Database Management System
Module 5: Enhanced Entity Relationship
(EER) Model
 EER model - the enhanced version of the E-
R model, which includes all the basic
concepts of the E-R model with the capability
to support additional semantic concepts of
complex applications.
 Superclass Entity Type (Supertype) - A
superclass entity type is a generic entity type
that includes one or more distinct subclasses
required to be represented in a data model.
 A superclass and a subclass is a one-to-
one (1:1) relationship.
 Subclass Entity Type (Subtype) - A
subclass entity type is a more specialized
entity type that has a distinct role in the
organization. A subclass is a member of
the superclass.
 Specialization - includes subgrouping
entities within an entity set having some
distinct nature than other entities.
 a process by which any existing entity
set is divided into smaller entity sets
according to the distinct or different
nature of entities.
 Generalization - when two or more entity
sets can be combined into a single entity set
by determining similarities between the
entities.
 Specialization and generalization lead to
attribute inheritance between higher-
level entity sets and lower-level entity sets.
 Aggregation - an abstraction process in
which a relationship set is considered a
higher-level entity set.
 Specialization and Generalization
Constraints are applied to capture
important business rules of the relationships
in an enterprise.
 Participation Constraints tell the
participation of entity set in relationship
sets.
1. Partial participation - If only
some entities from entity set E
participates in relationships in set R.
2. Total participation - If every entity
from entity set E is participated with
at least one relation in relationship
set R.
 Disjoint constraints describe the
relationship between members of different
subclasses.
 Categorization is a modeling process of a
single subclass having a relationship with
more than distinct superclasses.
Module 6: Query Languages
 SQL, pronounced as “ess-cue-ell”
or ‘sequel’ - is the abbreviation for the
structured query language; consists of
facilities for defining, accessing, and
managing relational databases. All tasks
related to relational data management
creating tables, querying the database,
deleting, granting access to users, etc.,
can be done using SQL.
 It has been accepted as an American
standard by American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and is a
Federal Information Processing
Standard (FIPS).
 It is also an international standard
recognized by the ISO.
 The first commercial DBMS that
supported SQL was Oracle in 1979.
SQL statements can be invoked either
interactively in a terminal session or by
embedding them in application
programs.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SQL
1. SQL is extremely flexible.
2. SQL uses a free-form syntax that
gives the user the ability to
structure SQL statements in a
way best suited.
3. It is a free-formatted language,
i.e., there is no need to start SQL
statements in a particular column
or be finished in a single line.
4. It has relatively few commands.
5. It is a non-procedural language.
 The SQL language is mainly divided into
four major parts.
1. Data-Definition Language
(DDL) - The SQL DDL provides
commands for defining the relations,
deleting the relations, and modifying
the existing relation schemas.
 View Definition
Language (VDL) - The SQL
DDL provides commands for
 Database Management System
defining and dropping the Specify which column you want to
views. update and the new value in the SET
 Integrity - The SQL DDL clause.
provides commands for Specify which rows are to be updated
specifying integrity using a condition in the WHERE
constraints that must be clause. The WHERE clause is
satisfied by the data stored in optional. If you omit it, the UPDATE
the database. statement will modify all rows in the
 Authorization - The SQL table.
DDL provides commands for  UPDATE table_name
specifying access rights to the SET column_name1 =expr1,
relations and views. column_name2 =expr2,...
 Data Manipulation Language (DML) - [WHERE Condition];
provides a query language. This query  DELETE Statement Syntax:
language is based on relational algebra and Specify the table from which you
tuple relational calculus; contains delete data.
commands to insert tuples into the database, Use a condition to specify which rows
delete tuples from the database, and to delete in the WHERE clause. The
modify/update tuples. DELETE statement will delete rows
 Data Control Language or Transaction that match the condition.
Control Language (DCL or TCL) -  DELETE FROM table_name
provides commands that help the DBA WHERE condition;
control the database, such as granting or  Creating table
revoking privileges to access the database  CREATE TABLE student (student_id
and storing or removing transactions that INT NOT NULL
would affect the database. AUTO_INCREMENT,
 Embedded SQL defines how the SQL stud_no VARCHAR(11) UNIQUE,
statements can be embedded within general- lname VARCHAR(50),
purpose programming languages like C, fname VARCHAR(50),
C++, Cobol, Pascal, etc. mname VARCHAR(50), dob DATE,
 Dynamic SQL allows programs to PRIMARY KEY (student_id))
construct and submit SQL queries at run CHARACTER SET latin1
time. COLLATE latin1_general_ci
ENGINE=INNODB;
Module 7: Query Languages 2
Module 8: Query Languages 3
 UPDATE is a DML statement that modifies
rows in a table. It allows you to change the  ALTER TABLE statement to add a column,
values in one or more single row columns or alter a column, rename a column, drop a
multiple rows; statement to update data in a column and rename a table.
table.  UNIQUE constraint to enforce the
 WHERE clause allows you to specify a uniqueness of values in a column or a group
search condition for the rows returned by a of columns in a table; can ensure that values
query; clause filters row from the result set. in a column or a group of columns are unique
 MySQL DELETE statement deletes data  ADD COLUMN Syntax:
from a single table.  For single column
 UPDATE Statement with WHERE ALTER TABLE table_name
clause Syntax: ADD [COLUMN]
Specify the name of the table to new_column_name
update data after the UPDATE column_definition
keyword. [FIRST | AFTER column_name];
 For multiple columns
ALTER TABLE table_name
 Database Management System
ADD [COLUMN]
new_column_name
column_definition
[FIRST | AFTER column_name],
ADD [COLUMN]
new_column_name
column_definition
[FIRST | AFTER column_name],
...;
 MODIFY COLUMN Syntax:
 For multiple columns
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY [COLUMN] column_name
column_definition
[ FIRST | AFTER column_name],
MODIFY [COLUMN] column_name
column_definition
[ FIRST | AFTER column_name],
...;
 CHANGE COLUMN Syntax:
 CHANGE [COLUMN]
original_name new_name
column_definition
[FIRST | AFTER column_name];
 DROP COLUMN Syntax:
 ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP [COLUMN] column_name;
 RENAME COLUMN Syntax:
 ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME COLUMN original_name
TO new_column_name;
 RENAME TABLE Syntax:
 ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME [TO] new_table_name;
 RENAME TABLE original_name TO
new_name;
 UNIQUE Constraint Syntax:
 CREATE TABLE table_name(...,
column_name data_type UNIQUE,
...);
 CREATE TABLE table_name(..,
column_name1 column_definition,
column_name2 column_definition,
...,
UNIQUE(column_name1,column_n
ame2)
);
 ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY column_name
column_definition UNIQUE
[FIRST | AFTER ] column_name;
Module 9: Query Languages 4
 Foreign key is a column or group of
columns in a table that links to a column or
group of columns in another table; places
constraints on data in the related tables,
which allows MySQL to maintain referential
integrity.
 ADDING FOREIGN KEY
CONSTRAINT
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name]
FOREIGN KEY [foreign_key_name]
(column_name, ...)
REFERENCES
parent_table(column_name,...)
[ON DELETE reference_option]
[ON UPDATE reference_option]
 Specify the foreign key constraint
name that you want to create after
CONSTRAINT keyword.
 Specify a list of comma-separated
foreign key columns after the
FOREIGN KEY keywords.
 Specify the parent table followed by a
list of comma-separated columns to
which the foreign key columns
reference.
 Specify how the foreign key
maintains the referential integrity
between the child and parent tables
using the ON DELETE and ON
UPDATE clauses. The reference
option determines the action MySQL
will take when values in the parent
key columns are deleted (ON
DELETE) or updated (ON UPDATE).
 MySQL has five reference options:
CASCADE, SET NULL, NO ACTION,
RESTRICT, and SET DEFAULT.
CASCADE - if a row from the parent
table is deleted or updated, the values
of the matching rows in the child
table are automatically deleted or
updated.
SET NULL - if a row from the parent
table is deleted or updated, the
foreign key column (or columns)
values in the child table are set to
NULL.
RESTRICT - if a row from the
parent table has a matching row in
the child table, MySQL rejects
 Database Management System
deleting or updating rows in the  RIGHT JOIN clause is similar to the left
parent table. join clause, except that the treatment of
NO ACTION - is the same as tables is reversed. The right join starts
RESTRICT. selecting data from the right table instead of
SET DEFAULT - is recognized by the left table; If a row from the right table
the MySQL parser. However, this does not have matching rows from the left
action is rejected by both InnoDB and table, the left table column will have NULL in
NDB tables. the final result set.
 DROP FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT  SYNTAX:
ALTER TABLE table_name SELECT column_list
DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name; FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2 ON
Module 10: Query Languages 5 join_condition;
 SELECT statement to query data from two  CROSS JOIN makes a Cartesian product of
tables. A relational database consists of rows from the joined tables. The cross join
multiple related tables linking together using combines each row from the first table with
common columns known as foreign key every row from the right table to make the
columns. result set. The cross join clause does not
 A join is a method of linking data between have a join condition, unlike the inner
one (self-join) or more tables based on the join, left join, and right join.
values of the common column between the  SYNTAX:
tables. SELECT column_list
 INNER JOIN clause joins two tables based FROM table1
on a condition known as a join predicate. The CROSS JOIN table2;
inner join clause compares each row from the
first table with every row from the second
table; the inner join clause includes only
rows whose values match.
 SYNTAX:
SELECT column_list
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2 ON
join_condition;
 LEFT JOIN also requires a join-predicate.
When joining two tables using a left join, the
concepts of left and right tables are
introduced. The left join selects data starting
from the left table. For each row in the left
table, the left join compares with every row
in the right table
- the left join selects all data from the left
table whether there are matching rows
that exist in the right table or not. In case
there are no matching rows from the
right table found, NULLs are used for
columns of the row from the right table
in the final result set.
 SYNTAX:
SELECT column_list
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2 ON
join_condition;