The EV Charging

Infrastructure Designbook
Collection

Power Stages
Chapter 1
Control
Chapter 2

Connectivity
Chapter 3
Software &
Integration
Chapter 4

1
 1
Power Stages

Content
The variety of charger types......................................................................... 4

Connector variations........................................................................................ 4

Connector and cable technology -

the future............................................................................................................... 6

AC wall box EV chargers............................................................................... 6

AC wall box power architecture ..................................................................7

DC EV chargers.................................................................................................. 8

Variants.................................................................................................................... 8

Uni- and bi-directional energy flow.......................................................... 9

DC charger hardware...................................................................................... 9

EMI Filter stage ..................................................................................................10

Line rectification and power factor

correction...............................................................................................................11

The DC link............................................................................................................11

Main power conversion and isolation stage......................................... 12

Auxiliary power...................................................................................................14

Sensing current..................................................................................................14

2
Version 01, September 2022

The EV Charging
Infrastructure Designbook:

Power Stages
This is the first in a series of guides for designers of fixed
EV charging stations, whether at the component level or
utilizing a modular approach. In this part, the range of
power stage options are examined with an overview of their
function and what technologies and conversion topologies
might be employed. In further design guides, the control
functions, connectivity and software are considered.

T
he accelerating move to adoption of electric vehicles
in the last few years has generated a paradigm shift
in battery and power conversion technologies.
Power density of energy storage and conversion
efficiency have always been a goal in any application, but
in EVs, these parameters make the difference between
e-mobility being fundamentally viable or not. Advances in
battery chemistry, motors and traction drive electronics have
now resulted in range per charge that is generally acceptable.
installations showing the highest growth. As a result,
in 2021, the worldwide average was 10 EVs per public
charger and 2.4kW per EV. Home charger installation
rates are higher still, with one estimate putting total
installed at 35 million globally by 2026. With prices at
$600 to over $1000 each, the market for ‘wall boxes’
alone is in the order of tens of $ billions.

Now, the roll-out rate of charge stations, their associated

infrastructure and time to charge have come to the fore, with
the International Energy Agency (IEA) reporting nearly half
a million public chargers installed in 2021 [1]. The increase is
exponential, year on year, at around 50%, with fast charger

3
 The variety of charger types Connector variations

In this design guide, we will consider off-board wired chargers,
including home single-phase AC connections at 240/120V
supplying a maximum of about 8kW to an on-board charger.
Also considered are three-phase AC and DC output home
wall boxes delivering up to around 20kW and roadside DC
fast chargers currently rated up to 350kW, with higher power
on the horizon. Charging is also characterized by ‘Levels’ and
their types of connectors: Level 1 at 120V AC from a domestic
source provides 12-20A, a charging rate of around 6.5 km/
hour and duration 30+ hours.
Level 2 is at 220/240VAC at up to 80A, providing around 20
to 50 km/hour in 8 to 12 hours.
Level 3 is DC fast charging from a dedicated roadside station,
powered from three-phase AC and providing 5 to 25 miles
range per minute with a typical charge time of 30 minutes to
80% full. ‘Superchargers’, informally called ‘Level 3+’ or Level
4, are still relatively rare but improve charge rates still further
to just a few minutes, used typically with 800V commercial
vehicle batteries. Figure 1 summarizes.
In 2011, as an initiative to generate a standard for AC-only,
DC-only and combination connectors, a ‘Combined Charging
System’ or CCS (now at CCS 2.0) was proposed for a single
connector pattern that could be used worldwide, now
formalized under IEC 62196: ‘Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle
connectors and vehicle inlets – Conductive charging of
electric vehicles’.
The ‘Charging Interface Initiative’ or CharIN [2] was also set
up by an association of car makers, suppliers and interested
parties to promote CCS. First CCS-compliant charging stations
were rated at 50kW, then 150kW in 2015 and now 350kW is
available with higher power possible for the future. The CCS
standard defines a ‘Control Pilot Contact’ (CP) which allows
bi-directional communication between charger and EV with
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) basic signaling (BS) according
to IEC 61851-1 ‘Electric vehicle conductive charging system’.
High Level Communication (HLC) based on the ISO/IEC 15118
series and DIN 70121 allows for more complexity such as
scheduling of the charge rate for user convenience and by
the utility supplier for grid load-balancing. Other connection
standards for DC charging are CHAdeMO in Japan and
the GB/T standard used in the China. Table 1 shows CCS 2
functionality for AC and DC charging.

Energy Supply
Power level Types Charger Location Typical Use Expected Power Level Charging Time
Interface

On-board 1-phase (AC Charging at home or 1.4kW (12A) 11-36 hours

Level 1 (Slow) Convenience outlet
charging) office 1.9kW (20A) 4-11 hours

Level 2 4Kw (17A) 2- 6 hours

On-board 1- or 3-phase Charging at private or Dedicated power
(Intermediate or 8kW (32A) 2-3 hours
(AC charging) public outlets connector
slow) 19.2kW (80A) 1-4 hours

50kW
Level 3 Off-board
Commercial, same as Dedicated power 100kW 0.4-1 hours
(Fast/less than 1 3-phases
gas station connector 250kW 0.2-0.5 hours
hour) (DC charging)
350kW

Figure 1: The levels of EV chargers

4
 Feature CCS 2.0 DC CCS 2.0 AC

Vehicle Connector Combo 1 or 2 (IEC 62196-3) Type 1 or 2 (IEC 62196-2)

Type 1 or 2 (IEC 62196-2)

Vehicle Inlet Combo 1 or 2 (IEC 62196-3)
Combo 1 or 2 (IEC 62196-3)

Basic Signaling:
High Level Communication: · IEC 61851-1:2010 ED2
· DIN SPEC 70121:2014 (<80 kW)
Charging Communication
· ISO/IEC 15118-2:2014 ED1 (<350 kW) Basic Signaling:
· ISO/IEC 15118-3:2015 ED1 (<350 kW) · ISO/IEC 15118-2:2014 ED1
· ISO/IEC 15118-3:2015 ED1

With Basic Signaling only:

· Reactive
Loading Balance Reactive and Scheduled
With High Level Communication:
· Reactive and/or
· Scheduled

With Basic Signaling only:

· External Payment
Charge
External Payment and/or Plud and Charge
Authorization
(mandatory from 2020 on) With High Level Communication:
Mode
· External Payment and/or
· Plug and Charge (mandatory from 2020 on)

Charging Station IEC 61851-1 IEC 61851-1

Table 1: CCS 2.0 specifications for AC and DC charging

The CCS specification references connectors Type 1, Type 2,
Combo 1 and Combo 2. Type 1, a North American standard,
was the first to be used for single-phase AC connection and
Type 2 is able to charge with three-phase AC, as defined in
European standard IEC 62196-2. New connector designs were
adopted for combined high voltage DC and AC charging:
Combo 1 and 2, associated with Type 1 and 2. Power inlets
on EVs have all pins populated corresponding to valid
charge connections, while the connectors on the charging
cable just have the pins fitted for that source, AC or DC.
Invalid combinations do not mechanically mate, such as a
Combo 2 coupler and a Type 2 inlet. Figures 2 and 3 show
the combinations. (Source - Wikipedia).
Couplers and inlets have to withstand everyday outdoor use,
so must be robust. Manufacturers such as Amphenol have
designed their parts for more than 10,000 cycles (unloaded)
and their Excel Mate CC -200A IEC Combo parts are rated at
1000V/200A DC, with IP44 environmental protection (mated)
and incorporate a temperature sensor.

TYPE 1 COMBO 1 TYPE 2 COMBO 2

Inlet/Connector Inlet/Connector

TYPE 1 TYPE 2

AC Charging
AC Charging
Does not mate Singe Phase or Does not mate
Singe Phase
Three Phase

COMBO 1 COMBO 2

AC Charging
AC Charging
DC Charging Singe Phase or DC Charging
Singe Phase
Three Phase

Figure 2: Mating options for Type 1 and Combo 1 couplers Figure 3: Mating options for Type 2 and Combo 2 couplers

5
 Connector and cable technology -
the future
Cables are routinely rated today at 200A, but this figure is
set to increase with ultra-fast chargers providing 500kW,
or 500A at 1000V. Even higher power, 900kW, is planned by
China, with its ‘Chao ji’ connector and charging standard.
This would be more relevant however to high-capacity
batteries in trucks and buses. In this system, the maximum
voltage proposed is 1500V and current 600A.
This potentially gives recharge rates comparable to a gas
pump, but represents a challenge for the cable and con-
nectors. CCS Combo connectors are seen as potentially
able to handle higher than 200A but only with active cool-
ing, where liquid is circulated through the cable and con-
nector contacts. This allows the cable to be lighter, more
flexible and easier to handle.
Resistive losses are also minimized by keeping tempera-
ture rises lower. The higher voltages used for higher charge
rates present a greater shock hazard, so connectors also
need the pilot line to signal that mating is complete and
weather-sealed before the charging voltage is applied.
This also prevents arcing and degradation of the connec-
tor contacts.
AC wall box EV chargers
The simplest and slowest charging method is from an AC
‘wall box’ typically in a home, workplace or street-side
installation. This routes mains AC directly to the on-board
AC-DC charger in the vehicle, allowing up to around 8kW
charge rate from single-phase supplies, or more unusually,
around 20kW from a three-phase supply. Vehicles that can
accept three-phase AC are not common and even if they
do, there may be a limit set by the car, 11kW for example
for the Tesla model 3. In the home or work-place, billing
functionality is not typically needed, perhaps only an
RFID or key function for authentication, so it might seem
that the cable could just connect to a domestic or office
socket. However, direct connection to a wall socket, de-
fined as ‘Mode 1 charging’, typically only intended for elec-
tric bikes and scooters, is seen as potentially dangerous.
This is due to the possibility of overload and fire and is
prohibited by law in the US, UK and other countries in
public places. These countries require the charging to
meet ‘Mode 2’ connection at least, according to standard
IEC 61851. The standard covers the ‘Mechanical, electrical,
communications, EMC and performance requirements for
EV supply equipment used to charge electric vehicles, in-
cluding light electric vehicles’. In the standard, Mode 2 de-
fines connection to a standard AC supply socket, but with
a control pilot function, that is, communication between
the EV and a control unit in-line with the cable. A system
for personal protection against electric shock between the
standard plug and EV is also required. Mode 3 connection
is for a wall box with permanent, dedicated connection to
an AC supply, again with a control pilot function. A ‘street-
side’ AC charger will additionally have control and billing
functionality using either in-car connectivity or a mobile
device. Mode 4 is for DC output from a wall box or road-
side charger, which we will discuss later.

T1 T2 RELAY

L in L out

Transient
suppression
Figure 4:
The power flow N in N out
through an AC wall Current
GFCI Test
monitor Disconnect
box EV charger AC monitor and GFCI Trip control
aux supply To EV

Pilot
Measurement, control, communications
AC-DC aux
supply

E E
6
 1st Stage 2nd Stage
IEC 61643-11
Class I Class II
IEC 60664-1 Category IV Category III
Maximum Impuls Withstand
6kV 4kV
300Vrms System Voltage
Symbol IV III
TNC
230V/400V/50Hz
DIN VDE 0675 Class B Class C
IEC 62305-1 Zone Divisions LPZ 0A (LPZ 0B) LPZ 1
Figure 5: Over-voltage categories. For EV charger installations IEC 60664-1 applies
AC wall box power architecture
It is clear from the typical size of an in-line control unit
or AC wall box that they do not feature galvanic isolation
between the AC supply and EV connection in normal op-
eration – this would require a large multi-kW inverter or an
extremely large 50/60Hz transformer. However, a means of
mechanical disconnection is required, typically with relay
contacts in both line and neutral. These go open when
an overload, short circuit or ground fault is detected. To
sense these conditions, current transformers are placed
in differential and common mode positions on the power
connections (Figure 4). The disconnect function can also
be used for scheduled charging, controlled either by an
interface on the control unit/wall-box or remotely by
wireless communication to a cell phone app, or possibly
through powerline communications along the AC supply.
The control, measurement and communications options
will be discussed in a following design guide.
In Figure 4, the varistor shown indicates that line transient
suppression is needed. The level of suppression is defined
in IEC 61851-1 and varies with the charger mode. For ex-
ample, chargers must withstand 1.2µs/50µs impulses at
their AC inputs, tested according to IEC 60664-1 at volt-
ages for ‘Over-Voltage Category (OVC) IV’, the highest, for
EV charger equipment connected to a public AC supply.
A domestic wall box permanently connected (Mode 3) is
subject to OVC III levels and a pluggable domestic charger
(Mode 2) is OVC II. Figure 5 summarizes the voltages and
categories. Over-Voltage Categories for other standards,
IEC 61643-11, DIN VDE 0675 and IEC 62305 are included
for information. At IEC 60664-1 OVC II and III, varistors
3rd Stage
Class III
Category II Category I
2.5kV 1.5kV
II I
End
Equipment
Class D
LPZ 2 LPZ 3
are typically used, but may be supplemented by gas dis-
charge tubes (GDTs) at OVC IV. Devices that combine a
series GDT and varistor in one package are available such
as the ISOMOV TM range from Bourns. Varistors can exhibit
a wear-out mechanism, because of continuous leakage
current in normal conditions and from energy absorption
during transient events. This is avoided in the ISOMOV TM
range, as the GDT provides a break in any leakage path,
stopping degradation and the risk of eventual ‘flame-out’
and fire, which would otherwise mandate a separate fuse
or thermal cut-out.
The 50/60Hz current transformers, T1 and T2 in Figure 4, op-
erate under different conditions. T1 measures line current,
which can be tens of amps normally and momentarily hun-
dreds under fault conditions, tested at 230A peak for 100µs
according to IEC 61851-1. A part has to be specified to not
saturate under normal conditions at high temperatures
and could be a strip-wound toroidal type using specialty
steel, for small size and high saturation flux density. PCB
mount types are available from KEMET for example, with
their MR series featuring continuous ratings to 125A. Wired
versions are also offered, but in either case, the AC power
connection would typically be a wire passed through the
toroid aperture. Current measurement is used to measure
energy usage and to detect over current and short circuits.
Resistive sensing could be used, but causes relatively high
losses and the sensed signal is not isolated from the AC
mains. Hall effect sensors provide isolation but are relatively
expensive and non-linear compared with resistors or trans-
formers, suffer from poor temperature stability and have
offset errors that have to be trimmed out. For AC, current
transformers are therefore a good solution.
7
 T2 operates as a Ground Fault Current Indicator (GFCI), with
normal line and neutral current causing flux cancellation. A
secondary voltage is only generated when there is a differ-
ence between line and neutral currents indicating an extra
fault current to ground. Because of the flux cancellation,
the part can be physically smaller than T1. Typically, an
extra winding is added, driven from the controller, to force
a ground fault indication for test purposes. A smaller part
in the KEMET MR series could also be used in this position.
The relay shown in Figure 4 performs the disconnect
function under fault conditions or for scheduled connec-
tion. The contacts are shown driven from one coil but two
separate relays are also seen. The contacts must withstand
repeated test surge currents to IEC 61851-1 as mentioned
and must have very low contact resistance for minimum
loss, while maintaining safety separation. Additionally, the
relay should comply with IEC 61810-1, characterized for
50,000 cycles minimum with a contact category CC 2 (a
high load where contact arcing can occur). An important
consideration is the relay lifetime, which can be limited by
contact degradation and resistance increase due to arc-
ing. Latest designs such as the G9KB series from OMRON
incorporate special techniques for arc minimization, with
their qualification tests showing large design margins, en-
abling the company to offer a long warranty period. For
safety, the relay has to be ‘normally open’ so that it defaults
to the disconnected state. Power is therefore dissipated in
the coil in operation, but this can be minimized by ener-
gizing at the rated coil voltage then reducing to a ‘holding’
value of around 50%. With AC wall boxes and in-line con-
trol units being ever-smaller and often fitted in hostile en-
vironments, the reduction in dissipation significantly helps
to keep internal temperatures lower and reliability/lifetime
higher. PCB-mount versions of relays are also attractive for
compact form-factors.
The isolated auxiliary supply shown in the block diagram
provides a few watts for the control and monitoring func-
tions. It is typically a board-mounted module and may
need to be Over-Voltage Category III rated, depending
on the installation position. Alternatively, external transient
suppression components can be added. Suitable modular
power supply products can be found in the Murata BAC
range or from Aimtec in their AME range.
Three-phase AC wall boxes for domestic installation will
normally operate from nominal 380/400VAC and be de-
signed for Over-Voltage Category III and IEC 61581 similarly
applies as it is relevant for supply voltages up to 1000VAC.
Appropriate creepage and clearance are necessary for
the higher line to line voltages seen, and multiple sense
transformers are required for running current measure-
ment. Ground fault detection can still use one transformer
8
though. Any auxiliary supply must operate at the higher
voltage input and the wide input modular supplies from
Aimtec are candidates, with their rated input from 82 to
528VAC, which can operate from line to line or line to neu-
tral in three-phase systems. A disconnect relay is required
for all three phases, but there are single relay parts avail-
able such as the new HE-R product from Panasonic that
include four normally open contacts able to switch up to
40A. An optional low current, normally-closed contact is
also incorporated for feedback. The relay is certified to IEC
62955 and has a coil holding power of less than 0.5W.
DC EV chargers
Variants
DC charging, or ‘Mode 4’ connects directly to the EV bat-
tery and bypasses the limited power capability of an on-
board AC-DC charger, for faster recharge time. This does
mean that the charger is either specific to a vehicle type,
such as Tesla or must be able to vary output voltage ac-
cording to the particular EV and its installed battery, which
could currently be between 200V and 920V. In practice, in
all DC chargers, there must be detailed communication
using the pilot connection between the EV and charger,
to signal correct and complete mating, the initial state
of charge, appropriate charge rate and a cut off when
completed or if a fault occurs such as battery temperature
becoming too high.
DC chargers can be fitted as home installations but are
expensive and require a three-phase supply which is not
usually available. They would still be limited to about 22kW
by domestic wiring, but could have a place, where the on-
board AC-DC charger of a particular vehicle limits power
to less than 2kW. Again, in this scenario, billing functionality
is not a requirement but connectivity would be provided
to enable user authentication, charge scheduling and en-
ergy use monitoring.
In public areas such as car parks and fuel stations, ‘Level 3’
DC chargers might be provided with ratings up to about
150kW, powered from the local low-voltage three-phase
network, which limits total power available. Chargers will
typically be stand-alone and assembled from paralleled
sub-units, rated at 15-25kW each. This allows installations
to be economically scaled to the power available and al-
lows for some fault tolerance with reduced output.
Level 4+ or ultra-fast DC chargers would only be seen in
charger parks, perhaps in the larger highway service sta-
tions or ‘Park-and-Ride’ facilities. These can be rated up
to 350kW currently (400kW for CHAdeMO) so more than a
few stations would represent too high a load on the local
low voltage three-phase network. For this reason, power
is typically taken from the medium voltage network at
11kV to 33kV, with a local, dedicated transformer drop-
ping the voltage down to three-phase network levels,
400VAC in Europe.
Uni- and bi-directional energy flow
Many of the power conversion technologies used in EV
charging, both AC and DC, are capable of bi-directional
energy flow, that is, energy could be returned from the
EV back to the source, sometimes called ‘V2G’. In prac-
tice, there are only a few instances when this is attrac-
tive. For AC wall boxes, this would be prohibited without
certified protection measures to prevent ‘islanding’, the
inadvertent back-feeding of AC into the utility network,
endangering operatives who might think they are work-
ing on ‘dead’ connections. The principle does operate
with domestic solar energy installations for example,
but an EV back-feeding less than 2kW is not very worth-
while considering the extra protection equipment that
would be needed. A DC charger however, is more easily
coupled into a ‘mini’ or ‘micro’ home grid where there is
some central battery bulk storage, topped up by solar or
other alternative energy. Excess EV battery energy could
be used to add to this battery capacity. It would not re-
place it, as there needs to be storage when the EV is not
present. A separate bi-directional inverter would in this
case allow back-feeding from the whole system to the
utility supply for cash credit. Level 3 DC chargers at home
or at a designated parking spot could be bi-directional
but again the extra protection equipment is a barrier
and like Level 4 DC charging, the fast charge rates are
for users that need quick ‘refueling’ perhaps on a longer
trip, where there is no value in losing, rather than gaining
battery range.
DC charger hardware
The general outline of an EV DC charger is shown in Figure
6. Input is normally three-phase AC passing through an
EMI filtering stage (not shown) before rectification, power
factor correction, a DC link, then conversion with isolation
(although sometimes without) to the required battery
voltage. We will consider the power stages in this design
guide – control and communication functions will be
covered a following document.

1200V SiC
Diodes

Secondary Battery
3-Phase DC-DC
Rectifier/PFC Rectification

Current
1200V FRD Sense Discrete IGBTs & HV FETs
BLDC Fan
with low RDS(on)/fast
Diodes Gate Drivers Gate Drivers Moter
switching ot PIMs providing
improved system reliability
High Current BLDC Motor
full protection Control
Gate Drivers
Voltage
µCU Isolation ADC
High Precision Sense
Op-Amps
Communications Touch Screen Wide Body
Controller Optocouplers
Auxiliary Display
LCD
RF PLC CAN Power
Backlighting

Figure 6: Three-phase EV DC charger outline (Source Onsemi)

9
 The implementation of the various power stages depends
on the power level, with different conversion topologies
having trade-offs in efficiency, potential EMI, complexity,
cost, functionality and ability to be bi-directional. In this
section, as well as EMI filtering, we will consider the ‘Totem-
Pole PFC’ stage, ‘Vienna rectifier’ and ‘Active Front End’ for
the combined rectification and power factor correction
function. For the main DC-DC conversion stage the ‘LLC’
and ‘CLLC’ converters are discussed, in stacked and inter-
leaved forms, along with the ‘hard-switched full bridge’,
‘phase-shift full bridge’ and ‘dual active bridge’ topologies.
It is not possible to say that any one topology is ‘best’ for a
particular power level as high-power chargers are typically
assembled from lower power ‘sub-units’ and each topology
can be interleaved and arranged as ‘multi-level’ for higher
power. The best efficiency low power topology could there-
fore be chosen for example, but cost and control complex-
ity can increase to an unaffordable level when arranged in
multiples for higher power. Selection of a topology must
therefore be done with overall system constraints in mind.
EMI Filter stage
At any load power level, an EMI filter stage (Figure 7), works
to attenuate transients and bursts on the input, typically at
Category III or IV levels, with up to 6kV impulses present,
as well as to attenuate conducted emissions from the EV
charger. The IEC 61000 ‘Electromagnetic Compatibility’
series of standards apply. As in the AC wall boxes, varistors
would be commonly employed for transient suppres-
sion with integrated or separate gas discharge tubes to
reduce leakage and component degradation with time
and transient events. The ISOMOV TM range from Bourns
is again a good choice. Capacitor and inductor networks
are then employed to further reduce transients and also
more importantly, to attenuate differential and common
mode emissions from the charger back to the supply.
Capacitors across the lines must be ‘X’ safety-rated so
that they withstand high impulse voltages and restricted
in value to avoid excessive current draw under no load or
standby operation. X1-rated capacitors have the highest
transient voltage withstand (4kV tested) and would be ap-
Fuse 1
L1 in
‘X’
Fuse 2
L2 in
C2
‘X’
Fuse 3
L3 in
Varistors/GDTs
Figure 7:
A typical three phase Earth
EMI filter
10
propriate for OVC III and IV installations. Above 0.1µF, for
‘pluggable’ inputs, X capacitors must also discharge within
a maximum time to a safe voltage. Suitable capacitors are
available from TDK Electronics in their new B32922…B32924
xxx series, Kyocera/AVX in their FVC series, KEMET with
their R46K13 X2 series or the Murata DE1 series rated X1 to
760VAC, suitable for three-phase applications.
Capacitors from lines to ground must be ‘Y’ types, pro-
viding ‘Basic’ insulation at the system operating voltage.
These attenuate common-mode noise but are limited in
value by leakage current considerations. IEC 61851-1 sets
a limit of 3.5mA total from all leakage current sources for
Class I, earthed chargers, tested at 1.1x rated maximum
input voltage. The TDK 81123 series includes examples of
suitable ‘Y’ capacitors as do the KEMET PME295 series.
The common-mode coupled inductor T1 in Figure 7
is typically wound on a high-permeability ferrite core
with flux from operating current in each line cancelling,
so high winding inductance, in the order of mH can
be designed, for maximum common-mode current at-
tenuation. Winding resistance and dissipation is traded
against wire and overall component size but very high
inductances can have a low self-resonance with self and
stray capacitances, reducing the attenuating effect. It can
therefore be better to have multiple stages of filtering,
each with high self-resonance for an overall better effect.
Along with the ‘X’ capacitors, series inductors L1, L2 and
L3 attenuate differential mode noise and there is no flux
cancellation, so only small inductance values are practi-
cal, typically tens of µH, using iron powder toroid cores.
EMC standards for conducted emissions use test methods
that combine differential and common mode noise into
one measurement so both modes must be attenuated.
Sometimes, the common-mode coupled inductor can be
wound with deliberately high leakage inductance, which
helps with series-mode noise filtering and can be a more
economical solution than having separate series-mode
inductors. This component will often be a custom design
due to the specific characteristics required for a particular
application and suppliers such as TDK and KEMET offer a
design service as well as standard components.
L1
L1 out
C1 C4 C9
‘X’ ‘Y’
L2
L2 out
C3 C5 C6
‘X’ ‘X’ ‘X’
L3
L3 out
C7 C8
‘Y’ ‘Y’
Line rectification and power factor
correction
An overriding concern in power conversion stages is ef-
ficiency – high values lead to smaller, cheaper products
and energy savings. In EV chargers, the user is billed for
the energy provided, not the total energy taken from the
supply, which includes losses from less than perfect con-
version efficiency, so every watt dissipated in the charger
is a cost to the energy provider and the environment, and
needs to be minimized. In all chargers, AC line voltage has
to be initially converted to DC before a normally isolated
conversion stage and traditionally this would be achieved
with a bridge rectifier. However, this loses significant
power from two diodes conducting at any one time, so
‘bridgeless’ rectification and power factor correction cir-
cuits are the solution. There are different options depend-
ing on power level; for single phase operation to around
20kW, a ‘Totem-Pole PFC’ (TPPFC) stage might be used,
for three-phase to around 50kW, an ‘Active Front End’
(AFE) can be used and the ‘Vienna Rectifier’ can also be
considered. Each topology can be interleaved or stacked
in a multi-level arrangement to increase power rating, or
to reduce component stress at a given power level. Power
factor correction is achieved by pulse width modulation
of the switches, to force sinusoidal current draw.
The TPPFC stage is popular, (Figure 8, left) with just one diode
drop in operation, although a fully synchronous version is
possible, replacing the diodes with MOSFETs. The circuit can
be controlled to be bi-directional and is ‘hard-switched’ at
high power, operating in ‘Continuous Current Mode’ (CCM),
so there are potentially reverse recovery losses in switch
body diodes. Silicon MOSFETs can be used, but in these,
body diode reverse recovery losses are relatively high, so
SiC devices are preferred, with their much lower reverse re-
covery charge. The three-phase AFE circuit (Figure 8, mid-
dle) is similar and it is clearer how it can be bi-directional,
with the circuit’s resemblance to a reversed, three-phase
inverter. Both the TPPFC and AFE are ‘two-level’ circuits, ap-
plying full output DC voltage to the switches, so they need
to be high-voltage types. Switch on-resistance and con-
duction losses scale with rated voltage, so there is benefit in
Totem Pole PFC DC Link Active Front End
Figure 8: Bridgeless rectifier/PFC front end options
using a three-level circuit such as the Vienna rectifier (Figure
8, right). The switches only see half of the DC output voltage
so the six switches can be lower loss types. In its simplest form
shown, the Vienna rectifier uses six diodes which do see the
full voltage and control is relatively complex. However, effi-
ciency is high and lower loss/cost 650V-rated switches can be
used for up to 480VAC three-phase input. The basic circuit is
not bi-directional however, but it can be made so with added
complexity and cost. Suitable SiC switches from Infineon are
available at 1200V and 650V rating in TO-247 packages up to
47A, while Onsemi also offers parts, with one device for exam-
ple, the NTBG020N120SC1 rated at 98A/1200V in a D2PAK-7L
package. Both manufacturers also offer suitable SiC diodes.
The DC link
The output of the rectification/power factor correction stage
is high voltage DC. This is regulated to be a constant value,
higher than the peak of the AC input at typically 800VDC.
Some arrangements allow for the DC voltage to be varied,
which can ease the design of the subsequent power stage
when it is required to vary its output for different battery volt-
ages. A capacitor is placed on the DC link which has several
functions: it provides attenuation of high frequency ripple
from the preceding power factor correction stage; it provides
a source for the high frequency ripple current into the follow-
ing DC-DC stage and it also acts as energy storage for ride-
through on power dips and interruptions. In practice, multiple
paralleled capacitors are used, perhaps electrolytic types for
energy storage and film/ceramic types for high frequency
ripple provision, which can be tens of amps in scale. Correct
positioning of the film/ceramic capacitors is vital, to avoid
ripple current/spikes producing voltage transients across
connection inductance. The capacitors should have very low
internal inductance (ESL) for the same reason, along with low
internal resistance (ESR) to avoid excessive heating. KEMET has
parts available which suit the application, including press-fit
types, making change-out easier if required. The company
also offers a ceramic part in C0G dielectric for surface mount
assembly, with 150°C rating and extremely low ESR and ESL,
the KC-LINK series.
DC Link Vienna Rectifier DC Link
11
 Electrolytic capacitors for energy storage inevitably have a
finite lifetime and will often be screw-terminal types to allow
easy routine replacement. High temperature-rated parts will
typically be used to maximize service life and may be banked
in series/parallel arrangements to allow more common lower
voltage types to be used. In three-level PFC stages such as
the Vienna rectifier, the output capacitor is anyway required
to be split into two series parts. Many parts are available such
as those from Panasonic, TDK, Vishay and more.
Main power conversion and
isolation stage
In the main conversion stage, efficiency is again a prime
concern and resonant converter topologies are popular.
The variable frequency basic ‘LLC’ converter (Figure 9 left)
suits the lower powers and is uni-directional. Alternatively,
the CLLC converter (Figure 9 right) allows bi-directional en-
ergy flow. LLC converters can be ‘stacked’ (Figure 10) and
implemented as half or full bridges to limit voltage stress,
so that for example, 650V devices can be used on 800V DC
links. This is a workable solution with silicon super junction

DC Link DC Link DC Out

LLC Converter CLLC Converter

DC Out
Figure 9:
Variable frequency Lr
Lr Lr
converter options - Cr Cr
LLC, left and CLLC, Lm
Lm

right

Cr

Full Bridge Interleaved LLC 3 - Level LLC

DC out DC in
DC in
DC out
Figure 10:
LC converters
can be stacked
and interleaved
to reduce
component
stresses

DC Out
DC Link
Full-Bridge Converter
Figure 11:
With SiC
devices, a
traditional,
Cblock
simpler full-
bridge converter
may be viable

12
(Si-SJ) MOSFETs but component count is high and control
very complex. If SiC devices are used however, a simpler,
uni-directional, full bridge, hard-switched topology can
be considered (Figure 11) with 1200V-rated SiC MOSFETs,
without a major efficiency penalty, due to the ultra-fast
switching and low recovery charge of body diodes. Other
possible and popular topologies are the uni-directional
resonant ‘Phase Shift Full Bridge’ or bi-directional ‘Dual
Active Bridge’.
All of the topologies mentioned will operate at high fre-
quency to enable smaller transformers and filter induc-
tors. This makes selection of the switches critical to keep
dynamic losses low. Along with headline voltage, current
and on-resistance ratings, devices are offered with Figures
of Merit (FoMs) to enable comparisons. Notable metrics
are RDS(on).Qoss for resonant converters, allowing short
deadtimes and high frequency operation; RDS(on).Qrr for
hard-switched converters such as the TPPFC stage, min-
imizing body diode loss, and RDS(on).Qg, affecting light
load efficiency. Infineon CoolMOS and CoolSiC devices in
discrete and module packages are good choices, as are
parts from Onsemi.
The isolation transformer in the main conversion stage
steps the DC link voltage up or down to the battery level.
For each design, the transformer is most likely to be a cus-
tom, to extract the maximum efficiency from the topol-
ogy used. Ferrite cores will be used for high frequencies
and conventional bobbin-wound types are still a practical
solution, as they facilitate the required creepage, clear-
ance and insulation required. For some topologies, such
as the conventional hard-switched full bridge converter,
it is important to minimize leakage inductance, which can
be achieved by interleaving the primary and secondary
windings, at the expense of more complex insulation.
Other topologies such as the LLC, require the equivalent
of leakage inductance to function and this can be inte-
grated into the transformer by careful physical layout and
controlled, loose coupling. In many cases however, this
is a compromise and a separate series discrete inductor
is fitted adding to cost, but improving performance. For
example, in the LLC converter, an integrated inductor of
a practical value can force a wider range of frequency
variation for regulation, making EMI control more difficult
and losses in the transformer higher. Manufacturers of
magnetic components such as Bourns and can assist in
the design process, but should be involved early, as trans-
former design involves many trade-offs and opportunities
for performance improvement when considered with the
system as a whole. For example, switching frequency di-
rectly affects core and AC losses in windings so although
higher values might seem to give smaller magnetics size,
if losses are higher, then cooling sizing and costs could
increase disproportionately. Core material can also be se-
lected for minimum loss at the chosen frequency and for
particular temperature ranges.
Capacitors seen in series with transformers in the topolo-
gies discussed are often relatively low values but typically
pass very high ripple current and, unlike the DC link capac-
itor, are subject to high dV/dt. They should therefore be
chosen carefully. Polypropylene types from the Panasonic
ECW range or the Vishay MKP1848C range for example, are
good candidates.
Output rectifier stages can simply use diodes in uni-di-
rectional converters, as the voltage is high and current
relatively low for the power levels involved, but efficiency
would suffer. Also, high voltage silicon diodes have rel-
atively high forward voltage drop and reverse recovery
charge adding to losses. SiC diodes have near zero re-
covery losses but have a high forward drop of well over a
volt and are expensive at high current ratings. For better
efficiency, synchronous rectifiers can be used with SiC
MOSFETs for best results. For bi-directional operation,
this is anyway necessary. For uni-directional operation,
synchronous rectification gate drive can be as simple as
an auxiliary winding off the transformer, but dead time
should be minimized and tightly controlled, as body diode
‘commutation’ conduction can cause excessive losses
during these periods. This is a particular problem with
SiC MOSFETs whose body diodes have a forward drop of
several volts. For this reason, active, timed control of the
synchronous rectifiers is preferable and again for bi-di-
rectional operation this is anyway necessary. Similar SiC
MOSFETs can be used as synchronous rectifiers to those
for the primary side switches, as the voltages and current
ratings will be similar in EV battery charging applications.
Output capacitors, like DC link capacitors, are likely to be
a parallel combination of values to achieve sufficient ca-
pacitance at the high voltage rating, with an overall low
equivalent series resistance. Ripple current is set by the
converter topology and ripple voltage is produced by this
ripple current across the series combination of capaci-
tance and ESR. As the current is likely to be tens of amps
at maximum load, the capacitors need to be high-per-
formance low ESR types. With high frequency switching,
ceramic capacitors can be used with inherently longer
lifetime than electrolytic types. However, they have less
capacitance per unit volume and high voltage types are
less common and more expensive.
13
 Auxiliary power than 55 milliohm
milliohmcontact
contactresistance
resistance andand certifi cation to UL
certification to
60947-1 andand
UL 60947-1 EN 61810-10, required
EN 61810-10, for energy
required for energystorage sys-
storage
As in the AC wall box, an auxiliary power supply is needed tems. ForFor
systems. a contactor
a contactorwithwith
ratings at 300A,
ratings for example,
at 300A, for example,the
for control, monitoring and communications functions. TE
theConnectivity
TE Connectivity60-311-12 part part
60-311-12 is specifi ed at 800VDC
is specified and
at 800VDC
Again, this could be a small module from, for example 200,000 switching
and 200,000 switchingcycles at rated
cycles load.
at rated Solid
load. state
Solid circuit
state cir-
Aimtec and could be a PCB-mount type for DC EV charger breakers could
cuit breakers be considered
could be consideredfor the
forapplication, but volt-
the application, but
sub-units to around 25kW. The converter input must be age dropdrop
voltage with with
existing technologies
existing could could
technologies produce unac-
produce
compatible with the three-phase supply, for example ceptable running
unacceptable losses.
running Back-to-back
losses. Back-to-back SiC SiC
JFETs however
JFETs how-
rated to 305VAC for phase to neutral connection in up to are
everbecoming
are becominga feasible alternative.
a feasible alternative.
pre-certified bought-in
480VAC three-phase systems. A pre-certified
part saves design time and development cost over a dis-
crete solution and will often be smaller as well. In DC EV Sensing current
chargers, the AC supply is most likely to be Over-Voltage
Category III or even IV so the auxiliary supply should either As well as sensing gross over-currents and short circuits,
have protection included or have external transient sup- a means of accurately measuring current and voltage is
pression provisioned. necessary. The resultant power and energy use calculated
over a given charge time is what the user is billed for, so
the accuracy of measurement is important. The charger
Output disconnect manufacturer is obliged to err on the side of underbilling,
given component tolerances and sensing errors, so these
As well as galvanic isolation from the utility supply pro- must be minimized in the measurement circuitry. Resistive
vided by the charger transformer, as in an AC wall box, monitoring of current can be accurate but is lossy, so sim-
there must be a means of disconnecting the charger out- ple Hall effect sensors could be employed, but these are
put in case of faults. Relays or contactors are used, with the subject to drift and require a regular calibration routine.
latter more expensive and with higher contact resistance, Differential Hall effect sensors have very good stability and
and because they are interrupting DC, arc suppression is Infineon XENSIV TM
accuracy, typically +/-2.5%, such as the Infineon
important and the contacts must be rated accordingly to range. Alternatively, a fl uxgate sensor with closed-loop
fluxgate
avoid undue degradation and material deposition. Up to compensation and differential measurement can be used
600V/50A, the OMRON G9KB series of PCB-mount relays for ‘parts-per-million’ accuracy at extra cost.
are an option, with the latest arc cut-off technology, less

Conclusion

This guide has just touched on the elements of the design of the power stages in AC and DC EV chargers. For
minimum cost and maximum performance, in volume production, a ground-up design would be the best solu-
tion, leveraging latest technologies. As in any power conversion system, skills would be needed in analog and digi-
tal techniques, thermal design, EMC, safety compliance, control theory, communications and more. This has tech-
nical risk however and development, test and qualification time for a fast DC charger would be measured in tens
of man-years. Modular solutions, perhaps based on ‘reference design platforms’ from companies such as Infineon
with pre-tested sub-units give quicker time to market and lower initial cost to enter the market. As mentioned pre-
viously, it is typical to assemble multiple conversion stages in parallel to achieve high power and as well as provid-
ing redundancy and scalability, this enables the use of more commonly available components for the power, cur-
rent and voltage levels encountered. As a single example of many, DC current sensors rated to more than 55A for
a 22kW/400V charger sub-unit are commodity parts available as PCB surface-mount components sized 8 x 8mm,
whereas a single sensor for 150kW/400V rated at 375A would be hard to find, expensive and chassis-mount, adding
to assembly costs.

In a following design guide, we will consider the control circuitry necessary for operation of the power stages and
for the charger functionality for the end user and energy supplier. Further guides will address connectivity and
software.

14
References
[1] 
https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2022/trends-in-charging-infrastructure

[2] https://www.charin.global/

15
 2
Control

Content
Content
Connecting Connecting safely ...........................................................................4
safely.......................................................................... 18

Proximity
Proximity detection. detection .......................................................................................... 4
.........................................................................................18

The Control
The Control Pilot Pilot line ....................................................................................... 4
line.......................................................................................18

Control
Control in the inbox............................................................................19
AC wall the AC wall box ............................................................................ 5

DC fast
DC fast charger charger
control control functions ...............................................6
functions............................................. 20

Communication
Communication between
between charger and charger and EV ........................................... 6
EV..........................................20

Charging
Charging regime. regime................................................................................................ 6
..............................................................................................20

Bi-directionality
Bi-directionality control considerations ..................................................7
control considerations................................................. 21

Controlling
Controlling the the power
DC charger DC charger
stages.power stages .............................................
........................................... 22 8

Current and Current

voltage and voltage
sensing sensing ......................................................................
..................................................................... 22 8

Gate drives ...........................................................................................................

Gate drives.......................................................................................................... 22 8

Implementing
Implementing control ....................................................................................10
control....................................................................................24

Securing theSecuring the process .......................................................................................11

process......................................................................................25

The human-machine
The human-machine interface ..................................................................11
interface.................................................................25

General requirements
General requirements of control electronics .......................... 12
of control electronics...........................26

Auxiliary PoLAuxiliary
and DC-DCPoL converters......................................................26
and DC-DC converters ...................................................... 12

Hardware
Hardware security security sensors/switches ....................................................... 12
sensors/switches.......................................................26

WithstandingWithstanding a difficult environment .................................................... 12

a difficult environment....................................................26

Reliability,
Reliability, lifetime and lifetime and maintainability ..................................................13
maintainability.................................................. 27

Discrete
Discrete versus moduleversus module
rationale. rationale .............................................................14
............................................................28

Component Component quality .........................................................................................14

quality.........................................................................................28

16
Version 01, October 2022

The EV Charging
Infrastructure Designbook:

Control
This is the second in a series of guides for designers of fixed AC and DC
EV charging stations, where we consider control functionality necessary
and its implementation. ‘Control’ includes the circuitry required to
sense and monitor the charging operation and drive the various power
conversion stages appropriately for safe, accurate and efficient delivery
of power to the battery.

Also considered is the remote control and monitoring of the charger

system, whether by the utility company or the vehicle driver, to enable
secure charge scheduling, V2G and V2B operation, and billing. A further
guide will address the detail of the connectivity functions required.

I
n the first of this series of design guides for EV chargers,
we considered power conversion stages, along with some
of the associated energy monitoring and protection
features. In this design guide, we look at the control
functions and hardware necessary to achieve safe and
efficient power connection/conversion, along with the
necessary interfaces to the outside world for monitoring,
convenience features and billing.

17
3
 Connecting safely

Proximity detection The Control Pilot line

At the highest level, the connection between charger or
Electric Vehicle Source Equipment (EVSE) and vehicle is by
a cable and connector combination. In the power stage
design guide, the different connector types in common
use globally were identified as Type 1, Type 2, Combo 1,
Combo 2, GB/T and CHAdeMO. As well as power pins, each
connector type features signal connections for control and
communication. For the connectors popular outside Japan
and China, with an AC power source, the PP, or ‘Proximity
Pilot’ pin signals to the power source or EV what the cable
assembly current rating is by a resistor in the connector
to ground (Table 1).
If the current is exceeded, the power line can be disconnected
by the source, and/or the EV can know not to take or
source more current than the cable is capable of. The pin
also serves to indicate to the source that voltage can be
applied, as it physically mates last after a secure and sealed
connection is made for the power pins. The coding resistor
is fitted in a free connector, mating with the EV, and in a
free connector mating with the charger, depending on
configuration, so the PP function is achieved in connectors
and is not a wire in the cable. Standard IEC 61851-1 gives a
full description of the functionality required. The standard
also indicates that the proximity function could be achieved
with a push-button/latch on the connector, which needs to
be depressed before mechanical mating or de-mating can
occur. Pressing the button also has the effect of activating
the PP signal, so that power is removed.
The CP or ‘Control Pilot’ connection is a wire in the cable and
in its simplest implementation, passes voltage from the EVSE
to the EV through a resistor, so that when the EV is connected
and a further resistor is inserted in line by the EV, the CP line
voltage drops by a potential divider effect. This signals that
there is a through-connection between the EVSE and EV,
which then switches in another resistor to drop the voltage
further, to indicate it is ready to accept a charge. The voltage
is +12V open circuit and when connection is made, it drops
to 9V. When the EV is ready to receive energy, it connects
another resistor, dropping the voltage further to 6V. After
this successful ‘handshaking’, the CP line then alternates
between -12V and a positive voltage depending on state,
at nominal 1000Hz with the width of the pulse indicating the
current capability of the source (Table 2).
The specification for the CP line also allows for comprehensive
bi-directional digital communication between the EVSE
and EV. This is indicated by the 1000Hz signal remaining at
5% pulse width, under which condition the system expects
to see a high-frequency, lower-level signal superimposed
at greater than 148kHz. The communication protocol and
implementation are described in standards ISO/IEC 15118
and ISO 17987-2 for a ‘Local Interconnect Network’ (LIN) for
road vehicles. Transformers are used to couple the high
frequency onto the CP line at each end and are available
from companies such as Bourns and KEMET as standard or
custom parts. EV charging connectors are available from
suppliers such as Amphenol.

Cable Nominal Range of Current (A) DUTY CYCLE

assembly connector resistance for
current resistor interpretation 5 8,30%
capability Tolerance +/-3% by the EV supply
equiment 15 25%
A Ohms Ohms
30 50%

Error condition > 4,500 40 66,6%

13 1,500 1,100 - 2,450 65 90%

80 96%
20 680 400 - 936

32 220 164 - 308 Table 2: Control Pilot signal duty cycle signifies EVSE
current rating
63 (3-phase)
100 80 - 140
70 (1-Phase)

Error condition < 60

Table 1: PP line resistance signifies cable current capability

18
Control in the AC wall box

A wall box EV charger with AC output can be of varying
complexity, depending on whether it is for household or
commercial use. The minimum function required is to measure
current and voltage to evaluate energy delivered and to shut
down the output under fault conditions via in-line relays. The
Proximity Pilot and Control Pilot functions are also necessary.
The block diagram given in Figure 1 is typical of a fully-featured
single-phase unit with wireless interfaces for monitoring and
control via an app or in-car connectivity and perhaps NFC
functionality for user authentication and billing. The diagram
also shows wired communication possibilities through the
Control Pilot connection already described. Current sensing
would typically be implemented with transformers, generating
isolated, low-level signals that can be directly interfaced
to a microcontroller. However, resistive shunt sensing for
line current is possible, for guaranteed linearity and no
saturation effect, in which case an isolation amplifier might
be used such as the ACNT-H790 from Broadcom, providing
an output which can directly interface with a differential or
single-ended ADC. The part achieves an accuracy of better
than +/-1% across a wide temperature range to 105°C with
a linearity of 0.05%.
As well as a continuous check on protective earth continuity,
Ground Fault Current Indication (GFCI) is necessary for safety,
and a transformer is an effective solution. A GFCI controller
can be employed to program trip levels and times, and
a product such as the NCS37015 from Onsemi features a
latching output and a self-test function, as required by UL943,
on startup and every subsequent 17 minutes.
Drives to the relays can be given some intelligence to ensure
secure operation and minimum dissipation. The HV9901NG-G
relay driver from Microchip for example, features programmable
pull-in current, pull-in time and hold current, providing PWM
output to an external MOSFET relay driver.
A microcontroller handles the processing of measured
parameters and interfaces to wireless and wired communications
modules, discussed in a later design guide on connectivity.
The display can also be driven from the microcontroller or
through its own dedicated device. STMicroelectronics STM8
8-bit microcontrollers could be suitable for simpler AC wall
box applications or alternatively the 32-bit STM32 range for
a feature-rich commercial wall box.

T1 T2 RELAY

L in L out

Transient Disconnect
suppression control
N in N out
AC monitor Current GFCI Trip GFCI Test
and aux supply monitor
To EV
Relay Pilot
Drive Wire Pilot
ADC Reference
PLC
Analog front end
RS-232
AC-DC aux
supply HMI
Display
RS-485
MCU/MPU PWM
PoL Controller Proximity/
DC-DC Proximity current
NFC detection
Supply voltage Real-time coding
Isolated supervisor Clock Wired
DC-DC Wi-Fi interface
Digital processing
Power Wirless
processing interface
Earth continuity
detection

E
E

Figure 1: Control in a fully-featured AC wall box

19
 DC fast charger control
functions
Communication between charger and EV
Standard IEC 61851-23 defines the requirements for DC
or ‘Level 4’ chargers and in the Combined Charging
System (CCS) standard connections, a high level of
digital communication is necessary via IP-based Power
Line Communications (PLC) over the Control Pilot line.
CAN is used for this communication in the Japanese
DC GB/T and Chinese CHAdeMO connection standards,
through dedicated pins. This level of communication is
necessary as the EVSE has a direct DC connection to
the EV battery, so it must respond to current demand
from the EV and be made aware of the rated battery
voltage, maximum charge current and the integrity of
the connections and equipment. Standard IEC 61851-
24 describes the digital communication requirements,
including exchange of:
• Current value requested by EV
• Voltage value requested by EV
• Maximum rated voltage value of DC EV charging station
• Maximum rated current value of DC EV charging station
• Communication protocol/software version of charging
system
• Maximum voltage limit value of EV
• Result of insulation test
• Result of short circuit test
• Charge stop command by user
• Real-time available load current for demand manage-
ment (optional)
• Loss of communication information
• Zero current confirmed (to allow connector unlocking)
• Contact welding detection information
Powerline transformers are used to superimpose the
data on the CP line, as described in the section on AC
wall boxes, while CAN transceivers from suppliers such as
Microchip, NXP or ROHM could be used on the DC GB/T
and CHAdeMO connections.
20
Another standard that applies is ISO 15118 ‘Road vehicles
- Vehicle to Grid Communications Interface’ which builds
and expands on IEC 61851 and is relevant to chargers that
use powerline communications on the CP line. ISO 15118
implements the following features through defined pro-
tocols:
• Security concept including encryption, signing, key
management, etc.
• Robust PLC-based communications
• Automatic address assigning and association
• IPv6-based communications
• Compressed XML messages
• Client-server approach
• Safety concept including cable check, welding detec-
tion, etc.
• Extension concept for added-value services
The standard includes a feature called ‘Plug and Charge’
where authentication, billing and battery charge nego-
tiation is achieved by simply plugging-in the EV to the
charger, without the need for an app or card. The process
is encrypted and secure. Germany however, requires by
law that access through a debit/credit card is still imple-
mented for new charger installations, to ensure wider
inclusivity.
Other features of the ISO 15118 protocols include ability
to communicate to a local utility supply controller where
multiple EVs are charged together, perhaps at a service
station. Energy can be apportioned between the EVs, to
ensure that demand is sufficiently met without overload-
ing the local grid.
Charging regime
DC chargers provide energy at different levels, currently
up to around 350kW. At all rates, but particularly at the
highest, the profile of voltage and current must be care-
fully controlled, monitoring battery temperature, to ensure
safest and quickest charging. Demand is set by the on-
board battery management system and relayed to the
charger along the communication lines described. For a
heavily discharged battery and for ‘regular’ charging, an
initial constant current of 0.25C (50A for a 200-Ah battery
for example) is allowed until the battery pack voltage
rises to the equivalent of about 2.8V per cell. After this,
the full charge current is applied until the target voltage is
reached, between 4.1V – 4.2V per cell, depending on tem-
perature, representing about 70% of capacity. After this,
the charger operates in constant voltage mode and the
current slowly drops and is set to terminate at some low
value (Figure 2). For ‘fast’ charging, the battery is charged

Imax
Voltage/Current
CC Voltage Threshold
0.1 x Imax
Pre-charge Costant Current Mode
Mode
Figure 2: A lithium-Ion battery charging regime – constant current/voltage
at a rate of 2C for an initial period of 20 minutes, followed
by 1C for 10 minutes, ending with 0.5C for a further 4 min-
utes. For a 200-Ah battery pack, this means the 80% charge
level would be achieved within 34 minutes, equivalent to
about 300km range.
Bi-directionality control considerations
Much is made of the possibilities for bi-directional trans-
fer of energy to and from an EV. The rationale is that over
90% of cars are parked and idle at any one time and EVs
will have some level of excess charge available. This could
be used for balancing the grid, for the benefit of the utility
provider, as in ‘vehicle to Grid’ (V2G), or contributing to a
mini- or micro-grid for a dwelling (V2B) or small area, to
enable resilience against power outages.
Level 1, 2 and 3 AC charging is not really suitable – although
an on-board charger can be bi-directional and supply AC
back to the source, this cannot be coupled easily back to
the grid for credit as it is not phase-synchronized. It could
be used as a local supply to take over with any grid out-
ages, but there would need to be expensive, automated
isolation circuitry or ‘islanding’ protection to ensure that
AC does not ‘back-feed’ into the utility supply, endangering
Vmax
Charge
Termination
Current
Costant Time
Voltage
Mode
line operators. Some car makes route AC generated by
the on-board charger working ‘in reverse’ to standard do-
mestic power outlets on the vehicle so that appliances or
equipment can be plugged directly in. This provides some
emergency backup and a convenient power source, for
example, when camping. In all cases, the power available
is limited by the on-board bi-directional charger which
could be less than 2kW.
With DC charging, a fixed, bidirectional AC-DC converter
can be arranged to synchronize with the utility supply
easily, and with islanding protection, it could have a per-
manent connection which automatically switches to re-
turn energy to the grid in high-demand periods and take
energy perhaps overnight, when demand and costs are
lower. Some control can be given to the energy provider
to schedule charging for grid balancing and this could be
achieved over a cellular connection. Otherwise, the user
can over-ride the controls and set their own schedule.
Alternatively, the battery voltage present at the charger
output can also route to a central battery storage as addi-
tional capacity in a ‘smart home’ arrangement, or ’Vehicle
to Building’ (V2B) where renewable energy also couples in.
In this case, the EV charger could also function as the ‘grid-
tied inverter’ that would anyway be needed. Standard ISO
15118 sets a communication protocol for control of bi-
directional energy flow.
21
 Bi-directionality is unlikely to feature in ‘fast chargers’
which are typically located in highway stops, where the
users’ priority is to obtain extra range as quickly as possi-
ble. Communications between EV charger and EV will still
interface to a local control hub via perhaps ethernet or
wireless, or through a cloud-based service, to identify and
limit total site energy requirements, avoid grid overload
and provide billing services.
Controlling the DC charger power stages
As described in the first part of this series of design guides,
an EV DC charger has two basic power stages, a ‘front
end’ incorporating AC rectification and a DC-DC conver-
sion stage. Both may be bi-directional. A block diagram
showing control functions is given in Figure 3 for a typical
charger rated at 50kW with three-phase AC input.
Current and voltage sensing
To maintain an accurate charging profile, a commercial
DC charger must be suitable for quite precise constant
current and voltage operation with accurate sensing of
voltage and current. This is anyway required for measur-
ing the total energy supplied and billed to the user. Some
power conversion topologies do not suit a wide-ranging
output voltage, with the higher efficiency, resonant vari-
ants sometimes less suitable. The first design guide on ‘EV
charger power stages’ described some of the conversion
topology options and the current sensing techniques – re-
sistive, hall effect and fluxgate sensors.
Gate drives
Power switch gate drives are a requirement for all front-
end and DC-DC conversion topologies with the most
complex arrangements needing perhaps twenty or even
more, half of which would be high-side, that is, driving
switch gates that are not referenced to ground. These gate
drives mostly require signal and power isolation and will

XEV Battery
management System
AC-DC Converter DC-DC Converter
3-Phase PFC Uni-directional Battery management
System (BMS)
2-Level LLC
MOSFET Gate
AC DC DC Driver
Grid/ 3-Level ZVS Phase Shift
Load NPC, ANPC, Vienna Full Bridge
Bi-directional Sensing
Multi-pulse
CLLC DAB

Security

Communication
Current Current
Sensor Gate Driver Gate Driver
Sensor

Aux Power Supply

Microcontroller Communication

Communication Human Machine

to user Security
Interface (HMI)

Figure 3: Control in an EV DC charger

22
often include fault monitoring such as under- and over-
voltage of the supply rails and de-saturation detection.
The efficiency of each power stage depends critically on
the gate drive dynamic performance and also voltage
levels, the requirements for which vary, depending on
the switch technology. IGBTs and silicon MOSFET switches
operate with a relatively wide tolerance of gate drive volt-
ages, often 0-12V but sometimes with a negative voltage
for the off-drive. Wide band-gap (WBG) Silicon Carbide
(SiC) switches have an on-state threshold voltage that is
only a few volts, but need around 18V for full saturation,
which is relatively close to their absolute maximum voltage
of typically 23V. Gallium Nitride (GaN) HEMT cell switches
have a recommended on-drive voltage of around 6V but
the absolute maximum is only around 7V, so for both wide-
band-gap technologies, the gate drive must be carefully
designed to avoid overvoltages. Although all technologies
are nominally off with a gate voltage of 0V, they can bene-
fit from a negative off-drive voltage. This is to offset the ef-
fect of any connection inductance that is common to the
power path and gate drive loop, causing voltage transients
with drain current steps. These tend to oppose the gate
drive voltage, risking ‘phantom turn-on’, shoot-through
and potentially catastrophic damage. There is also a similar
danger caused by the ‘Miller’ effect, the non-linear capac-
itance from gate to drain of the switch, injecting current
into the gate drive circuits with voltage steps on the drain
of the switch. Again, a negative off drive of typically a few
volts prevents spurious turn-on or off (Figure 4).
DC Link
+12V
C Miller
dV/dt
PWM
E output ‘droop’ as well as continuous power proportional to
di/dt
L For a large IGBT this can be several watts, but for Si and
-12V
Load
Figure 4: Power switch gates are often driven negative for
the off-state to offset voltage transients from connection
inductance and device ‘Miller’ effect
Total gate voltage swing is a factor in gate drive power
dissipated from the charging and discharging of gate
capacitance, so power dissipation increases with a higher
negative off-state voltage as well as with frequency. This
can cause significant extra power dissipated in the IGBT
and Si-MOSFET gate drive circuit. However, WBG devices
have very low gate capacitance, so the effect is usually
insignificant, despite the often much-higher switching
frequency utilized.
As mentioned, high-side gate drives normally have out-
puts that are isolated. Indeed, their outputs are referenced
to a switching node that might be transitioning at 100kV/
µs with a wide band-gap device, from zero to the DC-link
voltage. This waveform appears across the driver isolation
barrier, and produces displacement current through bar-
rier self-capacitance, which finds an indeterminate return
route through the control circuitry. This effect can cause
EMI and chaotic operation or even damage so must be
minimized. Gate driver barrier capacitance is therefore
an important parameter and is usually designed to be no
more than a few pF. Any local DC-DC converter that pro-
vides isolated power to the gate driver must similarly have
low isolation capacitance.
Gate drivers can be assembled from discrete compo-
nents, but integrated parts are available, for example the
EiceDRIVERTM family from Infineon. Parts are available with
isolation ratings up to reinforced grade for switches rated
up to 2300V, with core-less transformers providing isola-
tion capacitance at sub-pF levels. Comprehensive pro-
tection is included against short-circuits, out of tolerance
supply rails, and over dissipation of the switch, monitored
by de-saturation detection.
Although gates of IGBTs and Si or SiC MOSFETs appear as
just a capacitor to the drive (GaN HEMT cells look more like
a forward biased diode), significant peak drive current is re-
quired, perhaps over 10A, due to the fast switching edges.
The gate driver must be able to supply this with minimal
total gate voltage swing, total gate charge and frequency.
SiC MOSFETs and GaN, the value is typically much less
than 1W. This does though have to be provided from the
driver isolated supply rails, typically from DC-DC convert-
ers specifically designed for the application. Examples are
the MGJ1 range from Murata. These surface-mount parts
feature a novel transformer embedded in the DC-DC sub-
strate and supply 1W total with a variety of input voltage
options and outputs to suit IGBTs and MOSFETs. Isolation
capacitance is 3pF, insulation rating is agency-rated ‘rein-
forced’ at 250VAC and the parts are suitable for DC links up
to 3kV. Unusually, the parts are characterized for low partial
23

discharge breakdown, the slow degradation of insulation
due to progressive breakdown of any micro voids present.
Higher power versions of DC-DCs are also available from
Murata up to 6W rating, including types suitable for high-
power IGBTs as well as Si- and SiC MOSFETs. Versions are
also available with up to four bi-polar, isolated outputs to
provide power for all the gate drives of a full-bridge con-
verter. Aimtec also offers through-hole DC-DCs intended
for the application. Articles give guidance on the selection
of DC-DCs for gate drives in a typical EV application.
Implementing control
In a traditional AC-DC converter, there is a range of ded-
icated control ICs available for the PFC/rectification and
DC-DC conversion stages, some analog, some with a
degree of digital control. Some ‘combo’ devices even
control both stages in one chip. However, the demands of
an EV charger are such that these solutions are generally
insufficient, not only for the complex, sometimes bi-direc-
tional power conversion topologies and control algorithms
utilized, but also because an EV charger by its nature has
a host of other functions. We have already discussed the
digital communications necessary between charger and
EV, between the energy provider and the charger, for
scheduling, back-feeding, data analysis and billing, and
additionally between the charger and the user via some
wireless interface and/or card reader. All this means that
invariably, overall functionality is implemented by one or
more microcontrollers and therefore embedded software
must be secure against tampering and malicious attack,
while open for legitimate ‘over the air’ updates and data
interchange. With higher-power EV DC chargers being
typically assembled from multiple sub-units, each one
must additionally communicate with the others for load
sharing, load shedding actions and fault reporting. This
could be done through a CANbusTM interface, but might
now be done with a single-pair low-speed ethernet con-
nection with high noise immunity, using controllers such
as the NCN26010 from Onsemi. IP-based communication
allows convenient access through simple web-browsers
for diagnostics and configuration.
24
Figure 5:
The MGJ1 series DC-DC converters from Murata,
suitable for high-performance gate drive power
For the main controller, the Infineon XMC 4000 series is a
candidate with a 32-bit Cortex®-M4 core operating up to
144MHz. The controller is optimized for real-time applica-
tions, ideal for fast control of power conversion algorithms
when coupled with high-resolution ADCs, timers and PWM
modules.
When security and functional safety are of prime concern,
such as with public chargers, the Infineon AURIX TM family is
an alternative such as the TC3Ex. These MCUs scale from
single to multicore options and can operate in ambient
temperatures of up to 150°C. Safety is supported in hard-
ware by a range of mechanisms, including the use of lock-
step cores, redundant peripherals, memory protection,
clock monitoring and more. The packaging of these de-
vices is designed to be highly scalable, allowing designers
to move easily to MCUs with more features when required.
As with all Infineon MCUs, the AURIX™ range also offers
long-term availability.
The AURIX™ MCUs feature up to 6 MB of flash memory, op-
erate at up to 300 MHz and include a range of high-speed
interfaces, including CAN-FD and Ethernet. The direct
memory access (DMA) is capable of operating without the
CPU, leaving more performance available for the applica-
tion code. The control of power conversion algorithms is
supported by a 12-bit ADC sampling at up to 5 Msps, cou-
pled with timer peripherals that provide a flexible range
of pulse-width modulated (PWM) control outputs. Finally,
security is ensured by a Hardware Security Module (HSM)
that provides an ‘anchor of trust’, being in a separated log-
ical protection domain. Supported by its own 32-bit MCU,
the HSM offers secure boot, secure storage of encryption
and authentication keys, along with an AIS31-compliant
true random number generator (TRNG) and with hardware
acceleration for symmetric and asymmetric cryptography.
Another ARM-based solution is to use the STM32 mi-
crocontrollers from STMicroelectronics. Operating up to
170MHz, the parts include five fast ADCs, seven DAC chan-
nels, seven ultra-fast comparators, six opamps, timers, a
calendar real-time clock and a wide range of communi-
cation interfaces. A math accelerator and 512kbytes of
flash memory are supported. Parts in the range feature
high-security with AES encryption and a public key accel-
erator (PKA), side-channel hardware-resistant.
 Securing the process
The process of charging an EV in public locations and
making payment must include identification, authentica-
tion and safeguarding of information passed between the
charger, vehicle and back-end infrastructure. To achieve
this, cryptography is required in data communications
within the charging eco-system. As described earlier,
standard ISO 15118 introduces the concept of ‘Plug and
Charge’, eliminating the need for a dedicated charging
card to be presented. This enables a secure and con-
venient transaction in both wired and wireless, AC and
DC charger systems. Confidentiality, data integrity and
authentication are assured, using algorithms defined by
the standard for symmetric and asymmetric cryptography.
Infineon offers an implementation of the requirements
with their tamper-resistant security controllers OPTIGATM
TPM (Trusted Platform Module) and OPTIGATM Trust, which
enable a secure channel of communication, independent
of the connectivity methodology (Figure 6).
The OPTIGATM TPM parts have a secured key store and sup-
port a variety of encryption algorithms and are based on
Trusted Computing Group (TSG) standards. The OPTIGATM
trust family of parts are hardware-based security con-
trollers, protecting against counterfeiting and cloning,
attacks and unintentional operator errors. OPTIGATM parts
can also be used for platform protection, securing remote
functionality such as firmware updates, maintenance and
management of the charging infrastructure.
The STSAFE-A110 parts from STMicroelectronics in an
SO8N or UFDFPN8 package also provide secure authen-
tication and data management services to a remote
Primary Requirements
 Secure Communication OEM PKI System
with Mutual Authenti-
cation
 Integrity and non-
repudiation for Billing
(B) EV
Enrollment
 Confidentilality for Certificate
Personal Information
Verification
Enrollment
Certificate?
Figure 6: Securing an EV charging ecosystem using security controllers. Source - Infineon
host via a cloud connection. The devices utilize the latest
generation of highly secure MCUs with a unique die serial
number. Advanced symmetric and asymmetric cryptog-
raphy is employed using a secure operating system, with
protection against logical and physical attacks.
The human-machine interface
Some highway chargers have no controls at all, and all
authentication and billing functions are through a ‘plug
and charge’ arrangement. A display is typically still re-
quired however, to indicate status. The display type needs
to be suitable for outdoor viewing in strong sunlight and
over widely varying temperatures. A product such as the
Tianma P0700WVF1MA00 seven-inch TFT LCD might be
suitable, with WVGA 800 x 480 resolution and a 1000:1
contrast ratio. The display uses a Low Voltage Differential
Signal (LVDS) interface which provides simple high-speed
communication over twisted pair cabling.
The Human-Machine Interface (HMI) may well be a sub-
system within any charger, from the simplest AC wall box
to the most complex fast DC charger. As such, it could
have a dedicated microcontroller with wireless and wired
interfaces, along with functions such as a touch controller,
LED and LCD drivers from Microchip for example, and
audio for spoken input commands and feedback to the
user. The charger may have a Near Field Communication
(NFC) device or card-reader in which case integrated con-
trollers are available such as the PN5180A0ET range or the
PN5321A3HNC/Cxx from NXP, which supports all popular
operating modes with an SPI I2C High Speed UART (HSU)
interface. Suitable antennas are offered by Molex.
Payment Operator
Server
Certificate
Station
Charger
Contract Certificate Electricity Provider
Certificate Server
Server Certificate
25
 General requirements of
control electronics
Auxiliary PoL and DC-DC converters
AC and DC chargers will typically include an AC-DC con-
verter for auxiliary power and 12V output would be a popular
choice for functions such as relay drives. Suitable products
were discussed in the EV charger ‘Power Conversion’ design
guide. Other lower voltages however will also be needed for
processors, displays and interfaces and these can be de-
rived from isolated DC-DC or Point of Load (PoL) converters.
An isolated DC-DC converter may be chosen when it is use-
ful to separate power grounds for functional or EMC reasons,
as well as to generate a different lower or higher voltage
efficiently. Communications interfaces also often require
isolated power rails for safety and to avoid ground loops
between equipment. A wide range of parts is available from
Murata Power Solutions, Aimtec, and BEL in surface mount
and through-hole variants. The simplest isolated DC-DCs are
unregulated and depend on a fixed, regulated input to keep
their output typically within +/-5% of nominal while often re-
quiring a minimum load of perhaps 10% of rated maximum.
Point of load converters are used when isolation is not nec-
essary and are always regulated so will provide a precise
output voltage over a wide range of input voltages and
output current. PoLs are often used with processors or other
complex logic such as FPGAs, ASICs and memory, to provide
the accurate low voltage power rails required. Despite often
providing high step-down voltage ratios, PoLs can be very
efficient, typically over 97%, helping to keep overall system
efficiency high and temperature rises low. Manufacturers
such as Flex Power Modules have a long pedigree of supply-
ing high-performance PoLs and have a wide range available.
TDK claim the world’s smallest 15W PoL in a 3.3 x 3.3 x 1.5mm
package while ABB offer their ‘Hornet’ PoL range, designed
for demanding industrial applications with power ratings to
108W for a surface-mount device (Figure 7).
Figure 7: The ABB ‘Hornet’ range of surface-mount PoL
DC-DC converters
26
Hardware security sensors/switches
Although an EV charger sometimes has an entirely
touch-display with authentication control and billing all
implemented wirelessly, some designs will feature indi-
vidual touch switches, and these need to be tamper- and
vandal-proof. The IP67-rated ‘TTS’ range from Schurter is a
good example of a robust, stainless-steel type that features
optical sensing and an innovative ‘time of light’ technology
that sets a detection distance. This ensures that wiping or
cleaning does not trigger a switching malfunction. The
switch offers bi-color ring illumination in red/green for
optical feedback. For charger maintenance, a keylock
switch restricts access and provides an electrical interlock
which could disable dangerous voltages or just signal that
a cover has been opened. Suitable parts are available from
TE connectivity. Separate un-keyed anti-tamper switches
that might be used internally in a charger are available,
such as the IP54-rated surface-mount ATS series from C&K.
Withstanding a difficult environment
It can be expected that any EV charger, from home AC
installation to fast DC types will be fitted in an outside lo-
cation with all of the potential environmental stresses of
temperature and humidity, with the possibility of dust in-
gress, pollutants and even a salty atmosphere in coastal lo-
cations. Power connectors to the vehicle mentioned earlier
would typically be rated for ambient temperatures of -30°C
to +50°C to practically include all locations worldwide but
the Amphenol type referenced also includes a tempera-
ture sensor to protect against the additional ohmic heating
from passing the charging current. The connector might
be IP44-rated, providing protection against water splashed
from all directions and solid objects over 1mm in size.
Smaller objects down to the size of dust are not a major
problem in connectors are they have large safety creepage
and clearance distances between connections and can be
routinely cleaned easily. A DC EV charger itself is subject
to significant internal heating on top of the wide variation
in ambient temperature and fans are never an ideal solu-
tion for lifetime considerations, so thermal management
is a major issue addressed during the design phase. As a
minimum, industrial temperature grades of components
will be used with passive components such as capacitors
rated at 105°C or even higher. The use of wide band-gap
semiconductors for their potentially better efficiency re-
duces dissipation and they also inherently operate reliably
at higher junction temperatures. This feature has been ex-
ploited in server power supplies to allow higher operating
temperatures with reduced heatsinking and consequent
better power density. However, in an EV charger, this is less
of an issue and lower temperature rises will be targeted for
reduced component stresses.
An EV charger will also include sensitive PCBs which will
typically be coated to provide protection against humidity
and the real danger of damp dust causing leakage across
tracks or even arcing. The EV charger housing might also
include an enhanced protection rating, perhaps IP65
according to IEC 60529 or higher, which give complete
protection against dust ingress and low-pressure jets of
water. The NEMA standard for enclosure sealing might also
be used with Grade 6, for example, providing dust resist-
ance and immersion-proof sealing. Unlike the IP ratings,
the NEMA system also has optional further specifications/
codes for corrosion and snow/ice resistance which would
be particularly relevant to EV chargers (Table 3).
NEMA Code IP Code
1 IP20
2 IP22
3, 3X, 3S, 3SX IP55
3R, 3RX IP24
4, 4X IP44, IP66, IP65
5 IP53
6 IP67
6P IP68
12, 12K, 13 IP54
Table 3: Equivalence of IP and NEMA enclosure ratings
Reliability, lifetime and maintainability
EV chargers can range from relatively simple wall boxes to
fast DC types that can include thousands of components,
some by their nature stressed with high currents, voltage
and temperatures. To maintain high reliability during ser-
vice, components will be derated appropriately to manu-
facturer’s recommendations. It is accepted that tempera-
ture shock can be more damaging than a continuous low
or high value, due to stress from differential material ex-
pansion, so measures may be put in place to mitigate the
effects. For example, it is possible to include simple resis-
tive heaters to gently bring temperatures up to a minimum
value for startup from cold temperatures until self-heating
takes over, at which point the heaters are disabled.
The likelihood of a random failure during lifetime is a
statistical measure, so even if a design has a high Mean
Time Between Failure (MTBF) rating, this only reduces the
Infant Mortalities
Residual Failures
Service Life
Failure rate
Wearout Period
Time
Figure 8: The reliability ‘bathtub’ curve
chance of failure occurrence, which is approximately
constant during the bottom of the ‘bathtub curve’ for
failure rate (Figure 8). Failure rates are additive in a system,
so if any one causes shutdown, in a system with many
components, the MTBF for the system can be just a few
tens of thousands of hours, even with high quality com-
ponents. If you take just one charger, the math says that
the probability of survival to the MTBF hours is just 37%, if
the system has not reached end of life from wear-out. For
a larger and larger population of installed chargers it can
become more certain that across the population, there
will be increased numbers of failures starting from the day
of installation, even if it is assumed that a burn-in process
has eliminated ‘infant mortalities. A seemingly good MTBF
of 50,000 hours means across 50,000 installed systems, one
per hour can be expected to fail from day one and service
personnel must be available to rectify these faults within
the agreed response time. As mentioned before, a high-
power charger is typically assembled from independent
sub-units which multiply up the power available. While
not providing true redundancy, this arrangement does
allow continued operation after a failure but with reduced
capacity. It is vital that monitoring circuitry senses and re-
ports a sub-unit failure before more occur, but repairs can
at least be scheduled at a convenient time.
An EV charger may have high reliability with a high MTBF
but lifetime could still be low with a sub-optimal design.
For example, electrolytic capacitors can be very reliable
but during a very short life. If run near maximum voltage,
ripple current and temperature ratings, lifetime could be
measured in just weeks, although the definition of failure
may be a parameter out of specification such as leakage
current, which may not affect operation for a longer pe-
riod. Derating can increase electrolytic capacitor lifetime
dramatically, but can force the use of larger, more ex-
pensive components. Large capacitors may therefore
be service items, changed out regularly to ‘reset’ the
product expected life. Other components that wear
are anything mechanical, such as fans, switches and
relays, but also optocouplers and surge limiters such as
varistors.
27
 It is inevitable that EV chargers will require regular servicing, if A modular AC-DC 50kW concept reference design is also
only to clean out any accumulated pollutants. However, the available from Infi neon which is bi-directional and can be
Infineon
technique of ‘predictive maintenance’ can be employed, air or liquid cooled (Figure 10). The design is highly efficient
efficient
which uses real-time remotely-monitored performance and the output can range from 200 to 900VDC for com-
data and its trends to predict if a system is deteriorating and patibility with all charging standards and battery types.
is more likely to fail. Servicing can be performed in advance Use of a reference design gives customers a hardware
in ‘quiet periods’ and only as necessary, allowing far more and software ‘blueprint’ to dramatically reduce design
efficient use of maintenance personnel and resources. It
efficient effort. The designs can be used as sub-units and stacked
can also avoid the expense of unnecessary changeout of to achieve the highest current power levels in use and are
otherwise serviceable components, just because they have fully supported with fi rmware and a GUI for easy setup.
firmware
operated for a certain number of hours. Typical parameters In the area of charge controllers, modules are available
that might be reported, perhaps over the ’cloud’ are internal from IoTecha. (Figure 11) These Systems-on Modules are
ambient and component temperatures, system conversion solutions for the Combined Charging Systems standards
efficiency and electrical noise levels. Many control compo-
efficiency in a wide variety of confi gurations. Among a host of func-
configurations.
nents incorporate sensors which can be used to compute tions, the modules handle authentication, energy and
these parameters and particularly, power conversion perfor- metering management
management and andallallnecessary
necessary communica-
communication
mance can be reported through a standard PMBusTM using tion interfaces
interfaces to connect
to connect to a central
to a central serverserver to achieve
to achieve ‘Plug
an I2C interface for example to connectivity modules. ‘Plug and Charge’
and Charge’ functionality.
functionality. In In
thethearea
areaofof connectivity,
modules for BluetoothTM, Wi-Fi etc. are already effectively
considered to be ‘components’ and bought-in parts are an
expedient solution.
Discrete versus module rationale

It is a well-rehearsed argument, but for a quick time to

market for an EV charger, modules or sub-units are avail- Component quality
able that largely eliminate the risk of discrete ground-up
designs. The concept can range from using a modular Components in EV chargers are not required to meet
DC-DC converter instead of discrete components, all the automotive AECQ standards although many parts will be
way to implementing reference designs from suppliers qualified to these levels anyway. In many ways, the internal
qualified
Infineon for multi-kW power conversion stage
such as Infineon components will be subject to similar environmental stress
sub-units which can be paralleled up to any power level to in-vehicle electronics, except perhaps for shock and
pre-certified for safety and
required. Modules can be pre-certified vibration, so high-grade industrial parts are expected to be
other standards compliance and come with a track history used with second sources where possible. A robust design
field reliability data. An example is the 11kW reference
of field will use parts from established suppliers who are supported
Infineon REF-DAB11KIZSICSYS (Figure 9) which
design from Infineon by a reliable distribution network with a global presence.
is a bi-directional DC-DC converter using a CLLC resonant
topology, providing 550-800VDC output from a 750VDC
input. The design showcases Infi neon’s CoolSiCTM MOSFETs,
Infineon’s The next part of this series of EV charger design
Aurix and XMC controllers along with the OPTIGATM
TM TM
final part,
guides will consider connectivity and the final
Trusted Platform Module and EiceDRIVERTM devices, all software.
previously mentioned.

Figure 9: An EV DC-DC bi-directional Figure 10: A modular 50kW EV Figure 11: The IoTecha EV charge con-
charger reference design from DC charger reference design from troller – a unified platform for AC and DC
Infineon, rated at 11kW Infineon chargers
14
28
29
 3
Connectivity

Content
The challenge..................................................................................32

Connectivity use cases.................................................................................. 32

Reliability is key.................................................................................................. 32

Roles within the EV charging sector.......................................................33

Technology options - Wireless....................................................33

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth solutions....................................................................34

Technology options - Wired.........................................................35

Modular blocks use twisted pair Ethernet............................................35

Design in practice...........................................................................36

Antennas and passives..................................................................................36

Load balancing.................................................................................................. 37

References.......................................................................................38

Conclusions.....................................................................................38

30
Version 01, December 2022

The EV Charging
Infrastructure Designbook:

Connectivity
This is the third part of a series of guides for designers involved in
electric vehicle (EV) charging station projects. In this part, we will
consider the connectivity functions required and how these should be
implemented. The following text will cover the functions needed in EV
charging, as well as a review of the pros and cons of multiple wireless
and wired technology options. Home wall box plus public fast charging
station designs will be included - with both discrete and modular
approaches being discussed.

A
s the world responds to the climate crisis, the
adoption of electric vehicles is accelerating quickly.
While the EVs themselves might grab the headlines,
the growth of the EV market also depends critically
on the charging infrastructure available. The roll-out rate of
charge stations and their associated infrastructure is now also
rising exponentially - at around 50% year-on-year. Fast charger
installations are showing the most growth. Both public and
private charger networks are being installed, with government
funding being allocated in many countries.
The International Energy Agency (IEA) reported nearly half
a million public chargers installed in 2021 [1], and the global
average in 2021 was 10 EVs per public charger and 2.4kW
per EV. In Europe, the EV charging infrastructure market is
expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR)
of more than 30% through to 2030, with Germany alone aiming
to have a million public charge points by this date [2]. Home
charger installation rates are higher still, with one prediction
saying there will be 35 million globally by 2026 [3]. With prices
at $600 to over $1000 each, the market for wall boxes alone
is in the order of tens of billions of dollars.
While there are multiple different types of EV charger, they
share a common requirement - they need to be connected
to central infrastructure of some sort. This connectivity
enables user authentication, charge scheduling, billing and
energy use monitoring. The charger must also have some
form of user interface, and may also connect to the user’s
smartphone.
There are many communications options available in the
market, so a charge point designer needs to consider what
is the best solution for their particular needs. In this design
guide, we will introduce many of the factors that need to
be considered. Both wired and wireless technologies will be
looked at, various standards considered, and some examples
given of components that can be used.

31
3
 The challenge
There are three basic types of communication to consider. First
between the end user and the charge point, then between
the vehicle itself and the charge point, and then between
the charge point and the charging infrastructure. This link
to the infrastructure could be based on communication
with software running in the cloud, while the user may also
use an app to connect to cloud data.
Connectivity use cases
Why do charge points need connectivity? For a start, as
part of the charging process, the vehicle exchanges data
with the charging point, such as the technical details of
what kind of vehicle it is, as well as the relevant billing
information. Smart metering capabilities can show the user
how much energy they are consuming, and how much it
is costing - which can help them choose when to charge.
For the energy utility, the information from the charge
point shows them how much energy is being used, and
therefore how much they need to produce and supply
to that location. It also enables them to correctly bill the
user. In the future, ‘vehicle to grid’ systems will also be
able to send energy from a car’s battery back to the main
electricity grid, with managing of this also being dependent
on information from the charge point.
Another important use for connectivity is firmware and
software updates - so charge point functions can be
updated when needed, without human intervention on
site. Additionally, charge points require load balancing, to
manage the power demands on the electricity infrastructure
(this will be looked at in more detail later). Also, multiple
charge points at one location have to be controllable
together, to make configuration and management simple.
It should be noted that charging points must communicate
with their energy supplier - for example to ensure demand
does not peak too suddenly (such as at the start of a time
period with a cheaper charging tariff). By incentivising
customers to charge at different times, the overall demand
can be kept at manageable levels, and the available power
resources may be shared fairly between all the EVs being
charged.
Each EV charge point generates large amounts of data,
estimated at around 100MB to 500MB per month [4]. This
data can be used to analyse customer behaviour, enabling
service improvements to then be realised.
4
32
For connectivity between the charge point and the user,
we can generally assume the user has a smartphone, so
they can access an app to control charging - although
the charge point should provide its own user interface,
for people without smartphones. The user opens the app,
and can then employ it to connect to the charge point,
control payments and so on. The charging point should
be able to take payment using a standard credit card, as
well as any options it may offer for payment via an app,
or Apple or Google Pay.
Reliability is key
To help consumers overcome ‘range anxiety’, it must
be easy to find working charge points, which means the
change points must provide up-to-date information on
their status and availability [5].
For the charge point operator, reliability is paramount. If
a charge point is inoperable, then they will lose revenue,
and their market reputation will be put at risk. It is therefore
essential that a non-operable charge point can report its
status - so that action can be taken.
Reliability has been a serious issue in the past, with consumers
reporting wasted journeys to out-of-action charge points,
although it is acknowledged that the situation is improving.
Problems with communication between a charge point and
the back office systems (such as payment processing) is one
of the more common causes of downtime [6], highlighting
the need for reliable wired or wireless links.
EV charge point connectivity must be flexible enough to
handle increases in complexity and scale, as more points
start to be rolled out. Provisioning, management and
monitoring has to be simple and effective, and it must be
possible to detect and resolve any issues rapidly, in order
to minimize downtime.
Of course, the connectivity must be secure and resilient, so
as to protect against the risk of cyberattacks. Consumers
need to feel confident about handing over their financial
details, and any hack that takes a charge point out of
action will be problematic. If not properly set up, Wi-Fi can
be more vulnerable to security breaches than cellular or
wired connections.

Roles within the EV charging sector
To give a little context, we should look briefly at the
different layers and functions involved in the EV charging
sector. These are as follows:
• Charge Point Operator (CPO) - A CPO manages the charge
point itself, and is the public face of the infrastructure
that users interact with. It may own the location, the
equipment or both. Alternatively, it may provide a
‘Charging as a Service’ solution.
• Electro-Mobility Service Provider (eMSP) - While a CPO
may operate a network of charge points, an eMSP will
facilitate consumer use of networks operated by multiple
CPOs, ideally via just a single account.
• Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) - This is where
the grid meets the vehicle. Designing, manufacturing and
delivering charge point equipment is the role of EVSE
suppliers. A system integrator may also be involved, to
put together hardware and software from one or more
EVSE suppliers. The system is likely to use modules or
sub-systems, provided by specialist manufacturers, for
example to handle the payment system.
5G
Technology options - Wireless
The first decision when considering charge point connectivity
is whether to use wired, wireless or a combination. In
many cases, particularly where many charge points are
in one location, wireless will prove simplest. Even if a fast
fibre connection is available to a charging site, running
cable to each charge point may be difficult, complex and
expensive too.
Standard wireless protocols will often be the best choice
- cellular (4G or 5G), Wi-Fi or Bluetooth. Deploying wireless
networks is quick and straightforward, with the cost and
disruption of laying a new cable network avoided. In
practice, providing Wi-Fi, Bluetooth and cellular is likely to
be a good solution, giving the user options, and ensuring
that communications are resilient.
The wireless connectivity may be implemented in different
ways. It could be as simple as a cellular modem, with a
standard SIM card, that is factory-installed by the EVSE
supplier as part of the charge point. Alternatively, some
locations need complex gateways and routers, supporting
multiple charge points, with a local wireless connection to
each point, and backhaul via either fibre or cellular.
While cellular is available nearly everywhere, it has the
disadvantage that there are some holes in coverage, for
example in an underground parking garage. Small femtocell
deployments can, however, fill in these gaps. While 4G is
better established, with much wider coverage, 5G has the
advantage of being able to support a higher density of
devices in any particular area.
33
5
 Wi-Fi enables beamforming to be used, which allows the radio
to focus the transmission or reception towards one particular
charging station or area. By putting energy in one specific
direction, the radio communication will be more stable.

Bluetooth is well developed in terms of mesh networking,

and there a lot of mesh SDKs available, which OEMs can
use and build with. Bluetooth modules can be employed
which allow the OEM to construct their software quickly Figure 1: PAN9026 wireless module
and easily, via simple AT Command programming, without
requiring extensive software expertise.

For wireless communication between the charge point and
user, Bluetooth is a familiar name for consumers, making
connection with it user-friendly and accessible. Multi-radio
modules, which provide both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth, can
present a compact, cost-efficient solution.
For authentication of the user, at the moment this is often
done by verifying the user’s credit card information, which
can be via NFC. Another approach is to use Bluetooth Low
Energy (BLE) to validate the presence of the right user
at the charging station, by identifying their smartphone
– but this still can be vulnerable to being relayed, so an
additional PIN number or bio-authentication is required.
Appropriate security should also be implemented across
all wireless technologies, such as supporting the latest
WPA standards for Wi-Fi.
. an external antenna option, increasing design flexibility.
This avoids potential congestion at 2.4GHz - as this band
is also assigned to Bluetooth, other wireless technologies
(such as Zigbee and Thread), and even baby monitors and
microwave ovens.
For example, the PAN9026 from Panasonic is a dual-band
(2.4GHz and 5GHz) combo module, providing 802.11 a/b/g/n
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth Classic and BLE operation. The PAN9028
is another module in the PAN902x family, with 802.11ac
capabilities for use cases where higher data rates are needed.
The modules in the PAN902x family have beamforming
capabilities, and support the highest relevant security
standards. They are certified for multiple regions, which
simplifies roll-out in different countries. These modules
each include a built-in antenna, and can also be used with

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth solutions For Bluetooth-only projects, Panasonic offers the PAN178x
series. This is a standalone BLE module with a mesh stack option
A dual-band Wi-Fi solution can provide more flexibility and available. It is highly optimised for low-power transmission
reliability, enabling 5GHz communications to be utilised. and lower data rates.

Costumer side:
Usage Data PAN178x
Vehicles State of Charge

mesh mesh mesh mesh

Sales side:
Commercial Usage Data
Remote Control and monitoring

Figure 2: mesh system based on PAN178x Bluetooth module [courtesy of Panasonic]

6
34
Technology options - Wired Modular blocks use twisted pair Ethernet

Another need for wired connectivity to address is that

As discussed earlier, in many cases it may be simplest for
the charge points to connect to their infrastructure using
a wireless connection. This may be connected directly
to an operator’s mobile network, or a central controller
at the charge point location - which then provides a fast
fibre connection to the Internet.
Wired connections are essential in one role - between the
vehicle and the charge point. There is a well-defined set
of standard interfaces that specify all the details of this
communication - for example, IEC 61851-1 includes how to
communicate the maximum current of the charging sta-
tion to the car. Another requirement is for safety informa-
tion to be transmitted, such as ground force interruption.
The charge point needs to be able to turn a relay on and
off, for instance to disconnect the power if any safety
problem is detected. A driver component is required
to control the relay, such as the NCV7721 or NCV7723B
bridge drivers from onsemi. Using a full bridge driver,
rather than just a basic half bridge, improves reliability
and therefore safety.
For DC chargers, there is another standard to be aware
of - IEC 15118. This has a whole software stack for High
Level Communication (HLC). It is similar to HomePlug AV,
and needs a dedicated software PHY.
a charge point may be built from modular blocks con-
nected together. onsemi can provide 25kW building
blocks which can be combined together - for example,
using a combination of 12 modules would give a charge
point rated at 300kW.
These modules need to communicate with each other,
typically using a proprietary interface of some sort.
In the past, this might have relied on multiple control
wires in a point-to-point arrangement. Nowadays, it is
better to use a single Ethernet twisted pair cable to re-
place all these wires, using IP connectivity and running
at 10Mbps. Through the 10BASE-T1S standard, Ethernet
communication is possible without needing to use
a router-based system, thus reducing the amount of
hardware required. With this Ethernet connectivity in
place, the modules can be interrogated from a simple
external web browser for diagnostics - for example, to
spot any problems such as low output voltages or an
unusually high temperature.
The NCN26010 from onsemi is an example of an Ethernet
controller for this type of twisted pair infrastructure. It is
10Base-T1S compliant, and has very good noise immu-
nity. It includes power conditioning and MAC/PHY soft-
ware, and can replace various wired protocols - such as
HART, FieldBus, CAN, RS485, RS232 and FlexRay.

3.3 V

CSn DIO1 DIO0 VDD

OA-SPI
SCLK PROTOCOL ENGINE
VDDIO
Power Conditioning VDDA
MISO
RX
VDRVN
MOSI TX CONFIG/
BUFFER BUFFER STATUS DVDD
IRQn REGISTERS

PCS PMA
TX TX
LINEP
802.3 PLCA Collision
RSTn Clause 4 MDI
RS Dectect
LINEN
MAC

PCS PMA
RX XO
RX

NCN26010 XI

Figure 3: Functional block diagram of the NCN26010 Ethernet controller [courtesy of onsemi]
357
 The NCN26010 can also be used with a BLE interface,
such as onsemi’s RSL15. This provides a subsystem
that addresses two issues for OEMs - low-cost inter-
connection within the charge point (so remote diag-
nostics capabilities can be implemented), and sec-
ondly BLE connectivity to improve security.
antenna is important to achieve reliable connectivity,
and the right multiband antenna should be selected if
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are both used at a charge point.
Figure 4 shows the many wireless communication sys-
tems in a modern car, and the various technologies that
they use. While many of these rely on standard anten-
nae, including the battery management system, there
are others that require a custom antenna.

Design in practice Designers likewise need to ensure that the relevant

So now, it is time to look at a couple of other practical
issues that need to be considered in EV charge point
designs.
Antennas and passives
passives, such as capacitors, are rated for use at the
necessary RF frequencies in their system. Of course,
components should also be tested and qualified to the
appropriate automotive standards, such as AEC-Q200.
Although AEC-Q200 does not include antennae, AVX tests
its automotive A-Series antennae following AEC-Q200 re-
quirements and procedures as closely as possible.

As well as the components already discussed in this

guide, there are many others that must be specified. As
we will see, it is not all about the digital and analogue
elements. For example, in any wireless system, the

LEGEND:
Grey: standard antenna / Blue: custom antenna

ECALL: TELEMATIC CONTROL

INFOTAINMENT: + 3G/4G/5G UNIT (TCU):
+ 3G/4G/5G + Wi-Fi/BT + LTE/5G ROOF TOP / SHARK FIN:
+ Wi-Fi/BT + GNSS + Wi-Fi/BT + LTE/5G
+ GNSS + GNSS + V2X
+ GNSS
+ SDARS
ON BOARD + AM/FM
DIAGNOSTIC (OBD): + Wi-Fi/BT
+ LTE + RKE
+ Wi-Fi/BT
+ GNSS
SMART ENTRY / KEY
COLLISION AVOIDANCE FOB / PEPS / RKE:
RADAR: + NFC
+ 77 GHz + LF
+ Wi-Fi
+ UWB
TIRE-PRESSURE
MONITORING
SYSTEM (TPMS): IN VEHICLE WIRELESS
+ 315 MHz Battery Management CHARGER:
+ 433 MHz System (BMS): + Coil + Sheet
+ 2.4 GHz + 2,4 GHz

Figure 4: Antenna systems for automotive [courtesy of Kyocera AVX]

8
36
 Without Dynamic Load Balancing

Smart Charging PAN902x as Clients

PAN902x as Access Point for Cloud Connectivity

Figure 5: Load balancing using a PAN902x module as an access point [courtesy of Panasonic]

Load balancing

Load balancing is another use case where reliable con-

nectivity is necessary. In a location where there are sev-
eral charging stations, if multiple vehicles come in and
charge at the same time, this can overload the building‘s
capacity (see Figure 5). It may also require the operator
to pay more to the utility company and cause problems
with the infrastructure itself.

This is where the concept of load balancing comes in.

This would basically allow each vehicle to use only a
certain amount of energy within the building’s supply.
For example, if we had 44kW of supply at a location and
there were four vehicles charging at the same time, the
smart charging infrastructure would allow only about
11kW to be allocated to each vehicle.

To make this possible, there must be connectivity at

each charge point. Then, the central controller can
dictate how much power may be used at each point so
that it does not disrupt the whole building‘s capacity or
cause any damage to the infrastructure. The ISO 15118
standard defines the information that the EV and charge
point need to exchange, in order to match supply and
demand of power.

37
9
 Conclusions
Looking ahead, the biggest challenge around charge points (in the near
future at least) may be simply keeping up with the exponential growth of
the EV market. With sales around the globe exploding, there is pressure
on operators to roll-out new charge points at an ever-greater pace, while
not compromising uptime or resilience. Further on, we may also see more
implementation of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) systems - as the industry moves
towards smart grid infrastructure.

The fundamental challenges will stay the same - it is essential for charge
points to be highly reliable, with minimal downtime, and the ability to func-
tion for years with zero (or certainly minimal) on-site human intervention.
Charge point connectivity systems need to be flexible enough to adapt to
future changes, and scalable to support large roll-outs. Most importantly,
they must provide a simple, consistent interface for users.

By choosing the right combination of communications technologies, and

implementing them with the right components, charge point designers can
ensure they meet these challenges head on - with reliable, fully-featured
products that consumers will appreciate.

This guide has introduced the design elements of the connectivity required
for EV charging. In other design guides, we consider the power stages of EVs,
the control circuitry necessary and the related software.

References
[1] www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2022/
trends-in-charging-infrastructure

[2]  www.avnet.com/wps/wcm/connect/281bbe65-1ba6-43f6-8cbc-eb2b95d9367e/avnet-ev-charging-white-
www.avnet.com/wps/wcm/connect/281bbe65-1ba6-43f6-8cbc-eb2b95d9367e/avnet-ev-charging-white-
paper.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&attachment=false&id=1657812124344

[3] www.juniperresearch.com/press/
home-ev-charging-spend-exceed-16-bn-globa

[4] www.sierrawireless.com/iot-blog/
how-wireless-networks-make-ev-charging-manageable/

[5] competitionandmarkets.blog.gov.uk/2021/08/04/
electric-vehicle-charging-cma-fi nds-more-needs-to-be-done
electric-vehicle-charging-cma-finds-more-needs-to-be-done

[6] www.gov.uk/government/publications/electric-vehicle-charging-market-study-fi nal-report/final-

w ww.gov.uk/government/publications/electric-vehicle-charging-market-study-final-report/final-re-
report#problems-people-face-using-public-charging
port#problems-people-face-using-public-charging

38
10
39
 4
Software &
Integration

Content
The unprecedented market potential of EV charging...................42

Who’s driving the implementation of charging

infrastructure?....................................................................................................42

Charge station essentials ............................................................................43

Finding charging facilities............................................................................43

User authentication.........................................................................................43

Interaction during the charge session ..................................................44

Payment systems.............................................................................................44

GUI construction .............................................................................................45

Anomaly detection ........................................................................................45

V2G - a new paradigm .................................................................................45

Managing localized energy storage and microgeneration

activities ...............................................................................................................46

System updates................................................................................................ 47

Maximizing the effectiveness of backend operations .................. 47

The need for effective cloud-based system management ....... 47

Use of an Avnet IoTConnect dashboard for managing

EV charging infrastructure...........................................................................48

Design logistics ................................................................................................48

Conclusions.................................................................................... 48

References.......................................................................................49

40
Version 01, January 2023

The EV Charging
Infrastructure Designbook:

Software &
Integration
The previous installments of this series of guides about EV charging
infrastructure focused on power, control and connectivity hardware
respectively. For the concluding installment, attention will now be
turned to the important software and system integration aspects of
the whole design and implementation process. In particular, this will
highlight the variety of services, initiatives and development/system
management platforms that the different operations within the Avnet
Group can offer to those involved in the creation, installation and
running of such infrastructure.

T
here are now over 330,000 publicly accessible
charging points[1] in operation across EU member
states (based on data published by consultancy
firm P3 Group). Though more are being installed
every week, expectations are even higher. At least ten
times this figure will be needed before the end of the
decade, if demand is to be adequately addressed and the
EU’s pledge to reduce carbon emissions by 55%[2] in that
time frame are to have any hope of actually being met.
Charge station operators and municipalities, along with
the OEMs that serve them, therefore need a high degree
of engineering support - so that they can accelerate the
roll-out process. There will also be a need for continuously
updated data insights, so that infrastructure can always run
with optimal efficiency.
According to Charge Up Europe[3], the greatest amount of
installed charging infrastructure per capita is to be found
in the Benelux and Nordic regions, followed by Germany,
Italy and France. It is clear from Table 1, that there is a large
divergence between the charge point availability in some
countries compared to others.

41
3
 Netherlands 699
Luxembourg 399
Sweden 202
Belgium 129
Austria 127
Denmark 91
Finland 81
Germany 78
Slovenia 55
Italy 49
France 44
Portugal 40
Estonia 39
Ireland 48
Hungary 25
Latvia 22
Croatia 22
Malta 20
Lithuania 19
Slovakia 16
Spain 12
Czech Republic 10

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

Table 1: Installed public charging infrastructure in EU member states per 100,000 inhabitants [courtesy of Charge Up Europe/P3 Group]

The unprecedented market potential of
EV charging
If Europe is to reach a total of over 3 million charging
points[4] for the public to be able to use by the end of this
decade, then huge investment is going to be mandated.
This will need to come from both the private sector and
government funding.
A recent report compiled by industry analyst firm Grand
View Research[5] expects the global charging infrastructure
market to witness a compound annual growth rate (CAGR)
of 30.6% between 2022 and 2030. This will mean that it has
a £217 billion annual worth by the end of that period -
presenting suppliers providing charge station operators
with either hardware or software with highly profitable
business opportunities.
Who’s driving the implementation of
charging infrastructure?
over the coming years. This is motivated by many expert
sources now predicting a much more rapid switch over
in relation to new vehicle sales, with EVs almost certain to
surpass internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles by the
summer of 2025[6].
There are lucrative openings for supermarkets and other
retailers to provide charging points too, as well as hotel,
restaurant and cinema chains. Having charging points in
their car parking amenities will be of obvious benefit -
helping them to secure greater brand loyalty and boost
customer footfall. Among the companies already making
major financial outlay here are Tesco (in partnership with
Volkswagen), Holiday Inn and IKEA. There is the option for
such retail and hospitality locations to make their pricing
more appealing than for roadside charge stations, in order
to encourage greater patronage. Also special offers could
be provided, such as if the EV driver spent over a certain
amount in the store that day, they would get a certain
amount of charging time for free.

Each looking to gain market share at an early stage,

numerous dedicated charge station operators have
emerged. However, it should be noted that they are only
part of a much bigger picture. As well as these companies,
established petrol suppliers (such as Shell and BP) are
placing an increasing number of charging points at the
outlet locations - signifying that they are responding
to the shift in their customers’ requirements envisaged

4
42
Charge station essentials
Before describing the different system integration elements
that EV charging infrastructure will need to encompass, it
is important to understand things from a user perspective.
Here is a brief overview of all the key facets that EV drivers
will want from a charge station:
• Accessibility - This must be both in terms of station
positioning and the number of available charge points
at each site.
• Seamless user experience - With it being paramount that
every stage of the charging process and each individual
interaction involved will all run smoothly. If any frustrations
arise, then the driver may look to use another charge
station operator’s facilities in the future.
• Expediency - The whole charging procedure needs
to be completed within the shortest possible length
of time, so that the EV driver can get back out on the
road again.
• Secure financial transactions - The EV driver must have
absolute confidence that their banking details are not
vulnerable to the threat posed by hackers.
• Assured charging capabilities - If an EV driver is unable
to charge their vehicle sufficiently due to supply issues,
then this could have serious implications for them. It
will almost certainly mean that (whenever possible) the
charge station operator would not be used, and most
likely result in the driver letting other people know about
the poor service they had received.
From an operational standpoint it will be equally important
that the following points can likewise be dealt with. These are:
• Attaining maximum revenues.
• Keeping the associated operational expenses (such as
equipment maintenance) down, so as to raise profitability
levels.
• Gaining repeat business through the quality of service
provided.
• Responding to changing situations, both in respect of
customer requirements and the electricity supply coming
from the grid.
• Preventing downtime.
• Protecting brand reputation.
Finding charging facilities
To attend to charging requirements across the largest possible
area, EV charging infrastructure needs to be distributed in
such a way that supply can be matched with user demand.
Single charging points will be more densely deployed in
cities or large towns than in rural areas. Charge stations will
be periodically situated at different points on highways.
EV drivers will need to identify where charging points can
be found, and if they are available for use. This can be
done through a smartphone app. The app can also plan
out the best route for the EV to take, navigating how it will
traverse the urban environment from its current position.
An app could also inform drivers of the distance that
must be travelled along a highway before the next charge
station is reached. This will mean that charging stops can
be planned into journeys, and the ‘range anxiety’ issues
that EV drivers often have can be allayed.
User authentication
For any public use charging point - whether it is an unmanned
unit on a residential street or one of the outlets found at
a large charge station at the side of a highway - there is
the potential for unauthorized users to attempt to draw
electricity to charge their vehicle without paying for it.
Municipalities and charge station operatives must therefore
be vigilant, and ensure that effective user authentication
mechanisms are put in place.
Before any transaction begins, verifying that the customer
is who they claim to be is clearly of critical importance.
At the foundation of the authentication process will be
transport layer security (TLS), where there is an exchange
of cryptographic keys. The advent of the ISO 15118-20
protocol, which replaces the precious ISO 15118-2, will not
only make the authentication process more robust - it will
also mean that multiple contracts can be held by the EV.
The upshot of this is that an EV driver can have subscriptions
with several different operators (something that the old
version was not capable of supporting, which caused
serious limitations). It also allows the holding of separate
contracts relating to the driver being able to charge their
EV at their workplace, at their gym, etc.
There are a variety of the different authentication methods
that may be employed, permitting access to be provided or
restricted accordingly. The most commonplace mechanisms
will be based on use of:
43
5
 • A smartcard reader to check the customer’s credit card
details.
• An RFID reader that takes data from a transponder (usually
attached to the customer’s key ring).
• Interfacing with a mobile app (via NFC).
• A vehicle identifier (directly incorporated into the EV
itself).
Potentially, each of these has its own particular strengths
and weaknesses that designers need to be aware of. For
example, if the EV is stolen, then the built-in identifier
will allow the thief to recharge the vehicle (unless this
is deactivated as soon as the theft is reported). In most
cases, a combination of different authentication options
will need to be incorporated, with one then being used
to back up the other.
Through the RFID, NFC and smart technology that Avnet
Group offers - from vendors like STMicroelectronics and
NXP - alongside supporting software, the authentication
stage can be kept straightforward and convenient, but
still be fully effective. The result is automatic customer
recognition and ‘zero touch’ charging.
Interaction during the charge session
Generally a smartphone app will be employed to initiate
the charging process. It can confirm the tariff and inform
the driver if a time limit is reached (which will lead to the
tariff being increased). In addition, the app will make sure
that the charge gun is attached correctly (and there are
no safety concerns). Leveraging advanced metrology, the
energy flow between the charging point and the EV can
be monitored, and the driver alerted of any issues through
the app. Also safety mechanisms can be put in place to
protect against overheating, etc. Anti-tamper detection
can be featured too, to prevent illegal activity.
For charge station customers not using an app, the process
can be initiated via capacitive sensors in the gun. Once valid
attachment has been confirmed, charging can begin and
the EV driver may then refer to the graphic user interface
(GUI) integrated into the charging equipment to see details
about the session.
For a wallbox located at a house or in a residential building,
the charging process is similar, but there are still several
differences that should be noted. Initiating charging will be
much the same - with sensors checking that the charge gun
is correctly attached, and the charging tariff from the utility
at that time being confirmed. Operational management
is necessary here to make sure that charging does not
44
interfere with other household activities. If only a certain
amount of electricity can be supplied then heating and
lighting, for instance, will be prioritized.
Payment systems
To provide accurate billing to the customer, the payment
system will need to have detailed data relating to the
charging session. This will need to cover the period over
which the session ran, the total charge delivered in that
time, etc. It must also take into account any tariff changes
that took place over the charging session. This could be
due to the session going from the utility company’s off-
peak rate to its peak rate, or the charge station operator
applying an additional surcharge if the session goes for
longer than an hour (as a charging point that could be
used by another customer is not being made available).
There could also be information relating to different customer
types that needs to be considered - for example, freight
carriers may have negotiated a discounted rate with the
operator for volume business (allowing their trucks to be
charged at a lower cost as a result). Also, in certain countries
(such as Germany), the disabled will be permitted to charge
their e-mobility vehicles for free.
The vast majority of EV drivers so far have decided to opt for
having some form of subscription with charge operators[7].
They are thereby able (after completing user authentication)
to get the charge session billed to their account at the end
of the month. Payment is then simply taken automatically.
To encourage people to sign-up as a subscriber, loyalty
programs can be put in place where preferential rates or
other perks might be offered. By having such programs,
operators can attempt to gain a greater share of the customer
base, with EV drivers more likely to seek out charge stations
where their subscription is valid.
For those who would prefer the flexibility of not having
a subscription, the ability to pay via a smartphone (using
Apple Pay, Cash App, etc.) or credit card will need to be
included. If on-site interactions of this kind are going to
be carried out, then having superior payment security
will be something that the charge station operator simply
cannot afford to overlook. One of the other advantages
that ISO 15118-20 has over the older ISO 15118-2 protocol
is that longer cryptographic keys can be utilized, leading
to stronger security.
Until now, charge station operators have relied on their
own unique payment system apps. It is feasible though
that consumer pressure will lead to a consolidation here.
Payment mechanisms may become unified, meaning that
charge station operators need to offer interoperability with
those of the rivals.
GUI construction
As already described, while at a charge station or public
charging point, the EV driver will need access to a multitude
of different items of data. Even before they look to start a
charging session, they will want to know the power available
at that time (if there is limited charging due to high grid
demands), the tariff, plus the period for which that tariff
will remain valid. Once charging has been initiated, they
may want to check what the current status of the session is
(the charging rate, the battery’s state of charge, upcoming
tariff changes, etc.). To get hold of this information, they
will access a GUI.
Using NFC, a smartphone handset can serve as a conduit
for the charging equipment’s GUI. Consequently, the EV
driver may look at an app and have the freedom to move
around while still checking what is happening. Alternatively,
they can use the display built into the charging equipment
(though they have to stay nearby in this case).
An extra function that the GUI could provide while charging is
taking place is third party advertising. As they are effectively
a ‘captive audience’, drivers could be shown adverts while
they are waiting for their EVs’ batteries to be replenished.
This could serve as another revenue stream for charge
station operators.
In order to deliver maximum convenience to the customer,
the GUI must be as intuitive as possible. This will mean that
the authentication, charge initialization and subsequent
payment process all remain straightforward and the
prospect of customer annoyance can be avoided. So as
not to cause confusion, it will be important that there is
consistency between the GUI seen on the smartphone and
one that is rendered on the charging equipment’s display.
GUI construction is an artform that most electronics engineers
have little real experience of. Making it simple for users to
work with, and having sufficient visual impact on both a
relatively large display and smaller handset-enabled version
can be difficult. This is why getting advice off professionals
with all the applicable knowledge is prudent.
Anomaly detection
The ability to uncover any anomalies arising will be vital if a
charge station operation is to achieve maximum profitability.
Data relating to numerous different parameters will need
to be captured and then supplied to the backend system.
Here, using artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms, any unusual
patterns or behaviors may be pinpointed. These could
indicate that there is some form of malfunction at a charging
point in the charge station, or signify that an attempt to
steal charge is underway and action needs to be taken.
V2G - a new paradigm
Until now electricity distribution networks have predominantly
relied on power stations burning fossil fuels as their source
of supply. This is all in the process of changing though, as
the proportion of electricity coming from renewable sites
(wind, solar, etc.) increases. Due to the irregular nature of
these forms of energy generation (which are constantly
changing throughout the day, as well as seasonally),
counterbalancing mechanisms are needed to maintain grid
stability - with electricity being stored for utilization when
renewable output is at a low ebb. As EVs will generally have
relatively low utilization rates for much of the time (just
travelling short distances), their batteries could be pivotal
in enabling the electricity storage needed to support the
grid - hence mitigating the risk of power outages.
In addition to helping augment charge station authentication
and payment security, a further benefit of the ISO 15118-20
protocol is going to be its ability to support bi-directional
charging. The vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology that results
from this opens up the possibility for EV batteries to act
as a source of electrical power, not just a sink.
When applied in a residential context, this signifies an
exciting new advance. It will allow EV owners to transfer
power back to the electrical distribution network (in return
for financial reimbursement) - compensating for variations
in renewable electricity generation (where the output
depends on how much sunshine there is or how hard the
wind is blowing).
What follows is a simple scenario. This illustrates how
communication undertaken by the wallbox would mean
that the needs of both the grid and connected EVs may be
attended to - with both being met by correctly scheduling
which of these should be prioritized at different points
in time.
45
 6:15 6:20
V2G communication Charge drawn from
begins EV battery by grid
Figure 1: Using EVs to maintain grid stability through bi-directional charging
An EV driver returns home from work at 6:15pm in the
evening. They connect their vehicle to the wallbox in-
stalled there. Through V2G, the wallbox then interfaces
with the grid. From this, it can ascertain what the current
grid consumption demands are. If it is apparent that de-
mand is particularly high at that time, then the wallbox can
make the battery of its connected EV available to the grid,
and delay charging operations until later. After the financial
terms have been confirmed, the remaining charge in the
EV battery (and numerous other connected EV batteries)
can be accessed through inverter hardware. It may thus be
used to supplement the grid’s electricity delivery capacity,
in return for monetary reimbursement. After the demand
levels have subsided (say at 9:30pm), the wallbox will be
informed. Recharging of the EV can then begin, with there
still being ample time for its battery to be replenished be-
fore it is needed the following morning.
By having the option to use their EV’s battery as a rev-
enue generator, owners will be able offset some of the
initial cost associated with buying such vehicles. It must be
noted though that doing such activities on a regular basis
will shorten the lifespan of the battery (so this should be
factored in). Nevertheless, the income that can be derived
will undoubtedly make this worthwhile.
Though this is an appealing prospect for individual EV
owners, it becomes even more interesting when it can be
applied to a fleet of EVs. Companies with large numbers
of these vehicles will be able to pool battery reserves to-
gether and support the grid on a much greater scale. This
will allow them to take a considerable amount off their
day-to-day operational expenses.
46
9:30
Charge delivered from grid
to EV to replenish battery
Managing localized energy storage and
microgeneration activities
To maintain supply continuity at all times, charge station
operators will need to install large battery banks. These will
supplement the electricity coming from the grid at times
when EV customer demands are particularly high and the
grid simply cannot keep up. Using such energy storage
reserves, operators will have a buffer that they can draw
from whenever necessary. The batteries can be charged
up when the grid is not under particularly heavy strain,
meaning lower a time of use rate (TOU) too. They can then
be brought on-line during the morning and evening rush
hours, before being recharged again ready for the next
peak in customer activity.
Access to local renewable energy generation (such as
solar panels on the charge station roof) will also be ad-
vantageous, presenting another means for alleviating the
demands being placed on the grid. As well as being able
to interface with the grid, the charge station operation will
need to manage its on-site energy generation and storage
capabilities, in order for it to effectively deal with customer
demand and avoid the risk of supply disruptions. These
functions will call for a multi-faceted AI-enabled system.
System updates
Charging infrastructure implementations - whether they
are in the domestic, enterprise or commercial supplier
environment - will need to keep on evolving after their
original deployment. The use of firmware-over-the-air
(FOTA) updates will therefore be vital. This will enable
new features and functionality that will prove compel-
ling to customers to thereby be added in a cost-effec-
tive and time-efficient way. Having a system integration
arrangement that facilities FOTA updates is thus going
to be advisable.
Maximizing the effectiveness of backend
operations
Fundamental to the success of a charge station oper-
ator’s business will be how well its backend has been
implemented. Based on the various sections that have
already been described, it will be necessary for this to
cover:
• Load management - So that the demand at a charge
station at any given time can be balanced accord-
ingly, with back-up energy storage or microgenera-
tion assets being brought on-line should the grid be
unable to cope during that period.
• Implementing pricing changes - Thereby allowing any
TOU fluctuations due to grid demand to be attended
to, as well as enabling promotional campaigns and
other tariff-related actions to be undertaken.
• Tariff handling - So that customers can be encour-
aged to charge their vehicles at times when demands
on the grid are less intense (thus lowering strain being
placed upon it).
• The managing of on-site renewable assets - This will
entail having the ability to predict what demand will
be during different phases of the days. By combining
this consumer demand data with data coming from
weather stations in the vicinity, judgments can be
made about what percentage of the charge station’s
demand can be met by renewably generated elec-
tricity, and how much will have to be drawn from the
grid.
• Other grid interactions - In order that microgenera-
tion contract exchanges (to help with grid stability)
can be dealt with, etc.
• Management of business-to-business (B2B) service
agreements with freight companies, public transpor-
tation providers and suchlike.
• Preventative maintenance - So places where mal-
functions might occur can be uncovered early on
(and downtime averted).
• Detailed exploration - Through the continued cap-
ture of data regarding customer behavior (while still
respecting GDPR legislation) and geographic usage
heat maps, strategic decisions may be made. In many
cases, the analysis involved will be done using AI. The
outcome of this will be that resource availability can
be better matched with customer requirements and
future consumption projections prepared for.
Having edge-located intelligence will be at the heart of
delivering all these functions. It will enable more rapid
responsiveness to changing circumstances. In addition,
it will act as material that fuels data analysis. Providing
the backend system with large quantities of data on an
ongoing basis will make it possible to formulate better
operational and commercial strategies - resulting in the
business being healthier and combating sources of po-
tential weakness.
The need for effective cloud-based
system management
By having a sophisticated backend system installed,
in-depth analysis can be undertaken on all aspects of
a company’s charge station operation. A better under-
standing of each charge station location may be de-
rived and adjustments made that will help to accentuate
their revenue generating capabilities. Also, by scrutiniz-
ing customer usage patterns, new charging station sites
can be built at places where there is greatest need.
Already being employed by many leading charge sta-
tion operators, Avnet IoTConnect represents an inval-
uable tool for this sector. It provides them with a com-
prehensive end-to-end solution that is highly adept at
supporting the orchestration of complex IoT network
distributions, resulting in a dramatic streamlining of the
management effort and significant time savings.
Using this Azure-certified enterprise-ready platform,
which is already field proven in the EV charging infra-
structure sector, charge station operators are able to
develop, implement and subsequently manage large-
scale charging operations. Automation of many of the
key functions minimizes the human resources that need
to be allocated - with load balancing, pricing alterations,
energy storage/microgeneration control, plus interac-
tions with the grid all being done via state-of-the-art AI
algorithms.
47
 Use of an Avnet IoTConnect dashboard
for managing EV charging infrastructure
Telemetry capabilities mean that real-time monitoring
of all the parameters associated with each of the charg-
ing points can be conducted, as well as there being
provision for remote diagnostics plus troubleshooting.
Rules can be defined that will automatically trigger spe-
cific actions if certain conditions occur.
The inherent scalability of this platform permits new
charging points or charging station facilities to be
added to the system once their deployment has been
completed. Creation of smartphone apps to accom-
pany the backend implementation, offering captivating
user experiences, is also facilitated.
tegration process. This covers customer authentication,
payment systems, GUI construction, operating system
customization, backend implementation, reporting, con-
sumption level predicting, etc.
Furthermore, the Avnet Design Hub will markedly acceler-
ate project progression. Users can access charging infra-
structure related reference designs (covering the power,
GUI, payment and security elements). These will give them
a head start, while still having ample scope for adding dif-
ferentiation that will set their products apart from those of
the competition.
REFERNCE DESIGN
Browse over 500 proven
reference designs used
in live applications

Design logistics

EV charging infrastructure is becoming an extremely AVAIL DESIGN TOOL

competitive sector. So as not to miss out on windows of Customize your block diagram,
import to your CAD tool and
opportunity, charge station operators and wallbox manu- create a BOM
facturers both need to be able to complete development
projects in the shortest possible time period. Rather than
being forced to start projects from scratch, a modular ADDITIONAL
approach will mean that time and engineering are better RESOURCES
utilized, unwanted errors are not made, and time to market Use calculators and other
tools to support your
pressures are eased. The technical support and guidance design decisions
that the Power of Three team can offer will also make a
real difference.
GET TO MARKET FASTER
Complementing the hardware technology supplied by Save time, get to market faster,
and keep your product in
Avnet Abacus and EBV Elektronik, the design team at market longer
Avnet Embedded is helping to redefine EV charging in-
frastructure development projects. Its software expertise
is able to support charging equipment OEMs with regard Figure 2: Schematic explaining the Avnet Design Hub
to every element of the software development and in-

Conclusions
So this brings the final installment of this EV charging infrastructure design guide to an end.

In these four documents all of the principal constituent areas of which charging infrastructure is comprised has
been gone through in turn. For each of them, the specific engineering and logistical challenges that are posed
have been explained, then ways to overcome them outlined.

By referring to the design guides, the OEMs and systems integrators involved in this sector will be able to get useful
insights into how they might enhance their infrastructure development projects, discover ways in which systems
can be better managed once they have been deployed. To engage with the Power of Three team on your next EV
charging infrastructure project click here.

48
References
[1] www.p3-group.com/en/p3-charging-index/

[2] climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/european-green-deal/2030-climate-target-plan_en

[3] e
 uronews.com/next/2022/06/20/demand-for-evs-is-soaring-is-europes-charging-station-network-
up-to-speed

[4] embedded.avnet.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/EUR148071521-Web.pdf

[5] grandviewresearch.com/press-release/global-electric-vehicle-ev-charging-infrastructure-market

[6] r euters.com/business/autos-transportation/reuters-impact-envision-sees-cost-electric-cars-
parity-by-202526-2022-10-04/

[7] chargeupeurope.eu/state-of-the-industry-report

49
 Notes

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