean seed quality. J Seed
Tech 12 : 37-53
Priestley DA, Cullinan VJ, Wolfe J (1985) Difference in seed
longevity at species level. Plant Cell and
Environment 8 : 557-562
Sonawski S, Kuzniar P (1999) Effect of dynamic loading on
the quality of soybean. Department of Agricultural
Product. International Agro Physics 13 : 125-133.
Ujjinaiah US, Shreedhara MV (1998) Effect of threshing
method on mechanical seed damage and quality
of soybean seed during storage. Seed Tech News
28)4) : 34
Van Utrecht D, Bern CJ, Rukunudin IH (2000) Soybean
mechanical damage detection. Applied Engineering
in Agriculture 137-141
Vearasilpa S, Somchai P, Nattasak K, Sa-nguansak Th,
Sangitwa S, Elke P (2001) Assessment of Post
Harvest Soybean Seed Quality Loss. Conference
on International Agricultural Research for
Development, Institute for Agricultural Chemistry,
Georg-August University, Gottingen, 37075
Germany

(Manuscript Receivd : 01-03-2015; Accepted : 30-06-2015)

227
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 228-233 (2015)
Family environment of girl students and its effect on extent of
participation in sports and games at different educational level in
Rewa Division of Madhya Pradesh
Rachna Mishra
St. Lawrence, College of Higher Education
Geeta colony, New Delhi, Pin - 110 031
Email : rac321978@gmail.com
Abstract
The influence of family environment of girl students on extent
of participation in sports and games at different educational
level (middle, high and higher secondary) was assessed
through survey of 520 girls students ( from rural and urban
area) of Rewa Division of Madhya Pradesh State. The
statistical analysis confirmed the significant relationship
between the educational level and rate of participation on all
the factors of family environment. The extent of participation
of girl students in sports and games was increased with the
increase in their level of education. The girl students having
varied family environment had interest and eager to
participate in the sports and games. Thus it is suggested to
provide the congenial atmosphere for sports and games
and increase level of education that would help in increasing
the participation.
Keywords : Educational level, Sports and Games, Female
students, family environment and rate of participate.
Education is the process of instruction aimed at the all
round development of boys and girls. It is the only wealth
that can not be robbed. Nelson Mandela once said
"Education is the most powerful weaper which you can
use to change the world". It is a powerful instrument for
reducing inequity and poverty and for laying a foundation
of sustained economic growth for individuals and their
communities learning includes the moral values, physical
status, improvement of character and the methods to
increase the strength of mind. Education is very important
in the present day life and only a literate person can adjust
with the development of society. Especially, girls or women
must be educated, as they play vital role in the family
and society. When a girl is educated she attains
knowledge and gains power, which helps in her self
development. When she has family it gives a positive
228
thinking and influences that family in various ways. As
her children grow, she educate them, which helps the
society to progress in all aspects. It is a fact that every
body must get education but when girl get educated it
benefit future generations of our country. Sports and
games are integral component of education and it brings
recognition in the society. A healthy person is always an
asset to the society due to his ability to contribute towards
development. Sports and games activity for girls is one of
the important process through which the healthy pillars
of the nation can be built-up in future. The present trends
towards more or less unlimited participation for women in
wholesome (Gendel 1960) competitive activities is
gainining momentum. As society become even more
aware of the fact that such activity is well within the
capabilities of the female, there will be complete
acceptance of woman in sports activities (Synder and
Elmer 1973). Over the years efforts have been made to
introduce sports and games as an integral part of the
school education, thus, level of education may effect the
extent of participation of girl students in sports and games.
Thus, the present study on factors affecting participation
as different school level for rural and urban girl students
in sports and games was undertaken.
Material and methods
The Rewa division comprises of three district (Rewa, Sidhi
and Satna) were selected for study. From each district
three rural and three urban schools were selected
randomly. In all 18 school were selected for drawing
samples. From each selected schools 10 girls from each
strata (middle, high and higher secondary schools) were
selected. Thus in all, the sample frame will be comprises
of 540 girls students were interviewed for collecting of
primary data through pre-tested interview schedule and
 Table 1. Effect of family environment of girl students on extent of participation in sports and games at different educational level
Rewa district Satna district
Factor Level Rural Urban Rural Urban
Middle High HS Middle High HS Middle High HS Middle High HS
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Family Types Joint 10 10 13 9 17 5 7 6 9 5 9 3 13 11 15 7 17 3 8 6 9 3 8 2
Nuclear 6 4 5 3 6 2 9 8 10 6 15 3 3 3 5 3 8 2 9 7 12 6 17 3
Family size Small 10 8 12 5 18 3 11 10 12 6 15 2 9 8 11 5 18 2 12 10 15 5 14 2
Big 7 5 8 5 7 2 5 4 9 3 12 1 7 6 10 4 8 2 4 4 7 3 12 2
Food habit Veg. 6 6 13 5 11 2 10 9 5 3 9 1 8 8 15 5 12 2 9 9 7 3 10 2
Non.Veg. 9 9 9 3 15 2 6 5 17 5 18 2 7 7 7 3 14 2 6 6 16 4 15 3
Exposure to Exposure 8 7 10 10 12 12 12 11 15 14 25 5 5 4 9 3 20 4 13 12 20 8 18 2
cinema Not Exposure 8 7 5 5 3 3 4 3 1 0 0 0 11 10 13 5 5 1 3 2 2 0 9 1
Exposure to Exposure 14 13 18 7 24 3 15 15 20 9 25 5 4 3 15 5 12 2 7 6 8 2 21 2
Television Not Exposure 2 1 3 2 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 13 10 7 3 14 2 9 8 16 4 6 1
Exposure to Exposure 15 13 20 3 21 2 11 11 18 3 23 2 14 13 22 3 19 1 13 13 12 3 18 2
radio Not Exposure 1 1 6 1 1 0 4 4 7 2 4 1 2 1 3 2 9 1 2 2 11 4 9 1
Exposure to Exposure 3 3 7 3 11 2 8 7 16 4 11 2 4 4 9 3 11 2 12 12 5 3 23 2
newspaper Not Exposure 12 12 16 4 12 2 9 6 7 3 15 2 12 10 14 4 15 2 3 3 18 4 4 1
Residential Available 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 1 7 3 9 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 8 4 13 1
facility Not available 14 14 24 6 28 2 14 13 15 5 18 2 16 14 22 8 28 2 13 13 13 5 14 2
All the X2 values are non significant, therefore it is not mentioned in the table

229
Table 1. Effect of family environment of girl students on extent of participation in sports and games at different educational level
Rewa district Satna district
Factor Level Rural Urban Rural Urban
Middle High HS Middle High HS Middle High HS Middle High HS
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Mixing with boys Permitted 9 9 12 6 15 2 13 13 18 4 19 2 11 9 12 4 15 3 15 13 18 6 20 2
Not permitted 6 6 8 4 11 2 2 2 6 2 8 1 5 5 11 3 10 2 1 1 4 1 7 1
Use of sport kits Permitted 0 0 2 1 4 1 5 5 9 3 10 17 0 0 3 1 5 1 6 6 10 4 13 2
Not permitted 16 14 22 5 23 2 12 8 14 4 1 2 15 15 22 4 22 2 9 9 11 5 14 1
Family restriction Restricted 5 4 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 6 4 3 1 4 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
Not restricted 11 10 20 7 25 2 15 13 20 9 27 2 12 8 20 6 24 1 16 13 20 9 28 2
Purda system Follower 8 7 15 6 20 3 11 11 4 1 14 2 11 9 20 7 6 1 9 9 18 6 24 2
Not follower 8 7 6 3 6 1 4 4 20 5 13 1 6 4 2 1 21 2 6 6 4 2 3 1
Traveling for Restricted 5 15 8 3 6 2 6 6 14 4 12 2 4 4 9 3 5 20 5 5 14 3 14 2
participation Not restricted 12 8 14 5 19 3 9 9 9 3 14 2 11 11 12 6 20 3 10 10 10 3 12 2
Going out side Restricted 4 2 7 2 7 1 6 4 12 3 10 2 9 8 7 3 19 2 6 6 15 5 20 3
for longer period Not restricted 14 10 16 5 20 2 11 9 11 4 15 3 7 6 15 5 8 1 10 8 7 3 6 1
Taking meal Permitted 15 13 20 7 25 2 16 14 20 9 25 5 10 10 12 3 27 2 9 8 20 5 25 2
out side Not permitted 2 0 2 1 3 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 5 12 3 1 0 7 6 3 2 3 0
Society interest interested 6 6 10 4 7 1 8 7 9 3 8 1 7 7 15 5 21 2 12 10 20 9 25 2
Not interested 9 8 10 6 20 2 9 6 12 6 19 2 8 8 8 2 6 1 4 4 1 0 3 0
All the X2 values are non significant, therefore it is not mentioned in the table
 Table 1. Effect of family environment of girl students on extent of participation in sports and games at different educational level
Sidhi district
Factor LevelFactor Rural Urban
Middle High HS Middle High HS
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Family Types Public 12 10 15 5 20 4 7 5 10 4 17 3
Private 4 4 7 3 5 1 10 8 12 4 8 2
Family size Hindi 9 8 14 5 19 3 8 8 9 3 19 3
English 7 6 8 3 7 1 7 7 14 4 7 1
Food habit Morning 8 8 14 4 15 2 12 10 12 4 15 2
Mid-day 7 7 9 3 11 2 4 4 12 2 11 2
Exposure to cinema Available 6 6 11 4 8 2 9 9 9 4 22 3
Not available 9 9 10 5 18 2 6 6 12 5 4 1
Exposure to Television Available 6 6 16 4 13 2 7 8 14 3 11 1
Not available 9 9 7 3 14 1 7 8 10 3 16 2
Exposure to radio Available 7 6 11 4 20 6 14 2 18 5 22 3
Not available 9 8 12 3 2 2 12 2 4 3 4 1
Exposure to news paper Regular 13 13 16 4 16 2 11 10 14 3 11 1
Not regular 2 2 7 3 11 1 5 4 10 3 16 2
Residential facility Available 0 0 0 20 0 0 3 3 10 4 10 16
Not available 15 15 0 10 28 2 13 11 11 5 2 2
All the X2 values are non significant, therefore it is not mentioned in the table

230
Table 1. Effect of family environment of girl students on extent of participation in sports and games at different educational level
Sidhi district
Factor LevelFactor Rural Urban
Middle High HS Middle High HS
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Mixing with boys Permitted 11 11 12 5 17 2 13 3 15 5 22 2
Not permitted 4 4 9 4 10 1 12 2 7 3 5 1
Use of sport kits Permitted 0 0 2 0 3 0 7 7 9 3 12 1
Not permitted 16 14 20 8 25 2 9 7 14 4 15 2
Family restriction restricted 6 6 5 3 5 1 1 0 2 0 3 1
Not restricted 9 9 15 7 22 2 15 14 20 8 24 2
Purda system follower 6 4 14 3 10 2 6 5 20 8 2 1
Not follower 12 8 10 3 16 2 10 9 2 0 25 2
Traveling for participation restricted 6 6 8 3 9 18 5 5 10 4 15 3
Not restricted 9 9 15 4 1 2 10 10 12 4 10 2
Going out side for longer prior restricted 8 8 19 4 20 2 11 10 5 2 20 2
Not restricted 7 7 5 2 7 1 5 4 18 5 7 1
Taking meal out side Permitted 12 11 20 5 24 2 12 12 17 6 28 2
Not permitted 4 3 3 2 3 1 3 3 4 3 0 0
Society interest interested 7 7 9 2 15 1 10 10 18 3 11 1
Not interested 8 8 15 4 13 1 5 5 7 2 16 2
All the X2 values are non significant, therefore it is not mentioned in the table
survey method.
The collected data were tabulated, classified and
statistically analysed using frequency distribution,
arithmetical mean and chi-square test to evaluate the
effect of educational back ground of girl students on extent
of participation in sports and games at different
educational level.
Results and discussion
Different factors of family environment at various level were
assumed to influence the participation of girl students in
sports and games. The relationship of these factors was
examined by statistical test (Chi-Square test) and results
obtained are presented in Table1.
The results of statistical analysis indicate that in
rural areas of Rewa division joint and big family are
predominant with vegetarian food habit. The girl's students
even from rural areas have good exposer to cinema and
Television but poorly exposed to news papers. In rural
areas the maximum girl students not allowed to mixed
up with boys. However there is no family restriction to
participate in sports and games and having meal out side,
but there is family restriction for going out side for longer
period and fallower of parda system in high and higher
secondary classes. It was also observed that in general
society has not shown interest in sports and games in
rural areas.
It is evident from the result that factors like family
types, family size, food habit, exposure to cinema,
television, radio and news papers, residential facilities,
mixing with boys, use of sports kits, family restriction,

Table 2. Effect of family environment of girl students on participation in sports and games

Factor Level Response

2
Yes No
Family Types Middle 98 82 30.63**
High 122 58
Higher Secondary 147 33
Family size Middle 96 84 48.30**
High 129 51
Higher Secondary 156 24
Food habit Middle 92 88 57.99**
High 136 44
Higher Secondary 156 24
Exposure to cinema Middle 94 86 30.90**
High 117 63
Higher Secondary 144 36
Exposure to Television Middle 94 86 57.52**
High 135 45
Higher Secondary 158 22
Exposure to radio Middle 94 86 69.19**
High 141 39
Higher Secondary 162 18
Exposure to news paper Middle 94 86 61.90**
High 139 41
Higher Secondary 159 21
Residential facility Middle 94 86 67.30**
High 130 50
Higher Secondary 164 16

** Significant at 1% level

231
purda system, traveling for participation, going out side
for longer period, taking meal out side and society interest
did not have any effect on the extent of participation of
girl students in sports and games.
These result leads to conclude that whether the
girl students belongs to small or big, joint or nuclear family,
their food habit may be vegetarian or non-vegetarian their
exposer may be of mass media, they may be day scholar
or hosteller, they may be allowed or not allowed to mix
with boys, may be allowed or not allowed to use sport
kits, they may or may not have family restrictions, they
may or may not allowed to travel for participation in sports
and games for longer period, they may or may not have
restriction for taking meal out side and their society may
or may not have interest in sports and games they have
eager to participate in the sports and games in rural and
urban areas of Rewa division. Thus there is a need to
provide the congenial environment which help for increasing
the participation of girl students in sports and games.
Different factors of educational level (middle, high
and higher secondary) were also assumed to influence
the participation of girl students in sports and games.
The relationship of these factors was examined by
statistical test (Chi-square test) and results obtained are
presented in Table 2.
It is observed from the result that there is significant
relationship between the educational level of girl students
and rate of participation on all the factors of educational
background. These results lead to conclude that the
extent of participation of girl students in sports and games
was increased with the increase in their level of education.
This might be due to increased interest and under standing
of girl students towards sports and games by the increase

Table 2. Effect of family environment of girl students on participation in sports and games

Factor Level Response

2
Yes No
Mixing with boys Middle 93 87 59.56**
High 132 48
Higher Secondary 159 21
Use of sport kits Middle 95 85 67.21**
High 138 42
Higher Secondary 163 17
Family restriction Middle 98 82 62.63**
High 128 52
Higher Secondary 165 15
Purda system Middle 97 83 56.20**
High 135 45
Higher Secondary 154 20
Traveling for participation Middle 92 88 53.96**
High 135 45
Higher Secondary 154 26
Going out side for longer period Middle 98 82 53.74**
High 137 43
Higher Secondary 159 21
Taking meal out side Middle 95 85 68.13**
High 136 44
Higher Secondary 164 16
Society interest Middle 93 87 70.64**
High 134 46
Higher Secondary 164 16

** Significant at 1% level

232
in their level of education. This is also evident from the
study by Eitle (2002) Stevenson (2003) , Halawal (2006,)
Blackwell and MC laughlin (2009), Lutz et al. (2009) and
Nandekar et al. (2010).
Thus it is concluded from the present finding that
the girl students having different educational backgrounds
have interest and eager to participate in the sports and
games. Although the extent of participation in sports and
games was increased with the increase in their level of
education. Thus, there is a need to provide the congenial
atmosphere for sports and games and increase their level
of educational which help for increasing the participation
of girl students in sports and games.

References

Blackwell DL, McLaughlin DK (2009) Do rural youth attain

their educational goals. Rural Development
Prospective 13(3) : 37-40
Eitle J David (2002) Race cultural capital and the educational
effects of participation in sports. Sociology of
Education 75 : 123-146
Gendel E (1960) Women and the Medical Aspects of Sports,
Hopper and Row Publishers New York
Halawah Ibtesam (2006) The effect of motivation, family
environment and student characteristics on
academic achievement. Instructional Psychol. 3 :
91-97
Klint A Maureens (1998) Received competence and motives
for participating in youth sports. A tests of harteri
competence motivation theory. Sports Psychol. 9 :
55-65
Lutz GM, Cornish DL, Gonnerman ME, Jr. Ralston M (2009)
Impact of participation in high school extra curricular
activities on early adult life experience : A study of
Iowa Graduates. Instructional Psychol. 6 : 15-20
Nandurkar PB, Nandarkar PP, Petkar HJ (2010) Role of
incentive marks in women's sports participation.
Brjsports Med. 44 : 163
Stevenson Betsey (2003) Evidence on the effects of sports
participation examining the impact of title IX. http://
bppk:-wharton,upenn.edu/betsegs/ oldsite/title ix(2)
pdf. Synder Eldon Sprtzer Elmer (1973) Family
influence and involvement in sports Res. Quarterly
44:249

(Manuscript Receivd : 28-04-2015; Accepted :30-05-2015)

233
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 234-238 (2015)
Estimation of rainfall erosivity factor (R) of universal soil loss equation
for soil erosion modelling using GIS techniques in Shakkar River
watershed
A.P.M.Sharma, S.K.Sharma and R.J.Patil
Department of Soil and Water Engineering
College of Agricultural Engineering
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Email.: sharmashailesh501@gmail.com
Abstract
The present paper contributes to the quantitative
assessment of Universal Soil Loss Equation's Rainfall
Erosivity (R) from average annual rainfall depth in a data
scarce region of Shakkar River Watershed. Rainfall erosivity,
considering rainfall amount and intensity, is an important
parameter for soil erosion risk assessment under future
land use and climate change. Despite its importance, rainfall
erosivity is usually implemented in models with a low spatial
and temporal resolution. This study is concentrated on
Shakkar River watershed which lies in Narmada Basin in
Narsighapur and Chhindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh,
India. It covers a total geographical area of 2223 km² with
annual average rainfall of 1245 mm. Rainfall depth from three
raingauge locations in the watershed was collected and a
simple model was employed for rainfall erosivity estimation.
The main objective of this study was to estimate rainfall
erosivity factor (R) values for the study area. The R map of
the area was prepared with the help of thiessen polygon
technique by using ArcGIS software. The final rainfall erosivity
factor (R) map was generated using the empirical equation
in Spatial Analyst tool of ArcGIS 9.3 software. It was found
that R factor value of the study area varies between 308.36 to
830.63.
Keywords : Universal soil loss equation, Rainfall erosivity,
Shakkar River, AroGIS
Rainfall drives the process of soil erosion by water
(Petrovsek and Mikos 2004). The parameter that is often
used to describe rainfall in the process of soil erosion is
the USLE's R factor. Climate change may lead to changes
in rainfall characteristics and is thus a major concern to
soil conservation. The relation between rainfall and
sediment yield is given by the rainfall erosivity, which
234
quantifies the kinetic energy of raindrop impact. The rainfall
erosivity factor (R) in the Universal Soil Loss Equation
(USLE) is generally recognized as one of the governing
parameters for the prediction of the erosive potential of
raindrop impact (Loureiro and Coutinho 2001).The original
method to calculate the erosivity values for a storm event
requires pluviographic records (Wischmeier and Smith
1978). Due to limited availability of long precipitation time-
series with a high temporal resolution, several alternative
strategies have been deployed based on the rainfall volume
(instead of intensity) for R-factor estimation (Meusburger
et al. 2012). Hence it is important to accurately determine
spatial distribution of rainfall erosivity for quantitative
estimation of soil erosion.
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) was designed
to predict longtime average soil losses by runoff from
specific field areas in specified cropping and management
systems. The USLE (Wischmeier and Smith 1978)
estimates the average annual soil loss from:
A = R.K.LS.C.P
Where, A is the estimated soil loss per year, R is the
runoff factor, K is the soil erodibility factor, LS is the slope
length and steepness factor, C is the cover and
management factor and P is the support practice factor
(Wischmeier and Smith, 1978). The R factor expresses
the erosive power of rainfall corresponding to the amount
and intensity of rainfall over the year (erosivity index unit)
at a particular location. An increase in the intensity and
amount of rainfall results in an increase in the value of R.
The K factor expresses inherent erodibility of the soil or
surface material. The value of "K" is defined as a function
of the particle-size distribution, organic-matter content, Study area
structure, and permeability of the soil or surface
topography, specifically hill-slope length and steepness, The Shakkar River rises in the Satpura range, east of the
on soil erosion. An increase in hill-slope length and Chhindi village, Chhindwara district, Madhya Pradesh,
steepness results in an increase in the LS factor. The C India. The watershed area lies between 22°20'N to 23°00'N
cover-management factor is used to express the effect of latitudes and 78°40'E to 79°20'E longitudes with an
plants and soil cover. Plants can reduce the runoff velocity elevation ranges from 314 to 1154 m above MSL (mean
and protect surface pores. The C-factor measures the sea level). The watershed covers 2223 km2 of total
combined effect of all interrelated cover and management geographical area up to the gauging point. The climate of
variables, and it is the factor that is most readily changed the basin is generally dry except the southwest monsoon
by human activities. The P factor is the support practice season. May is the driest month of the year. The normal
factor. It expresses the effects of supporting conservation maximum temperature during the month of May is 42.5
0
practices, such as contouring, buffer strips of close- C and minimum during the month of January is 8.2 0C.
growing vegetation, and terracing on soil loss at a particular Soils are mainly clayey to loamy in texture with calcareous
site. A good conservation practice will result in reduced concretions invariably present. Soils are mainly clayey
runoff volume, velocity and less soil erosion. The USLE to loamy in texture with calcareous concretions invariably
concept has more recently been modified and adapted present. They are sticky and in summer, due to shrinkage,
by a large number of researchers by including additional develop deep cracks. They generally predominate in
montmorillonite and beidellite type of clays. The average
data and incorporating research results. One of the most
annual rainfall of the area is 1245 mm and normal annual
important parameters in USLE is the rainfall erosivity factor
rainfall is 1192.1mm. The location map of the study area
(R) that represents/describes the potential for soil to be
is presented in Fig 1.
washed off from disturbed, unvegetated areas into surface
waters during a storm. The R factor reflects the effect of
intensity of the rainfall event on the soil erosion rate. The
R factor indicates how rainfall distribution affects the
average annual soil loss and how that soil-loss potential
will be distributed in space during different seasons and
cover conditions (Van der Knijff et al. 2000). Vegetation
cover protects the soil by dissipating the raindrop energy
before reaching the soil surface. As such, soil erosion
can be effectively limited with proper management of
vegetation, plant residue, and tillage (Lee 2004). In USLE
the R factor is computed using an empirical equation that
requires intensity data (Wischmeier and Smith 1978;
Renard et al. 1997).
However, the erosivity estimation relationships for
specific locations remain still difficult to be developed on
homogeneous bases of data over broad areas where
spatial-time variability of climatic variables is high. There Fig 1. Location map of study area
have been few attempts to assess rainfall erosivity at large
spatial scales. At global scale, Yang et al. (2003)
Materials and Methods
identified alternate power and polynomial relationships
between annual values of rainfall erosivity and precipitation.
In Indian context, Babu et al. (2004) established linear Rainfall erosivity factor (R) is the basic and important factor
relationships between average annual and seasonal rainfall in the assessment of soil erosion in the mathematical
to compute rainfall erosivity. This study aimed to evaluate model, Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and its
the spatial distribution of rainfall and to produce rainfall revised form RUSLE (Elangovan and Seetharaman 2011).
erosivity map for the considered watershed. In present Erosivity is the potential capacity of the raindrops to cause
study estimation of rainfall erosivity was carried out for detachment of the soil particles from its location and it
10 years (2001-2011) and with 20 m × 20 m cell size for depends on rainfall intensity its recurrence. Therefore, it
the preparation of the R-thematic maps of the area. is important to accurately estimate the erosivity for

235
quantitative estimation of soil erosion. The R-factor is & seasonal (June - September) rainfall and rainfall erosivity
defined as the mean annual sum of individual storm erosion factor (R). They used 123 rain gauge stations situated in
index values, EI30, where E is the total storm kinetic various parts of India. Derived relationships are as follow:
energy and I30 is the maximum rainfall intensity in 30
minutes.
Annual relationship:
Mathematically,
R = 81.5 + 0.38 Rn (340 Rn 3500 mm) ...4
KE I
EI 30 ...1
30 100
where, Seasonal relationship:

KE = Kinetic energy of the storm. The KE in metric tones/

ha-cm and expressed as R = 71.9 + 0.361 Rs (293 Rs 3190 mm) ...5

KE = 210.3 + 89 logI ...2 where,

where, R is the average annual / seasonal erosion index,

I = rainfall intensity in cm/h and Rn is the average annual rainfall (mm) and

I30 = maximum 30 minutes rainfall intensity of the storm Rs is the average seasonal rainfall (mm).

n
R Erosionindex  (KE I30 ) ...3 In the present study, equation 4 was used to
i 1 calculate annual values of R factor by replacing Rs with
actual observed rainfall in a year.
where,
The thematic map of rainfall erosivity factor (R) was
KE = Kinetic energy of the storm (MJ/ha) developed in the GIS platform. The thiessen polygon of
the study area was prepared using spatial analyst toolbox
Computation of R-Factor of the ArcGIS 9.3 considering three rain gauge stations

Vegetation cover, soil infiltration, erodibility and rainfall

erosivity are the major factors governing soil erosion. Of
all, rainfall erosivity is particularly difficult to predict and
control. However, is considered one of the determining
parameters in the universal soil loss equation. Rainfall
erosivity is the potential ability for rainfall to cause soil
loss (Silva 2004). Numerous studies have assessed the
relationship between conventional rainfall characteristics
and soil detachment (Arnoldus 1977; Hudson 1971;
Wischmeier and Smith 1978). The original method
requires high resolution rainfall data with continuous
pluviographic records; however, these are rarely available
in many parts of the world (Aronica and Ferro 1997;
Diodato 2005; Silva 2004). Thus several models, based
on correlations between the measured R-factor and the
available rainfall, have been developed to estimate the
rainfall R-factor from daily, monthly, or yearly rainfall (Ferro
et al. 1999; Wang et al. 1995; Zhang et al. 2002).

To compute storm KI30, continuous rainfall data is

needed. For Indian conditions, a linear relationship was
developed by Babu et al. (2004) between average annual Fig 2. Thiessen polygon map of study area

236
namely, Gadarwara, Ammarwar and Harrai and is
presented in Fig.2. Thiessen polygon gives fair distribution
of rainfall in the surrounding area of the rain gauge station
(Aggarwal et al. 2000). After attributing estimated R factor
values to the Thiessen polygons, raster maps of R factor
for individual years were prepared using Conversion tool
box of ArcGIS 9.3.
Result and discussion
Shakkar River watershed has R factor values ranges from
308.36 to 830.63. The R map of the area was prepared in
ArcGIS 9.3 software using thessien polygon technique
and is presented in Fig 3. The estimated values of R factor
are presented in Table 1.

Fig 4. Relation between rainfall depth and R-factor

The basic relation between rainfall and R factor is presented

in Fig. 4. This shows higher the value of rainfall higher the
value of R factor.
Conclusion

Fig 3. R-map of study area

An attempt has been made to estimate R factor values
with empirical equation for modelling soil erosion using
Table 1. Estimated R factor values

Stations Gardarwara Harra Ammarwara

Year Rainfall R-Factor Rainfall R-Factor Rainfall R-Factor
2001 993.0 458.84 1149.0 518.12 625.0 319.00
2002 1031.0 473.28 965.0 448.20 961.0 446.68
2003 1033.0 474.04 1357.0 597.16 938.0 437.94
2004 889.0 419.32 973.0 451.24 601.0 309.88
2005 1279.0 567.52 1202.0 538.26 1392.0 610.46
2006 684.0 341.42 1101.0 499.88 1351.0 594.88
2007 597.0 308.36 1078.4 491.29 1017.4 468.11
2008 619.7 316.99 916.4 429.73 847.6 403.59
2009 1348.0 593.74 1384.4 607.57 1971.4 830.63
2010 907.0 426.16 1194.4 535.37 769.0 373.72
Average 938.1 438 1132.1 511.7 1047.3 479.5

237
ArcGIS 9.3 software. R factor values were assigned to
pixels of different polygons created through ArcGIS within
the study area. Based on the assumption, thiessen
polygon gives fair distribution of rainfall in the surrounding
area of the rain gauge station, the R factor map of Shakkar
river watershed was produced to use in soil erosion
methods such as USLE. It should be noted that R factor
values can be precisely estimated using high resolution
temporal rainfall data. In this particular study GIS
techniques are used as it offers an optimal method to
estimate Rainfall erosivity factor (R) values of large areas
in a short time.
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ekWMy esa mi;ksx fd;k tk ldrk gSA ;g LVM+h {ks= ujflagiqj ,oa
fNanokMk ftys e/;izns'k] Hkkjr esa fLFkr gSA blds HkkSxksfyd {ks= 2223
oxZ fd-eh- ,oa okf"kZd vkSlr o"kkZ 1245 fe-eh- gSA bl okVj'ksM ds
rhu jsuxkst LVs'ku dh o"kkZ ,oa flaiy ekMy dk mi;ksx djrs gq;s
jsuQky bZjksftfoVh fudkyh xbZ gSA bl dk;Z ds eq[; mi;ksx bl {ks=
ds fy;s jsuQky bZjksftfoVh QSDVj ¼vkj½ osY;w dks fudkyuk gSA
ArcGIS 9.3 lkVos;j dk mi;ksx djrs gq;s fFklu iksyhxksu }kjk vkj
eSi cuk;k x;k gSA ArcGIS 9.3 lkVos;j ds Lisf'k;y ,susfyLV Vwy
}kjk Qkbuy jsuQky bZjksftfofyVh QsDVj ¼vkj½ eSi cuk;k x;k gSA
bl v/;;u }kjk vkj QSDVj dh osY;w 308.36 ls 830.63 ds chp
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References
Aggarwal SP, Desilva RP, Mohamed Rinos MH (2000)
Application of Remote Sensing and GIS on soil
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Arnoldus HMJ (1977) Methodology used to determine the
maximum potential average annual soil loss due
to sheet and rill erosion in Morocco, FAO Soils
Bulletin 34:39-51
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Aronica G, Ferro V (1997) Rainfall erosivity over the Calabrian
region. Hydrol Sci J 42(1):35-48
Babu R, Dhyani BL, Kumar N (2004) Assessment of erodibility
status and refined Iso-erodent map of India. Indian
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Diodato N (2005) Predicting RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil
Loss Equation) monthly erosivity index from readily
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Environmentalist 25:63-70
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erosivity estimation for southern Italy and
southeastern Australia. Hydrol Sci J 44:3-24
Hudson N (1971) Soil Conservation.Batsford Ltd., London.pp
388
Lee S (2004) Soil erosion assessment and its verification
using the universal soil loss equation and
geographic information system: A case study at
Boun Korea. Environmental Geology 45: 457-465
Loureiro N, Coutinho M (2001) A new procedure to estimate
the RUSLE EI30 index based on monthly rainfall
data and applied to the Algarve region, Portugal. J
Hydrol 250:12-18
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C (2012) Spatial and temporal variability of rainfall
erosivity factor for Switzerland. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci
16:167-177
Petrovšek G, Mikoš M (2004) Estimating the R factor from
daily rainfall data in the Sub Mediterranean climate
of Southwest Solvenia, Hydrological Sciences
Journal 49(5):869-877
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(1997) Predicting soil erosion by water: a guide to
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Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), Washington DC:
Agricultural Handbook, United States Department
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57:251-259
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Erosion risk Assessment in Europe, European
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potential soil erosion with reference to land use
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711
(Manuscript Receivd :30-03-2015; Accepted :27-06-2015)
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 239-248 (2015)

Textural properties of extruded product prepared by using by-

products of dhal milling industry

Thongam Sunita Devi*, A. K. Gupta*, Sheela Pandey* and A.P. Mahanta Sharma**
*Department of Post Harvest Process and Food Engineering
College of Agricultural Engineering
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 428004 (MP)
**College of Agricultural Engineering
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 428004 (MP)
Email: sunita0thongam@gmail.com

Abstract (Camire et al. 1990; Cheman et al. 1992; Adesina et al.

Extruded product of rice as base material and brokens of
pigeon pea and chickpea was developed by using Brabender
single screw laboratory extruder. Effect of feed variables like
moisture content (10-18% w.b) and blend ratio of rice (70%),
pigeon pea (5-25%) and chickpea (5-25%); operational
variables like barrel temperature (130-170 0C), die head
temperature (180-220 0C) and screw speed (60-100 rpm)
on textural properties viz., hardness, crispness and cutting
strength of extrudates were investigated by using response
surface methodology. Minimum hardness (1.25 kg) of
extrudates was obtained at 12% moisture content, 140 0C
barrel temperature, 190 0C die head temperature, 90 rpm
screw speed and 10% blending of chickpea. Maximum
crispness (7 peaks) was obtained at 12% and 14% moisture
content, 140 0C and 150 0C barrel temperature, 200 0C and
210 0C die head temperature, 70 rpm and 100 rpm screw
speed and 10% and 15% blending of chickpea. Minimum
cutting strength (1.07 kg) was obtained at 14% moisture
content, 150 0C barrel temperature, 200 0C die head
temperature, 80 rpm screw speed and 15% blending ratio of
chickpea.
Keywords: Extrusion cooking, Textural properties, Pigeon
pea, Chickpea, Response surface methodology
Extrusion cooking is a high temperature short time (HTST)
process that is widely popular in the food industries. It is
adopted to make products having better flavor, digestibility,
storage life, and safety (Mercier et al. 1989). Several
ready-to-eat snack foods have been prepared by using
cereals or their blends with legume protein sources
1998). Cereal flours are usually low in protein content,
but high in sulfur containing amino acids, while legumes
are rich in protein with a high proportion of lysine and
only small quantity of sulfur containing amino acids.
Inadequate intake of protein in developing countries
has led to various forms of malnutrition in children and
adults (Okpala et al. 2011). Therefore, the need to
investigate inexpensive sources of protein food of good
quality cannot be ignored. The protein calorie sources of
vegetable origin have been proposed as an approach to
resolve this problem (Abioye et al. 2011). Blending of
pigeon pea, chickpea and rice would provide a wide range
of high protein, calories, and micronutrients, if properly
processed.
The aim of the study was to develop extrusion
cooked food product using by-products of dhal milling
industry and to evaluate the textural properties of extruded
snacks.
Material and Methods
Brokens of pigeon pea and chickpea were procured from
the local dhal milling industry. Rice grains were procured
from the local market. The rice, pigeon pea and chickpea
grains were ground with the help of a hammer mill and
the flours were mixed to prepare samples of different
selected blend ratio. The proportion of rice flour was kept
constant (70%) in all the samples and the proportion of
pigeon pea and chickpea flour varied (5% to 25%). The

239
blends in different proportion were made as per the
experimental plan. Analysis of the results, obtained by
using Central Composite Rotatable Design of Response
Surface Methodology, was done by developing suitable
empirical model and testing their correlation and
significance of variables. The experimental range
consisted of 5 independent variables each having 5 levels.
The effect of feed and operational parameters on hardness,
crispness and cutting strength was measured using
Response Surface Methodology.
Rice, pigeon pea and chickpea flours were mixed
to prepare samples of different selected blend ratio.
Moisture content of flour of different blend ratio was
measured separately for each 32 samples. To achieve
the desired level of moisture content in different blend
ratio the moisture was added by sprinkling with a
calculated amount of distilled water to the samples. The
water added samples were then mixed at medium speed
in a domestic blender for uniform distribution of water and
to avoid formation of lumps. The samples were kept for
conditioning for 24 hours.
The texture properties of extruded snacks in terms
of hardness, crispness and cutting strength were
measured using a Stable Micro System TAXT2i texture

Table 1. Independent variables and their levels

Independent variables Coded Levels

-2 -1 0 +1 +2
Blend ratio (rice:pigeonpea:chickpea) 70:25:5 70:20:10 70:15:15 70:10:20 70:5:25
Moisture content of feed (% wb) 10 12 14 16 18
Screw speed (rpm) 60 70 80 90 100
Barrel temperature zone-III (0C) 130 140 150 160 170
0
Die Head Temperature ( C) 180 190 200 210 220

RICE FLOUR PIGEON PEA FLOUR CHICKPEA FLOUR analyzer. Cylindrical probe, needle probe and Warner-
Bratzler shear blade were used to measure the textural
attributes. Test speed of 5 mm/s and compression of 50%
of the sample height was used. The necessary force to
SAMPLE PREPARATION WITH DIFFERENT BLEND RATIO compress 50% of the sample height, in kg, was taken to
be the result for hardness and cutting strength test and
number of peaks for crispness test.

MOISTURE ADJUSTMENT
(10, 12, 14, 16, 18% wb) Results and Discussion

The observations for hardness, crispness and cutting

CONDITIONING (24 HR)
strength with different combinations of the process
parameters are presented in Table 2. Response surface
analysis was applied to the experimental data using a
EXTRUSION COOKING
DHT= 180, 190, 200, 210, 2200 C
commercial statistical package Design Expert 9.
SS= 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 rpm

Hardness
EXTRUDED PRODUCT
The hardness of extrudates were measured and found
maximum (9.391 kg) at 14% moisture content (MC),
TEXTURAL 1500C barrel temperature (BT), 2000C die head temperature
PROPERTIES (DHT), 80 rpm screw speed and 70:15:15 (Rice:
Pigeonpea: Chickpea) blending ratio (BR) and was
minimum (1.25 kg) at 12% MC, 1400C barrel temperature
Fig 1. Process flow chart for preparation of extrusion (BT), 1900C die head temperature (DHT), 90 rpm screw
cooked food product of rice, pigeon pea and chickpea speed and 70:20:10 blending ratio (BR). The regression

240
equation describing the effect of the process and
operational variables on hardness of extrudates in terms
of actual level of the variables is given as:
Hardness = -81.99241 + 2.55269 * MC -0.15063 * BR -
0.011090 * BT + 0.71028 * DHT -0.065426 * SS -0.028225
* MC * BR -0.017956 * MC * BT -6.11250E-003 * MC *
DHT -2.98125E-003 * MC * SS -1.8E-004 * BR * BT +
2.29250E-003 * BR * DHT + 3.18500E-003 * BR * SS +
1.01250E-003 * BT * DHT + 1.16250E-004 * BT * SS +
3.71750E-003 * DHT * SS + 0.0729924 * MC2 -4.28122E-
003 * BR2 + 2.62256E-004 * BT2 -2.80155E-003 * DHT2
-4.42780E-003 * SS2 … (Eq. 1)
Hardness of extrudates is the resistance offered for
breaking when subjected to a compressive load.
Regression analysis shows that moisture content; blend
ratio and barrel temperature had positive effect on hardness
of extrudates. Hardness increases with increase in
moisture content of feed. Samples extruded at high dough
moisture resulted harder than the other ones (Fig. 3.1 to
Fig 3.4). These data are in accordance with the results
obtained by Faubion and Hoseney (1982). These authors
attributed this behaviour to the air bubble collapse of dough
at the die exit caused by high quantity of water vapour
produced in these conditions. Increased in blend of
chickpea in feed increases hardness of extrudates (Fig.
3.1, 3.5, 3.6 and 3.7). This may be attributed because of
increase in amount of chickpea flour resulted in increase
the strength of outer crust of extrudates. With increase
in barrel temperature, hardness of extrudates increases
(Fig. 3.2, 3.5, 3.8 and 3.9).
However die head temperature and screw speed
had negative effect on hardness of extrudtes. Hardness
of extrudates increases with decrease in die head
temperature (Fig. 3.3, 3.6, 3.8 and 3.10) and also increase
in screw speed decreases the hardness (Fig. 3.4, 3.7,
3.9 and 3.10) similar trend was observed in the extrudates
prepared from brewers-spent-grain, maize, corn and
chickpea flour (Ainsworth 2007; Meng et al. 2010).
Crispness
The crispness of extrudates were measured and found
maximum (7 peaks) at 12% to 14% moisture content
(MC), 140 to 150 0C barrel temperature (BT), 200 0C to
210 0C die head temperature (DHT), 70 rpm to 100 rpm
screw speed and 70:15:15 and 70:20:10 (Rice: Pigeonpea:
Chickpea) blending ratio (BR) and was minimum (3 peaks)
at 10% MC, 150 0C barrel temperature (BT), 200 0C die
head temperature (DHT), 80 rpm screw speed and
241
70:15:15 blending ratio (BR). The regression equation
describing the effect of process and operational variables
on crispness of extrudates in terms of actual level of the
variables is given as:
Crispness = -63.26728 + 0.191057 * MC -2.07439 * BR +
0.86677 * BT + 0.31245 * DHT -0.37627 * SS + 0.03125
* MC * BR -3.125E-003 * MC * BT + 3.125E-003 * MC *
DHT -3.125E-003 * MC * SS + 8.75E-003 * BR * BT +
1.25E-003 * BR * DHT -1.25E-003* BR * SS -3.125E-
003 * BT * DHT + 6.25E-004 * BT * SS -6.25E-004 * DHT
* SS -0.020960 * MC2 + 6.64634E-003 * BR2 -1.29573E-
003 * BT2 + 4.11585E-004 * DHT2 + 2.91159E-003 * SS2
…(Eq. 2)
Crispness is measured by counting the number of peaks
formed on textural profile analysis curve when subjected
to uniaxial compressive loading by a needle probe.
Regression analysis shows that moisture content of feed,
barrel temperature and screw speed had negative effect
on crispness of the extrudates. Crispness increases with
decrease in moisture content of feed which is an indication
of formation of more porous structure of extrudate which
leads in increasing crispness (Fig. 3.11, 3.12, 3.13 and
3.14). Increase in barrel temperature decreases the
crispness of the extrudates (Fig. 3.12, 3.15, 3.18 and
3.19), respectively. Also decreased in crispness with
increased in screw speed is observed in Fig. 3.14, 3.17,
3.19 and 3.20.
However, increment in proportion of chickpea flour
in blend and die head temperature increases the
crispness. Crispness of extrudate was increased with the
increment of chickpea flour in blend (from Fig. 3.11, 3.15,
3.16 and 3.17). The effect of die head temperature on
crispness of the extrudate and it reveals that crispness
increases with respect to die head temperature (Fig. 3.13,
3.16, 3.18 and 3.20). This is because of high die head
temperature is mainly responsible for harder outer surface
which increase the crispness of the extrudates.
Cutting Strength
The cutting strength of extrudates were measured and
found maximum (6.298 kg) at 10% moisture content (MC),
150 0C barrel temperature (BT), 200 0C die head
temperature (DHT), 80 rpm screw speed and 70:15:15
(Rice: Pigeonpea: Chickpea) blending ratio (BR) and was
minimum (1.07 kg) at 14% MC, 150 0C barrel temperature
(BT), 200 0C die head temperature (DHT), 80 rpm screw
speed and 70:15:15 blending ratio (BR). The regression
equation describing the effect of process and operational
variables on cutting strength of extrudates in terms of
Table 2. Treatment combinations for extrudate with 3 variable 2nd-order RSM designs

RUN MC BR BT DHT SS Hardness Crispness Cutting

(%wb) (0C) (0C) (rpm) (kg) strength (kg)
1 16 70:10:20 140 190 90 1.554 4 1.405
2 14 70:15:15 150 200 80 1.786 3 1.268
3 14 70:25:5 150 200 80 1.535 5 1.375
4 14 70:15:15 150 200 100 1.633 7 1.972
5 16 70:20:10 160 210 70 2.292 4 1.781
6 14 70:15:15 150 180 80 2.985 4 2.014
7 12 70:10:20 160 190 90 2.191 6 1.439
8 12 70:20:10 160 210 90 3.039 5 1.655
9 18 70:15:15 150 200 80 5.011 6 1.869
10 16 70:10:20 140 210 70 1.362 6 1.227
11 12 70:20:10 140 190 90 1.25 6 1.4684
12 12 70:10:20 140 210 90 2.392 5 6.069
13 16 70:20:10 160 190 90 1.947 4 3.747
14 14 70:5:25 150 200 80 4.394 6 1.825
15 14 70:15:15 150 200 80 1.4 5 1.49
16 14 70:15:15 150 200 80 1.928 5 1.874
17 14 70:15:15 150 200 80 9.391 4 1.13
18 16 70:20:10 140 190 70 3.962 5 2.93
19 10 70:15:15 150 200 80 4.11 3 6.298
20 14 70:15:15 150 200 80 1.923 6 1.956
21 16 70:20:10 140 210 90 2.601 5 1.336
22 14 70:15:15 150 200 60 1.61 5 1.213
23 12 70:20:10 160 190 70 3.221 6 3.472
24 12 70:10:20 140 190 70 1.93 5 1.917
25 14 70:15:15 150 220 80 1.559 6 3.936
26 16 70:10:20 160 190 70 1.654 6 1.407
27 14 70:15:15 170 200 80 4.452 4 7.63
28 12 70:20:10 140 210 70 1.487 7 3.067
29 16 70:10:20 160 210 90 1.84 5 1.969
30 14 70:15:15 150 200 80 1.895 7 1.07
31 14 70:15:15 150 200 80 1.389 5 1.119
32 12 70:10:20 160 210 70 2.608 6 1.825

actual level of the variables is given as: Regression analysis shows that moisture content of feed
and blend ratio of chickpea had negative effect on cutting
strength of the exrudates. Cutting strength increases with
Cutting Strength = 188.9503 -0.904478* MC -1.1011 *
decrease in moisture content of feed (Fig. 3.21, 3.22,
BR -2.32273 * BT + 0.13013 * DHT -0.31452 * SS -
3.23 and 3.24). Increase in amount of chickpea flour
0.033585 * MC * BR + 0.0191762 * MC * BT -0.023424 *
resulted in decrease in cutting strength of outer crust of
MC * DHT + 2.38E-003 * MC * SS -7.2895E-003 * BR *
extrudates making less force required to cut the
BT + 0.010876 * BR * DHT + 9.43700E-003 * BR * SS -
extrudates (Fig. 3.21, 3.25, 3.26 and 3.27). However the
4.25850E-003 * BT * DHT -5.07750E-004 * BT * SS +
barrel temperature, die head temperature and screw speed
2.99725E-003 * DHT * SS + 0.097684 * MC2 -9.20554E-
had positive effects on cutting strength of extrudates. The
003 * BR2 + 0.010214 * BT2 + 1.13612E-003 * DHT2 -
cutting strength increases with increase barrel
2.32013E-003 * SS2 …(Eq. 3)

242
Fig 3.1. Response surface graph of blend ratio and Fig 3.2. Response surface graph of blend ratio and
moisture content on hardness of extrudates moisture content on hardness of extrudates

Fig 3.3. Response surface graph of die head temperature Fig 3.4. Response surface graph of screw speed and
and moisture content on hardness of extrudates moisture content on hardness of extrudates

Fig 3.5. Response surface graph of barrel temperature Fig 3.6. Response surface graph of die head temperature
and blend ratio on hardness of extrudates and blend ratio on hardness of extrudates

243
Fig 3.7. Response surface graph of screw speed and Fig 3.8. Response surface graph of die head temperature
blend ratio on hardness of extrudates and barrel temperature on hardness of extrudates

Fig 3.9. Response surface graph of screw speed and Fig 3.10. Response surface graph of screw speed and
barrel temperature on hardness of extrudates die head temperature on hardness of extrudates

Fig 3.11. Response surface graph of blend ratio and Fig 3.12. Response surface graph of barrel temperature
moisture content on crispness of extrudates and moisture content on crispness of extrudates

244
Fig 3.13. Response surface graph of die head temperature Fig 3.14. Response surface graph of screw speed and
and moisture content on crispness of extrudates moisture content on crispness of extrudates

Fig 3.15. Response surface graph of barrel temperature Fig 3.16. Response surface graph of die head temperature
and blend ratio on crispness of extrudates and blend ratio on crispness of extrudates

Fig 3.17. Response surface graph of screw speed and Fig 3.18. Response surface graph of die head temperature
blend ratio on crispness of extrudates ad barrel temperature on crispness of extrudates

245
Fig 3.19. Response surface graph of screw speed and Fig 3.20. Response surface graph of screw speed and
barrel temperature on crispness of extrudates die head temperature crispness of extrudates

Fig 3.21. Response surface graph of blend ratio and Fig 3.22. Response surface graph of barrel temperature
moisture content on cutting strength of extrudates and moisture content on cutting strength of extrudates

Fig 3.23. Response surface graph of die head temperature Fig 3.24. Response surface graph of screw speed and
and moisture content on cutting strength of extrudates moisture content on cutting strength of extrudates

246
Fig 3.25. Response surface graph of barrel temperature Fig 3.26. Response surface graph of die head temperature
and blend ratio on cutting strength of extrudates and blend ratio on cutting strength of extrudates

Fig 3.27. Response surface graph of screw speed and Fig 3.28. Response surface graph of die head temperature
blend ratio on cutting strength of extrudates and barrel temperature on cutting strength of extrudates

Fig 3.29. Response surface graph of screw speed and Fig 3.30. Response surface graph of screw speed and
barrel temperature on cutting strength of extrudates die head temperature on cutting strength of extrudates

247
temperature (Fig. 3.22, 3.25, 3.28 and 3.29). Increase in
die head temperature increases the cutting strength (Fig.
3.23, 3.26, 3.28 and 3.30). Higher extrusion temperature
resulted in faster water evaporation and cell walls were
instantly fixed. In this way, time for air bubble coalescence
was not sufficient. Products obtained at high extrusion
temperature showed a thicker structure and were harder
than the others (higher cutting strength). At high screw
speed higher value cutting strength is attained (Fig. 3.24,
3.27, 3.29 and 3.30), respectively. This may be attributed
to the reduction of the residence time that determined a
decrease in the hydration of pre-gelatinized flour, making
the product texture hard.
Conclusion
Textural properties viz. hardness, crispness and cutting
strength of the extrudates were affected by both feed
variables (moisture content of feed and blend ratio of
chickpea) and operational variables (barrel temperature,
die head temperature and screw speed). Minimum
hardness (1.25 kg) of extrudates was obtained at 12%
moisture content, 140 0C barrel temperature, 190 0C die
head temperature, 90 rpm screw speed and 10% blending
of chickpea. Maximum crispness (7 peaks) was obtained
at 12% and 14% moisture content, 140 0C and 150 0C
barrel temperature, 200 0C and 210 0C die head
temperature, 70 rpm and 100 rpm screw speed and 10%
and 15% blending of chickpea. Minimum cutting strength
(1.07 kg) was obtained at 14% moisture content, 150 0C
barrel temperature, 200 0C die head temperature, 80 rpm
screw speed and 15% blending ratio of chickpea.
248
References
Abioye VF, Ade-Omowaye BIO, Babarinde GO, Adesigbin MK
(2011) Chemical, Physico Chemical and Sensory
Properties of Soy Plantain Flour. Afri J Food Sc
5(4):176-180
Adesina AA, Sowbhagya CM, Bhattacharya S, Zakiuddin AS
(1998) Maize- soy based ready-to-eat extruded
snack food. J Food Sci Technol 35:40-43
Ainsworth P, Ibanoglu S, Plunkett A, Ibanoglu E, Stojceska V
(2007) Effect of brewers spent grain addition and
screw speed on the selected physical and
nutritional properties of an extruded snack. J Food
Eng 81:702-709
Camire ME, Camire A, Krumhar K (1990) Chemical and
nutritional changes in foods during extrusion. Crist.
Rev. Food Sci Nutr 29:35-36
Cheman YB, Mohamad NB, Abdul Karim, Tan TK (1992)
Evaluation of four high protein ricesoy snack
formulations. J Food Sci Technol 27:715-719
Faubion JM, Hoseney RC (1982) High-temperature short-
time extrusion cooking of wheat starch and flour. I.
effect of moisture and flour type on extrudate
properties. Cereal Chemistry 59(6):529-533
Meng X, Threinen D, Hansen M, Driedger D (2010) Effects of
extrusion conditions on system parameters and
physical properties of a chickpea flour-based snack.
Food Res Int 43(2):650-658
Mercier C, Linko P, Harper JM (1989) Extrusion cooking;
American Association of Cereal Chemists Inc St
Paul MN 461
Okpala LC, Okoli EC (2011) Nutritional Evaluation of cookies
produced from pigeon pea, cocoyam and sorghum
flour blends. Afr J Biotechnol 10(3):433-438
(Manuscript Receivd : 30-03-2015; Accepted : 27-06-2015)
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 249 (2015)

Reassessing the efficacy of recommended insecticides against rice

gall midge in different agro-climate zones of Andhra Pradesh

R. Bala Muralidhar Naik, D. Seshagiri Rao, L. Krishna and Md. Lathee Pasha
Agricultural Research Station, Kampasagar
Nalgonda, ANGRAU (AP)
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Jagtial
Karimnagar, ANGRAU (AP)

Rice is the staple food for people of Asia. In India 27 ha) compared with untreated (5772 kg/h). Overall
insects have been recorded as important pests on rice conclusions showed that all the three treatments i.e
known to cause damage from the seedling to ear head phorate @ 1.25 kg a.i/ha and 1.00 kg a.ilha and carbofuran
stage (Regupathy et al. 1996). Various insect pests known @ 1.00 kg a.i/ha were found to be effective in controlling
to da~age paddy crop right from nursery to harvest, among gall midge damage and recording higher grain yields. The
them gall midge is one pest which is assuming importance effectiveness of nursery and transplanted field application
and reducing yields substantially in different parts of of various granules applied in paddy in present studies
Andhra Pradesh. Farmers are applying the recommended are more or less similar to those of Kumar et al. (2011)
insecticides to control gall midge, however many farmers who reported the nursery application of isazofos 3G @0.75
reporting ineffectiveness of insecticides like phorate and Kg a.i./ha recorded lowest gall midge infestation (4.98
carbofuran granules against gall midge in and around percent silver shoots), higher grain yield (60.02 q/ha) and
Jagtial and Kampasagar. Hence an observational trial was biomass yield (61.91/ha). Also Tripathy et al. (1999)
conducted at Jagtial centre where gall midge is endemic reported that 0.06 kg isazofos/ha (MiraI3G) was best for
and at Kampasagar centre where it is problematic under controlling gall midge of paddy (2.28 percent silver shoots)
late transplanted conditions. The experiment was carried at 15 OAT compared with 6.93 percent in the control.
out during Kharif, 2008 to re-test the efficacy recommended
chemicals against rice gall midge. Treatments were
Treatment Dosage Damage Grain
imposed in nursery taking one sq mt nursery was raised
(kg a.i/ha) (%) (kg/ha)
per treatment and in nursery granules were applied on
28-08-2008 and in main field taking plot size of 100 sq.mt T1 Phorare lOG
per treatment was taken with a spacing of 20x15 em with Nursery 1.25 4.3 6771
taking Swarna and BPT-5204 as test varieties at Jagtial Main Field 1.00
and Kampasagar centres. Nursery was transplanted at T2 Phorate 10 G
both locations on 12.09.2008. Treatments were imposed Nursery 1.25 3.6 6882
in nursery as well as in main field. Gall midge incidence Main Field 1.00
was recorded by taking silver shoots from 25 random hills/ T3 Phorate 10 G
treatment at 30 and 50 OAT. Grain yield was also recorded Nursery 1.25 6.4 7160
at harvest. All the treatment recorded good control of gall Main Field 1.00
midge compared with untreated control. Phorate lOG @ T4 Untreated Control - 13.8 5772
1.25 kg a.i/ha in nursery and main field recorded lowest
gall midge (3.6% silver shoots) followed by Phorate lOG Regupathy A, Palaniswamy S, Chandrashan N,
@ 1.25 kg a.ilha in nursery + 1.00 kg a.i/ha in main field Ganathilagaraj K (1996) A guide on crop pests.
(4.3% silver shoots) and carbofuran 3G @ 1.25 kg a.i/ha Sooriya Desk Publisher Coimbatore : 1-10
in nursery + 1.00 kg a.ilha in main field (6.4% silver Tripathy MK, Setapati B, Acharya S, Patnaik HP (1999) J Appli
shoots) compared with untreated control (13.8% silver Zoolog Res 10(2) : 123-125
shoots). In grain yield carbofuran recorded higher yield Kumar IV, Patil SU, Prasanna Kumar MK, Chakravarthy AK
(7160kg/ha) followed by phorate lOG @ 1.25 kg a.i/ha (2011) Current Biotica 5(3) : 323-329
(6882 kg/ha) and phorate lOG @ 1.00 kg a.i/ha (6771 kg/ (Manuscript Receivd :20-03-2015; Accepted : 30-06-2015)

249
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 250-251 (2015)
Population dynamics of pest on rabi groundnut crop at Kampasagar
of Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh
R. Bala Muralidhar Naik, L. Krishna, D. Bhadru and Md. Lathee Pasha
Agricultural Research Station, Kampasagar
Nalgonda, ANGRAU (AP)
Study on the pest complex and their succession revealed
that nine species of insect pests were recorded at various
stages of crop growth in an overlapping manner on Rabi
groundnut crop under Kampasagar conditions of Nalgonda
district of Andhra Pradesh. Groundnut variety TMV -2 was
sown on November 15, 20 and 22 during the three years
with a gross plot size of 48x28sq.mt. A distance of 30x I
Ocm was maintained between row to row and plant to
plant. The experimental plot was kept free from
insecticidal spray throughout the crop season. The crop
was observed weekly from seedling to harvest for the
incidence of insect pests. Observations were taken ten
randomly pre determined tagged plants.
Absolute population per plant (Pradhan 1964) was
recorded in case of jassids, thrips, white fly, aphids and
larvae were counted per plant. Various insect pests
causing damage to TMV -2 variety of groundnut at different
stages of crop growth are shown below in table. Of all the
Table 1. Pest complex of Rabi groundnut at Agricultural Research Station, Kampasagar
CN SN
Groundnut jassid Empoasca kerri Pruthi
Chilly thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood
Cotton white fly Bemisia tabaci Gennadius
Gram caterpillar Helicoverpa armigera Hubner
Tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera litura (F)
Groundnut leaf miner Aproaerema modicella Deventer
Groundnut aphid Aphis craccivora Koch
White grub Holotricha consanguinea Blanchard Active vegetative stage
Flower thrips Megalurothrips usitatus Schautz
250
pests, the pests like groundnut jassid, Empoasca kerri
Pruthi, chilly thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, cotton
white fly, Bemisia tabaci Gennadius and groundnut aphid,
Aphis craccivora Koch were present in considerable
number from seedling stage till harvest.
Out of these above four pests, Bemisia tabaci
Gennadius caused minor damage whereas the other
pests like Empoasca kerri Pruthi, Scirtothrips dorsalis
Hood and Aphis craccivora Koch reached to a maximum
number during active vegetative to flowering stages and
caused major economic damage to the crop. White grub,
Holotricha consanguinea Blanchard caused minor damage
in isolated patches which was seen in active vegetative
stage. Groundnut leaf miner, Aproaerema modicella
Deventer, gram caterpillar, Helicoverpa armigera Hubner
and tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera litura(F) were present
from active vegetative stage to peg formation stages. Out
of all these above three pests Aproaerema modicella
Crop stage Status
Seedling to harvest Major
Seedling to Peg penetration Major
Seedling to harvest Minor
Active vegetative stage Minor
Active vegetative stage to peg formation stage Major
Active vegetative stage Major
Active vegetative stage to flowering stage Minor
Minor
Flowering stage Minor
Deventer and Spodoptera litura (F) caused major economic
damage to crop whereas Helicoverpa armigera Hubner
caused minor damage .The succession and pest complex
observed in present studies are more or less similar to
Singh et al. (1990) and Jayanthi et al. (1993) who reported
fifty two and eighteen insect pests at different stages of
crop growth at Delhi conditions.

References

Pradhan S (1964) Assessment of losses caused by insect

pests of crops and estimation of insect population.
In : Entomology in India (Ed) NC Pant Silver Jubilee
Number of Entomological Society of India pp 17-58
Singh TVK, Singh KM, Singh RN (1990) Groundnut pest
complex. II Succession of pests. Indian J Ent 52(3)
: 493-498
Jayanti M, Singh KM, Singh RN (1993) Pest complex of a
high yielding groundnut variety MH4 under Delhi
conditions. Indian J Ent 55(1) : 30-33

(Manuscript Receivd : 20-03-2015; Accepted :30-06-2015)

251
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 252-254 (2015)
Light trap catches of major pests of rice in Nagarjuna Sagar Project
Area of Nalgonda district of Andhra Pradesh
R.Bala Muralidhar Naik, Md.Latheef Pasha, L.Krishna, D.Bhadru and P.Rajani Kanth
Agricultural Research Station, Kampasagar
Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University
Nalgonda District 508207 (AP)
Light trap is an important tool in integrated pest
management for monitoring pest build up in an area. A
chinsurah model light trap with 200 W incandescent bulb
was set up at a height of 1.5 mt from the ground in the
paddy field of Agricultural Research Station, Kampasagar
on 20th October 2009 located in the Nagarjuna Sagar
Project area. Regular light trap catches in respect of
Brown Plant Hopper (BPH), Green Leaf Hopper (GLH),
White Backed Plant Hopper (WBPH) and stem borer were
counted and recorded by operating the light trap from
dusk to dawn every day. When the catches were in large
numbers the insects were divided into convenient equal
paIis and computed to fortnights for convenience and
presented graphically after log transformation.
In the project area the crop is usually transplanted
from 2nd week of August for kharif season and last week
of December for rabi season with a delay in one or two
weeks depending upon the release of water in the canal.
The prominent varieties grown in this region are BPT5204
during kharif season and MTU-1010 during rabi season.
The results of three successive years revealed that
BPH, GLH and W BPH were the prominent pests
occurring during kharif season whereas stem borer was
considered to be the prominent pest occurring during rabi
season.
The brown plant hopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stal)
occurrence in trap (Table below) for the rabi crop started
from first fortnight of January for the years 2010 and 2011.
Further the peak catches were observed during 1st or 2nd
fortnight of March for the rabi crop and 1st or 2nd fort nights
of October for the kharif crop. The mean of observations
revealed that peak catches of BPH during kharifwas the
2nd fortnight of October (13,226) where as for the rabi crop
it was 2nd fortnight of March (884.3) which coincided with
ear head emergence of the crop. The data clearly reveals
that the pest occurs definitely after 60 days of transplanting
252
in both the seasons as planting is completed during 2nd
fortnight of August and 1st fortnight of January respectively
for the kharif and rabi crop. The results of the present
investigation are in close agreement with the light trap
studies of Kelietta et al. (1990) who reported peaks of
BPH during September to December but disagree with
the peat catches reported by Qadeer et al. (1990) who
has reported peak of the paddy delphacid during August
- September from Kamal and Kaushik (1985) who has
reported peak during November 2nd fortnight. This variation
is mainly attributed due to the difference in planting time
of the crop in different agro climatic regions.
The white backed plant hopper, Sogatella furcifera
(Horvath.) population for the rabi crop was not observed
indicating its catches were not noticed in light trap during
rabi season. However during the three years 2009, 10
and 11 it catches coincided with BPH mean peak catch
(October 2nd fortnight) i.e. (2936.6) catches indicating
occurrence of both BPH & WBPH as a mixed population
during 2nd fortnight of October during kharif season. The
present results are in close conformity with the findings
of Kerketta et al. (1990).
The green leaf hopper, Nephotettix virescence
(Distant) for the rabi season was started from 1 st fortnight
of January for the years 2010& 2011. Further the peak
catches were observed during 1 st or 2nd fortnights of March
for the rabi crop and 1 st or 2nd fortnights of October to the
kharif crop. The mean of observations revealed that peak
catches of GLH during kharif was the 2nd fortnight of
October (11,627.6) whereas for the rabi crop it was 2nd
fortnight of March (2062) which coincided active tillering
to ear head emergence stage of the crop. The data clearly
reveals that the pest occurs definitely after 35-40 days of
transplanting in both the seasons as the planting is
completed during 2nd fortnight of August and 1 st fortnight
of January respectively for the kharif and rabi crop. The
results of the present investigation are in close agreement
 Table 1. Light trap catches of key pests of paddy in Nagarjuna Sagar Project area of Nalgonda district

BPH GLH WBPH Stem borer

Fortnigh 2009 2010 2011 Mean 2009 2010 2011 Mean 2009 2010 2011 Mean 2009 2010 2011 Mean
Jan I - 511 107 206.0 - 572 133 235.0 - - - - - 39 9 16.0
Jan II - 281 127 13.0 - 741 172 304.3 - - - - - 38 41 26.3
Feb I - 669 165 278.0 - 508 187 231.6 - - - - - 109 89 66.0
Feb II - 529 310 279.6 - 1130 359 496.3 - - - - - 82 119 67.0
March I - 1780 660 813.3 - 2098 291 796.3 - - - - - 25 49 24.6
March II - 1926 727 884.3 - 5692 494 2062.0 - - - - - 17 11 9.3
April I - 11224 90 406.6 - 1294 94 462.6 - - - - - 59 60 39.6
April II - 122 85 69.0 - 190 75 88.3 - - - - - - 21 7.0
May I - - - - - 213 203 138.6 - - - - - - - -
May II - 9 12 .0 - 269 245 171.3 - - - - - - - -
June I - 45 35 26.6 - 75 65 46.7 - - - - - - - -

253
June II - - - - - 27 25 17.3 - - - - - - - -
July I - - - - - 43 50 31.0 - - - - - - - -
July II - - - - - 36 32 22.6 - - - - - - - -
Aug I - 301 326 209.0 - 293 372 222.0 - - - - - 17 2 6.3
Aug II - 498 578 358.6 - 572 512 361.3 - - - - - - - -
Sept I - 305 799 368.0 - 296 462 252.6 - 25 125 50.0 - 16 - 5.3
Sept II - 545 788 444.3 - 555 532 362.3 - 30 75 35.0 - 13 - 4.3
Oct I - 1233 22825 8019.3 - 1097 20070 7055.6 - 90 450 180.0 - 9 18 9.0
Oct II 6792 3341 29545 13226.0 11370 1843 21670 11627.6 4320 85 4405 2936.6 10 9 9 9.3
Nov I 2566 450 5367 2794.3 2966 291 470 2653.0 464 75 145 228.0 45 42 21 36.0
Nov II 2150 328 1965 1481.0 4144 324 1906 2124.6 510 29 35 191.3 52 12 44 36.0
Dec I 842 49 274 1165.0 3507 235 157 1299.6 34 28 48 36.6 25 20 30 25.0
Dec II 1102 - 107 403.0 1228 141 78 482.3 - 20 25 58.0 35 20 15 23.3
with the light trap studies of Sharma et al. (2004) who BPH in pest tolerant MTU-1010 paddy variety.Therefore,
reported peaks of GLH during 2nd week of October during a keen vigilance on the crop during the peak catches
kharif but disagree with the peak catches reported by Rai period may save a lot to protect the crop from these key
and Khan (2002) who reported peak catches of GLH during pests.
1st fortnight of August in the kharif season of rice crop.
This variation is mainly attributed due to the difference in
References
planting time of the crop.
The stem borer, Tryporyza incertulas (Wlk.) mean Banerjee SN, Mookerjee AL (1976) Studies on the change in
peak patches (67) appeared in 2nd fortnight of February population of paddy stem borer Tryporyza incertulas
for the year 2010 and 2011 for the rabi crop indicating the (W alker) in relation to preceeding weather
crop is at active tillering stage causing dead hearts and conditions. Indian J Plant Prot 4: 130-134
gradually again mean peak catches (39.6) appeared in Kaushik UK (1985) Ecological studies of rice hopper
the 1 st fortnight of April for the year 2010 and 2011 (Nephotettix virescens Distant; Sogatella furcifera
indicating the crop is at grain hardening stage causing Horvath. Nilaparvata lugens Stal.) in Chattisgarh,
white ear head to crop. The mean peak catches (36) for Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Jawaharlal Krishi Vishwa
the kharif crop was 1 st fortnight of November for all the Vidyalaya, Jabalapur.
years i.e. for 2009, 10 and 11 indicating the crop is at Kerketta MS, Dubey AK, Kaushi UK (1990) Light trap studies
grain hardening stage resulting in white ear emergence. of two rice plant hoppers, Nilaparvata lugens and
Sogatella furcifera in relation to field population.
When the peak catches for both kharif and rabi were
Oryza 27(4): 503-506
observed, it was observed the catches were comparatively
Raghupathy A, Chamy A (1989) Light trap catches of rice
low in kharif when compared to rabi. However the peak
yellow stem borer moths in Rice-summer cotton
catches reported by Banerjee and Mookarjee (1976) and area. 168-173. In: Chellaiah and Balasubramaniah
Raghupathy and Chamy (1989) are contradictory, (ed). Pest Management in Rice, Tamil Nadu
reporting the peak catch of stem borers during February Agricultural University, Coimbatore
which may be due to difference in planting of the crop Rai AK, Khan MA (2002) Light trap catches of rice insect
and availability of suitable age for the pest during the pest, Nephotettix virescens (Distant) and its relation
month. with climatic factors. Annal Plant Prot Sci 27(1): 17-
22
The present study clearly revealed that almost all
Sharma MK, Pandey V, Singh RS, Singh RA (2004) A study
the key pests viz. BPH, WBPH and GLH appeared in on light trap catches of some rice pests in relation
light trap catches in the peak during the mid cropping to meterological factors. Ethiopian J Sci 27(2): 165-
season, particularly between 1st and 2nd fortnight of March 170
for rabi and between 1st and 2nd fortnight of October for
kharif for sucking pests like BPH and GLH. WBPH activity
was same as above for kharif crop but its activity was (Manuscript Receivd :20-03-2015; Accepted : 30-06-2015)
comparatively low in rabi crop. When the peak catches
for all the three years were observed for all the sucking
pests for kharif crop, their was comparatively less
incidence of these pests during the year 2010. The less
susceptibility of these pests during the year 2010 was
may be due to early transplanting of susceptible variety
BPT -5204 as early transplanted crop escapes BPH attack
and also due to biotic factors like less relative humidity
and intermittent rains which resulted in wash out of pest
from crop canopy during that year leading to low pest
load.
When the peak catches for all the three years were
observed for all the sucking pests for rabi crop there were
reports of light trap catches of sucking pests like BPH &
GLH for the pest tolerant MTU-l 010 paddy variety which
was due to application of high dose of nitrogenous
fertilizers and also due to excessive spraying of synthetic
pyrethroids. Also their might be breaking of resistance to

254
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 255 (2015)

A new record on association of phytoplasma with phyllody disease

in Parthenium hysterophorus from Madhya Pradesh, India

K. N. Gupta
PC Unit, AICRP on Sesame & Niger
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (MP)
Email: kngupta1@rediffmail.com

Parthenium hysterophorus L (Family Asteraceae) is an Ethopia by Taye et. al. (2004) and Raj et.al. (2008) from
annual weeds exhibiting high competitiveness and India. It was concluded that the disease identified as either
adaptability to different climatic and soil conditions, it is phyllody or witches' broom disease witch caused by
thought to originate from middle America and is now Phytoplasma.
widely spread in tropical regions, It was introduced to
India in the mid 1956 and is now concerned as one of the
most player noxious weeds species (Rao 1956). The aims
of the present work was to investigate etiology of
parthenium phyllody. Taye et al. (2004) reports of phyllody
disease of P. hysterophorus weeds in Ethiopia, Phyllody
and withches' broom previously reported on Parthenium
hysterophorus from Uttar Pradesh was worked out Raj et
al. (2008).
A field survey was carried out during Kharif season
at Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishvidyalay Jabalpur, near
Sesame, Niger and other side field to find out the natural
occurrence of virescence and wiches' broom pathogen of
Parthenium hysterophorus. Phyllody (witches' broom) affected parthenium plant
The natural occurrence of virescence and witches
broom was observed of P. hysterophorus, plant growing References
widely along the sesame field and near threshing floor
field. The infected plants showed excessive green
branches, tiny narrow leaves, shorting, of internodes, Raj SK, Khan MS, Snehis K, Kumar S, Mall S, Rao GP (2008)
First report of Phytoplasma "Candidatus
reduced plant height and leaf size as well as modification
phytoplasma astris" (16SrI) from Parthenium
petals in to leaf like structure that lead to study (phyllody) hysterporus L. Showing symptoms of virescence
witches broom like symptoms (Fig 1). Phyllody and and witches' broom in India. Australian Pl Dis
witches broom caused by Phytoplasma, "Candidatus Notes. 3:44-45
phytoplasma asters"(16SrI) have been previously reported Rao RS (1956) Parthenium. A new record for India J of the
on Parthenumn hysterophorus from Uttar Pradesh (Raj Bombay Natural History Society. 54:218- 228
et al. 2008). The present finding iis in accordance with Taye T, Obermeier C, Einhorn G, Seemiiller E, Buttner C.
Taye et al. (2004). The observed symptomatology has (2004) Phyllody Disease of Parthenium weed in
clearly revealed the phyllody disease in parthenium is Ethiopia. Pest management J of Ethiopia 8:39-50
caused by phytoplasma.
Based on the symptoms recorded in the present
investigation match with the symptoms described in (Manuscript Receivd : 29-03-2015; Accepted :15-07-2015)

255
JNKVV Res J 49(2): 256-261 (2015)

Ecological traits of yellow mosaic disease in relation to epidemics in

soybean

K.N. Gupta and R.K. Varma

Department of Plant Pathology
Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya
Jabalpur 482 004 (M P)
Email: kngupta1@rediffmail.com

Abstract many diseases such as charcoal rot (Rhizoctonia

Study was conducted to find out the factors responsible for
spread and outbreak of yellow mosaic in soybean crop.
During survey a weed plant, Paracalyx scubious, was found
to be an alternate host of the disease which was transmitted
by white fly (Bemisia tabaci). The other host Corchrous
olitorious, Ageratum conyzoides , Alternanthera sessilis and
Phaseolus trilobus may also play an important role for
survival of the pathogen as these weeds were found infected
in kharif, rabi and summer seasons. Susceptible variety JS
335 was found to show early and high disease incidence as
compared to other varieties. Field observations also showed
that the maximum disease was found in both the type of
cultivar at 61-67 days of sowing. It was found that spread of
yellow mosaic was very fast (30-45 days) after sowing. The
rate of disease development was high when maximum
temperature and relative humidity ranged between 29.9 0C
to 36.2 0C and 62 to 75 per cent, respectively. The earliest
incidence of yellow mosaic observed in July-August on
soybean was at 26-54 days after sowing (DAS). The disease
incidence was more or less same i.e., 30-40 days after
sowing. The period of disease spread was 7 to 32 days after
first incidence of the disease in soybean JS -335 cultivar.
Keywords: Epidemiology, soybean yellow mosaic virus
In India, soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] is grown in
the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Nagaland and
Gujarat as a rainfed crop during the rainy (kharif) season.
However, its continuous cultivation with simultaneous
increase in area has led to increase in disease, insect
and weed incidence. Currently soybean is severely
attacked about half a dozen major diseases, a dozen of
insect-pests and several major weeds. Yield losses due
to individual disease/insect/weed species ranges from 20
to 100 per cent. The crop suffers to a greater extent from
bataticola), collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii) and yellow mosaic
disease (Mung bean yellow mosaic virus) causing losses,
viz 25-50 and 15-75 per cent, respectively (Chenulu et
al.1979). Studies were conducted to find out the factors
responsible for spread and outbreak of yellow mosaic in
soybean crop.
A Begomovirus under Geminivirus, has become a
major limiting factor for production of soybean crop. The
disease is transmitted by white fly (Bemisia tabaci).
Yellow mosaic disease causes a heavy losses at
vegetative growth stage till pod formation, The infection
not only drastically reduce seed yield but also.
responsible for development of epidemic condition in
Madhya Pradesh, during kharif seasons have been work
out.
Material and methods
The pot culture and field trial were conducted at College
of Agriculture, JNKVV, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh as well
as in farmers field in low risk (irrigated field), medium risk
(rain-fed), and high risk (un-irrigated field) areas. Soybean
cultivar JS 335 and weeds Ageratum conyzoides
Corchorus olitorius, Phesolus trilobus, Sida spp., Eclipta
alba, affected by yellow mosaic disease were tagged from
the field and the white fly culture was maintained on brinjal
(Solanum melogena ), French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants. All the test
plants were grown in polythene bags and transmission
tests using viruliferous white fly reared under controlled
condition were done in muslin cloth cages (micro cage).
In field studies, the crop cultivars as well as the weed
hosts and white fly population (Tables 1, 2) was observed
at fortnight intervals. Weather factor was recorded of

256
meteorology department JNKVV, Jabalpur. have been affected by the crops grown on the surrounding,
favored vector as well as yellow mosaic transmission and
incidence. This phenomenon assumes importance with
Result and discussion
regards to survival of perennial as reported by Kranz
(1974); Duffs 1971 and Verma et al. (1989) in perennial
Incidence of yellow mosaic disease of soybean revealed host of the previous crop host as evidenced by a few
that field near irrigation canal, water points, low-lying areas diseased plants observed at 26 DAS. The dispersal pattern
and foot hills were found to have high disease incidence and trap plot study showed that the disease was spreading
as compared to field located in unirrigated areas. Plant slowly in soybean when grown alone as mixed or alternate
species Paracalyx scubious (Roxb) were found to act as crop with mung bean and urd bean. Higher disease occurs
reservoir host of yellow mosaic inoculums was observed were also observed in soybean alone as compared to
continuously, being perennial in habit. Simultaneously, soybean grown in alternation with mung bean, This
weeds like Alternanthera sessilis L. and Corchorus indicated that the vector population and its movement
olitorious L. were found to help the multiplication and was favored by soybean as suggested by Costa (1976)
spread of inoculum. The white fly population was recorded and Dhingra and Chenulu (1985). The losses in grain yield
on different crop and weed hosts in different seasons were more when the plants were infected after 20 days of
(Table 1). The weather parameter with yellow mosaic virus sowing than 30 and 40 DAS. Chenulu et al. (1979)
and white fly population revealed that the rate of disease observed that the mung bean plants infected at early stage
development was high when maximum temperature and or crop growth reduce very few pod and the yield losses
relative humidity ranged between 29.9 0C to 36.2 0C and up to 88.5 per cent. The late incidence of disease in mixed
62 to 75 per cent, respectively. The earliest incidence of crop indicated that vector migration from one to another
yellow mosaic was observed in July-August on soybean host was reduced in the present study by Thresh (1974)
was at 26-54 days after sowing (DAS). The disease and Costa (1976). Crop to weed and weed to crop
incidence was more or less same i.e., 30-40 days after inoculation tests using viruliferous, B. tabaci as described
sowing. The period of disease spread was 7 to 32 days above were made by in glass house and insectory under
after first incidence of the disease in soybean JS 335. insect proof condition. The data indicated that Corcorus
Thresh (1974) has indicated that viruses spread both in
to and within crops and newly infected plants soon became
Table 2. Population of Bemacia tabaci in different crop
foci for secondary spread. The dispersal pattern of yellow
and seasons
mosaic also suggested that the vector efficiency might
Host Whitefly population
Table 1. Incidence of yellow mosaic disease in soybean (No/plant)
fields of different situations Kharif Rabi Summer
Acalyta Indica Linn 1 0 1
Situation studied Incidence of yellow mosaic
Ageratum conizoides 0 0 0
DAS* Incidence (%)
Single crop 40 20 Alternanthera sessillis L 1 1 0
Multi-crop 30 15 Cajanus cajan L. 0 0 0
Off type plants 20 10 Capscum annum 2 1 1
Un-irrigated field 40 30 Corchorus olitorious 2 0 1
Irrigated field 30 60 Carica papaya 1 1 1
Near threshing floores 25 35 Datura stromonium 0 0 0
Near canal 25 30 Eclipta alba 1 1 0
Near hills 30 20 Glycine max 3 3 3
Alternate cropping 40 40 Gossipium spp. 2 1 2
continuous cropping 25 50 Lycopersicon escultenum 1 1 1
One rotation 30 12 Malvastrum coromandelianum 0 0 0
SEm± 1.93 1.09 Nicotiana tabacum 1 3 3
CD (P= 0.05) 5.71 3.27 Phaseolus trilobus 2 2 1
Phaseolus vulgaris 0 2 0
*DAS= Days after sowing

257
 Table 3. Disease progress in time on soybean

Disease observed Incidence of yellow mosaic in field

at DAS Low risk (un- irrigated) Medium (alternative) High risk (Irrigated) AFI
field % (R1) risk field % (R2) field % (R3)
dx/dt per Rate/ Final dx/dt per Rate/ Final dx/dt per Rate/ Final R1+R2+R3
unit / day week incidence unit/day week incidence unit/day week incidence (average of
three fields)
30 0.33 2.33 10.0 0.56 3.96 17.00 0.68 4.76 2500 17.33
60 1.80 12.2 36.00 1.85 12.9 37.00 3.05 21.30 61.00 44.66
100 0.65 4.55 13.0 0.65 4.20 12.00 0.10 0.70 2.00 9.0
Mean 0.92 6.38 19.66 1.00 6.97 22.00 1.27 8.75 8.93 23.55
Source S. Em (±) C.D. (P = 0.05)
DAS 1.042 3.096
Risk 1.042 3.096
Interaction 1.805 5.364
*DAS=Days after sowing **AFI: After first initiation, dx (X2 - X1), dt (t2 - t1)
Conversion of the measurement is X1 (assessed at time t1) and the second X2 (assessed at time t2)

258
Table 4. Disease spread and progress of yellow mosaic virus in soybean

Distance from loci Spread of yellow mosaic observed in following field

(in Meter) Low risk (irrigated) Medium (alternative crop) High risk (irrigated) Average of R1, R2, R3
field % RI risk field R2 field R3
Incidence Rate/m Incidence Rate/m Incidence Rate/m Incidence Rate/m
5 M 12.24 2.45 14.13 2.82 18.26 365 14.98 297
50 M 13.96 0.28 15.94 0.31 22.20 0.44 17.33 0.34
100 M 8.97 0.08 11.80 0.12 15.11 0.15 12.78 0.12
Mean 14.75 1.29 16.50 1.41 22.00 1.87 17.97 1.52
Source S. Em ± C.D. (P = 0.05)
Distance 0.5879 1.7160
Risk 0.5091 1.4861
Interaction 1.0183 2.9724
olitorious acted as bridge host in bringing the virulence to

days incidence
Rainy Disease

0.87**
0.67**
0.96**
-0.74*

-0.55*
soybean from mungbean. Positive transmission from

0.24
0.52
0.14
0.24

-0.61
1.00
mung bean to Corcorus olitorious and Paracacalyx
scubisus was observed but back mung bean inoculation
directly from mung bean to soybean was not successful.

0.99**
- 0.63*

- 0.70*
- 0.61*

- 0.68*
(No)

- 0.53

0.14
0.22

0.53

1.00
Eraivan et al. (1998) was also reported that the role of
weeds as source of mungbean yellow mosaic virus. It
was also observed the Paracalyx scubisus was found to

rainfall
serve as a source of inoculums for very long period helping

(mm)
Total

- 0.31
- 0.38
0.66
- 0.43
0.17
0.17
- 0.43
0.48
1.00
in over summering during May-June.

0.88**
hours velocity
Disease progress in time

(km/h)
- 0.62*
Sunshine Wind

- 0.15
- 0.40
- 0.12
0.12
0.10

0.52
1.00
The rate of diseases progress in time was calculated as
per the method given by Van der Plank (1963). The

- 0.68*

- 0.76*
0.33
0.54
0.19

- 0.57
1.00
parameter low risk, (irrigated field), medium risk (rainfed),
and high risk (un-irrigated field), (Table 3) respectably,

Table 5. Correlation co-efficient between weather parameter and disease incidence in soybean crop
diseases incidence age wise were found to affect the rate
of disease development and the total incidence of yellow

Relative humidity

Even
mosaic in soybean. The disease development was found

- 0.53
0.09
- 0.14
0.23
0.44
1.00
to be highest between 40-60 DAS of the age of soybean.
but significantly reduced afterwards days after sowing. (%)
The disease development was found to be highest between Morn
-0.35
0.43
0.02
0.28
1.00
the 30 days after sowing both crops.

Disease progress in space

0.78*
Vapor Pressure

0.54
0.61

1.00
Even

The rate of disease progress in space was calculated as

per the method given by Vander Plank (1963) data
0.78*
0.76*
Morn

1.00

presented in (Table 4). The linear spread of disease was

found to be 32-43 per cent as observed at 10 meter
Temperature (0C)

0.41
1.00
Min
Max
1.0

*Significant at 5%, ** significant at 1%

Relative humidity (%), morning
Relative humidity (%), evening
Maximum temperature (o C)
Minimum temperature (o C)
Vapor pressure morning
Vapor pressure evening

Wind velocity (km/h)

Total Rainfall (mm)

Disease Incidence
Sun shine hours

Rainy days (No)

Characters

Fig 1. Weather parameter coinciding with disease

incidence during study period

259
distance from the loci. The parameter was observed, low
risk (irrigated field), medium risk (rainfed) and high risk
(un-irrigated field), respectably the data also showed that
the distance wise spread do not vary in high, low and
medium risk fields. It was more or less the same in all
the fields studied beyond 50 meter distance of the spread
of the disease in soybean in soybean crop.
Correlation study
Relative humidity during morning hours had negative
correlation with disease incidence. When the relative
humidity decreases below 92.5 percent, every unit
decrease in humidity by one percent enhances the disease
incidence by 3.75 %. Sharma et al. was also reported
that the effect of temperature, relative humidity and rainfall
on the incidence of natural infection of Vigna radiata by
mungbean yellow mosaic. Duration of sunshine in hours
had positive correlation with disease incidence (Table 5).
When the duration of sunshine increases more than 2.24
hr per day, every increase in sunshine by one hour
enhances the disease incidence by 3.78 %. Wind velocity
showed negative correlation with disease incidence which
indicates that when the wind velocity decreases below
4.75 kmph, the every unit decreases in wind velocity,
increases disease incidence by 4.94 %.
Therefore it is concluded that the year under study
had received initiation of yellow mosaic disease of soybean
more than 42-59 per cent incidence. Therefore, it was
called for epidemic of yellow mosaic in soybean
lks;kohu esa ihyk ekstsd dh egkekjh dk i;kZoj.k ls lac/k ,oa jksx dks
izHkkfor djus okys dkjdksa dk losZ{k.k lgv/;;u fd;k x;k A losZ{k.k
Vector (Bemisia tabaci) of yellow Soybean yellow mosaic
mosaic virus infected soybean plants
260
ds nkSjku iSjkdsfyDl LØqfo;l uked [kjirokj jksx dk ckgd ik;k
x;k A lQsn e[[kh ¼csehfl;k VscslkbZ½ }kjk jksx dk lapj.k gksrk gS A
vU; [kjirokj tSls dkjdks jl vfyVkSfj;l] ,tsfjVe dksusTokbbl]
vYVjusFkzk fllfyl ,oa iSjkdSfydl vkfn Hkh jksxtud ds QSykc esa
egkRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk fuHkkrs gS A ;g lHkh [kjirokj [kjhQ] jch] ,oa xehZ
ds ekSleksa esa bl jksx ls laØfer ik;s x;s A lks;kchu dh fdLe ts-,l-
335 esa vU; fdLeksa dh rqyuk esa jksx tYnh vkrk gS ,oa jksx dh rhozrk
Hkh vf/kd ik;h tkrh gS A iz{ks= losZ{k.k ds nkSjku ,df=r vkdM+ksa ds
vk/kkj ij bl chekjh dk izdksi 61-67 fnuksa i'pkr vf/kd ik;k x;k
fdUrq ihyk ekstSd jksx dh rhozrk cqokbZ ds 30 ls 45 fnuksa ckn
vf/kd ns[kh xbZ A bl chekjh dk QSyko ,oa izdksi 29.9 0C ls 36.6
0
C rkieku ,oa 62-75 izfr'kr ij mPpre ntZ fd;k x;k A bl jksx
dk izknqZHkko igyh okj gksus ds ckn bl jksx ds QSyko dh vof/k 7 ls
32 fnuksa rd lks;kchu dh fdLe ts-,l- 335 esa izHkko'khy ns[kh x;h
A
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Costa A S (1976) White fly-transmitted plant diseases, Ann
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Dhingra KL and Chenulu VV (1985) Effect of yellow mosaic
on yield and nodulation of soybean. Indian
Phytopath 38(2) : 248-51
Duffs JE. (1971) Role of weeds in the incidence of virus
disease. Ann Rev of Phytopath 9: 319-40
Eraivan Arutkani A, Chandraskaran K (1998) Studies on
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Mungbean yellow mosaic infected
mung bean field
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and its epidemiology. Haryana Agricultural
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(Manuscript Receivd : 29-03-2015; Accepted : 15-07-2015)

261
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