986

Preliminary Investigations of Feasibility of Weaving

Triaxial Fabrics (Doweave)
NORRIS F. Dow
1

Space Sciences Laboratory, General Electric Company, P. O. Box 8555, Philadelphia, Pa. 19101, U. S. A.

AND
GEORGE TRANFIELD
Prodesco, Inc., 700 Park Avenue, Perkasie, Pa. 18944, U. S. A.

ABSTRACT
Studies were carried out to determine the feasibility of weaving triaxial fabrics (Doweave) in tight, low-porosity con-
figurations, and to investigate the stability and isotropy of triaxially woven fabrics. Detailed analyses of yarn motions
required in triaxial weaving cycles disclosed no fundamental problems to prevent the achievement of tight fabrics woven
of fine yarns. A breadboard loom, assembled to produce samples, confirmed to a degree the analytic predictions of loom
configuration precision required to yield quality triaxial fabrics. Guidelines were generated for extending weaving capa-
bilities for full-scale production.
KEYWORDS

Yarns. Three-yarn fabrics, triaxial fabrics. Textile processes. Tightness; porosity; isotropy; stress-strain prop-
erties; yarn motions; structural properties; fabric properties. Basic-weave analysis; shear testing.

Introduction Figure lb, effectively locks it in place against trans-

’

of fabrics, one of the oldest of the arts,

verse sliding. Weave patterns which thus lock the
,

Weaving yarn courses in place, as in Figure lc, are the essence

has always been done with only two sets of yarns, of the Doweave triaxial fabrics.
the warp and the weft. In consequence, all fabrics
are weak on the bias and can be pulled out of shape
(3) Additional new characteristics. Various weav-
’
ing patterns of three elements can yield combinations
readily at 45 to the yarn directions. of various densities and porosities, with one set of
Doweave fabrics [2 are woven with three sets of elements straight and uncrimped, if desired, or with
yarns (usually at 60 to each other). They have no one set of elements concealed from one or both sides
bias direction. With equal sizes and numbers of of the fabric, as one desires.
yams in the three directions, they approach isotropy, For particularly demanding requirements, such as
i.e., equal strength and stiffness in all directions. Fur- those for structural space fabrics, the Doweave tri-
ther, the addition of a third set of yarns opens up an axial approach appears to offer a number of advantages
entirely new range of textile possibilities heretofore over ordinary weaves. As yet, however, Doweave
inaccessible, such as the following. triaxial fabrics have not been woven to the low
(1) Structural properties. With three yarn ele- porosities, high numbers of yarns per inch, or of the
ments, for the first time, the design of desired strength/ generally noncompliant materials desirable for such
stiffness characteristics in a single ply fabric is pos- their characteristics in
sible. Properties may be made equal in all directions
applications. Consequently,
these configurations and materials have not been
or a maximum in some preferred direction to suit the
measured or assessed. Accordingly, a program was
.

requirements, and always with no weakness on the
bias.
( 2 ) Stability of weave. The third yarn set may be
employed to lock in place the yarn courses, even for
an open weave like a scrim, if desired, providing a
stable weave pattern resistant to abrasion or pulling.
This &dquo;locked intersection&dquo; nature of the triaxial fabric
initiated at the General Electric Space Sciences Lab-
oratory under NASA Contract NAS 9-8026 for the
evaluation of Doweave for space fabric applications.
Samples were woven by Prodesco, Inc., on subcontract
to General Electric. This report is concerned with
the first, preliminary phases of this program, as indi-
cated below.
’

is illustrated in Figure 1. It is characterized by the

&dquo;twisted pair&dquo; likeness of the adjacent intersecting
yarns as shown’ in Figure la. Employment of locked
. intersections on both sides of a yarn element, as in
1 Present address:
Doweave, Inc., P. O. Box 152,
Penna. 19087.
( 1 ) Studies of the feasibility of weaving triaxial
fabrics in tight, low-porosity configurations.
(2) Studies to investigate the stability and isotropy
of triaxially woven fabrics.
Radnor, (3) Generation of guidelines for extension to full-
scale production.

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FIG. 1. Illustrations of &dquo;locked intersection&dquo; characteristics
of Doweave triaxial fabrics, and conventions used for yarn
identifications as seen from obverse side.
Weaving of Triaxial Fabrics
Weaving triaxial fabrics like the basic weave (Fig.
2) and the first and second variants (Figs. 3 and 4)
in which one set of yarns (those at 11 o’clock) are at
all points over one other set (those at 1 o’clock) may
be done on equipment which is generically related to
that described in U. S. 550,068 [1] or U. S. 1,368,215
[6]. In essence, two sets of transversely traversing
warps, hereinafter designated the &dquo;A-warps&dquo; (for
&dquo;Above-warps&dquo;) and &dquo;B-warps&dquo; (for &dquo;Below-warps’)
are used, together with an ordinary pick-insertion
system, to create the three-yarn fabric. Various weave
patterns are created ’by proper programming of the
shed-forming heddles during pick insertion.
In the performance of the present investigations, the
subcontractor with a view toward the simplification of
loom design, elected to separate the warp-advance
function from the heddle mechanism, using hooked-
needle heddles at a fixed location transversely for in-
FIG. 2. Basic-weave pattern for Doweave triaxial fabrics.
As seen from obverse side: 11 o’clock yarns over all 1 o’clock;
yarns and under all horizontal yarns; 1 o’clock yarns under
all 11 o’clock yarns and over all horizontal yams; horizontal
yarns over all 11 o’clock yarns and under all 1 o’clock yarns.
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987
sertion among the warp yarns to catch selected yarns
and pull them back past one another for shed forma-
tion. Accordingly, supporting, detailed studies were
undertaken to evaluate this approach to the weaving
process. While the results of these studies are not
especially favorable to the hook-type heddle, they do
describe many aspects of the general weaving problem .
fairly definitively and provide the basis for the gener-
ation of guidelines which appear both necessary and
sufhcient for successful loom development. The es-
sence of these studies and the guidelines derived there-
from are presented in this report.
FIG. 3. First-variant weave pattern for Doweave triaxial
fabrics. As seen from obverse side: 11 o’clock yarns over all
1 o’clock yarns and alternately over and under horizontal
yams; 1 o’clock yarns under all 11 o’clock yams and over all
horizontal yams; horizontal yarns alternately over and under
11 o’clock yams and under all 1 o’clock yams.
FIG. 4. Second-variant weave pattern for Doweave tri-
axial fabrics. As seen from obverse side: 11 o’clock yarns
over all 1 o’clock yarns and alternately over and under
horizontal yams; 1 o’clock yams under all 11 o’clock yarns
and alternately over and under horizontal yarns; horizontal
yarns alternately over and under 11 o’clock yarns and over
and under 1 o’clock yarns. _
Basic Weave
Weaving analysis for the triaxial fabrics naturally
begins with that of the simple, basic weave (in which
the 11 o’clock yarns are over the 1 o’clock yarns and
under the wefts, and the wefts, in turn, are under the
, 1 o’clock yarns). Because the weaving pf the basic
pattern involves most of the operations required for
r any of the related, more complicated weaves, its
.
analysis will first be considered in detail and then the
988

variations from the basic procedures necessary for

other variants will be discussed.
The weaving cycle, for the Basic Weave utilizing
hooked-needle heddles, is made up of the following
14 steps. _ ,

First Basic Position 1’

The weaving cycle starts with the warp yarns
aligned parallel, perpendicular to the weft, and uni-
formly spaced over and under one another as shown
in cross section at the top of Figure 5 and in the plan
view in Figure 6. In this position, hereinafter referred
to as the &dquo;First Basic Position,&dquo; one of the sets of
beaters (designated here the B 1-beaters and supported
as cantilever members from below the
work) is in-
serted between each A-warp and its adjacent B-warp
as shown in the plan view, and the t-warps are
positioned midway between adjacent A-warps. For
nominal density of the basic weave, the spacing be-
tween adjacent A-warps near the heddles (and like-
wise between adjacent B-warps) is 2v3 d, where
d yarn diameter, and the distance is measured be-
=

tween yarn centerlines. Thus, the open distance be-

tween adjacent A- and between adjacent B-yarns is
2.464d, and the nominal beater diameter to achieve
the parallelism desired is 0.732d. These dimensions

FIG. 5. Cross-sectional elevations of yarns and beaters near FIG. 6. Plan view of the first basic position for weaving
heddles for each step in the weaving cycle for the basic the basic weave; alignment of warp yams preparatory to
wesve. shed formation.

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 989

are shown on the cross-sectional elevation diagrams of

Figure S. ,

Shed Formation ( Fig. 7 ) 2

From the first basic position,
the lower warps may
be raised and the upper warps lowered vertically to
form the shed for pick insertion. When using the
hooked-needles, the following sequence of motions is
required to take advantage of the space available for
needle insertion (see Fig. 8): 1 to insert the needles
part way through the warps in their first basic position
la then to traverse back a half-space with both
upper and lower warps before completing full needle
insertion 1 b, and return of the warps Ic to position
for shed formation 2. During these various warp-
traverse motions, the maintenance of the Bl-beaters
in position near the work is desirable to keep the
completed work stable.

Flo. 8. Schematic representation of transverse motions of

warp yarns required to make room for insertion of hooked-
needle heddles for shed formation for the basic weave.

FIG. 7. Plan view of second step in weaving cycle for

basic weave; shed formation.

Pick Insertion and Beat-up ( Figs. 9-11 ) 3-5

Pick insertion and beat-up is essentially a three-
stage process. During insertion 3 the A- and B-warps
are traversed ahead a quarter space to make room
for the insertion of the A,-beaters (from above the
work) and then traversed back a half space to make
room for the insertion of the B2-beaters (from be-
neath the work). Both Ai- and B2-beaters beat no. 9. Plan view of third in
step weaving cyde for baaic
against the pick to beat it up in similar fashion to weave; At beater insertion and pick beat-up.

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990
ordinary weaving. After beat-up by B2, the warps
are advanced to the same position they occupied in
step 2 immediately after shed formation, and in the
plan view, the warps are once more parallel and per,-
pendicular to the weft.
It is of importance that the advance/retreat traverse
motions of the warps in steps 3 and 4 need to take
place between the shed-forming needles and the work,
i.e., an additional mechanism is required to position
the warps transversely after shed formation. This
mechanism is not required to provide overall warp
advance but only a back-and-forth positioning to in-
sure room for proper beater insertion.

Warp Advance ( Figs. 12 and 13 ) 6-7

Warp advance is characterized by the following
three separate motions: ( i ) unmaking the shed 6 so
that the A-warps are over the B-warps and can be
advanced without tangling; (ii) advancing the end
A-warp (&dquo;c&dquo; in the figs. ) from above to below; (iii)
advancing all the warps (except &dquo;c&dquo;) I space (&dquo;c&dquo;
advances only I space). After the general advance,
the yarns are in position for the insertion of the
A2-beaters.

Fic. 10. Plan view of fourth step in weaving cycle for basic
weave; Bi beater insertion and continuation of pick beat-up.

Fic. 12. Plan view of sixth step in weaving cycle for basic
weave; unmaking of shed, advance of left-end yarn from
A- to B-warp position.

Warp Beat-Up ( Fig. 14 ) 8 .

The A2-beaters beat up the warps which were ad-

FIG. 11.
I
Plan view of fifth step in weaving cycle for vanced in step 7. This beat-up, which has no counter-
basic weave; conclusion of pick beat-up.
part in ordinary weaving, establishes the warps in the

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 991

FIG. 14. Plan view of eighth step in weaving cyde for

Fic. 13. Plan view of seventh step in weaving cycle for basic basic weave; warp-advance beat-up.
weave; warp advance, A2 beater insertion.

second basic position for the start of the second half

of the weaving cycle. The seven steps in this part of
the cycle will not be described in detail because they
are in essence the same as those of the first half of
the cycle. The differences are that the pick is in-
serted from right to left (steps 9-11), the end below-
warp (warp &dquo;10&dquo;) is advanced from the B-’s to the
A-’s (step 13), and it is the B2-beaters which beat
up the new warp advance of step 14 to reestablish
the first basic position with all warps advanced one
position.
As shown, there are an odd number of warps, total,
starting with an odd and (one) greater number of
A-warps than B-warps in step 1. Thus, fabric having
like selvages on. each side is produced as shown in
Figure 15 and the end-yarn advance motion alternates
from side to side (left side in step 6, right side in
step 13)...
Second-Variant Weave
. As is to be expected, the weaving of the second-
variant weave is a more complicated process than
that of the basic weave, requiring in effect a doubling
of all components to achieve the doubled nominal
density, compared to the basic weave. Thus, double
sets of A- and B-warps are required and a double
Fic. 15. Plan view of basic weave with odd number of
warp-advance system. For hooked-needle heddles, warp yams showing like selvages on both sides of fabric and
additionally, some sort of lateral positioning device is general progression of warp yarns across the work.

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 992

needed capable of moving the A- and B-heddles (inde- (designated hereafter AA and AB ) and two sets of
pendently) two yarn diameters left and right. Fur- B-warps ( B~ and BB ) . In the first basic position,
ther, at one stage in the weaving cycle, the hooked- the AA’s are directly above the BA’s and the AB’S
needle heddles are in the way; warp advance should are directly above the BB’S, the latter being positioned
take place with the needles in place holding a shed. midway between the AA’s and BA’s. As will be seen,
Indubitably, there are several possible solutions to this the distance between the AB layer and the Bs layer
problem. The one described is to unmake the shed of yarns must be sufficient to allow pick insertion
without completing pick beat-up, then to accomplish when a shed has been formed within this distance, as
the warp advance, remake the shed, and continue. discussed below, i.e., more room is required than for
.
The following description of the weaving cycle for the basic weave.
the second-variant weave concentrates on the stages .

which differ from those in the cycle for the basic
weave, for beginning with the first basic position, as
will be seen, the process is essentially the same.
First Basic Position 0
In the plan view (Fig. 16), the first basic position
for the second variant looks the same as the first
basic position for the basic weave. The warp yarns
are straight out from the work, perpendicular to the
weft, parallel to each other, and (for the yarns in
any one plane) spaced apart nominally 2 ~/3 yam
diameters. Two sets of beaters ( Bi and A2 ) are in
Shed Formation 1
From the first basic position, the BB-warps may be
raised and the As-warps may be lowered to form the
shed for pick insertion. When using a hooked-needle
heddle system of the type represented schematically
in Figure 18, a number of warp translations are re-
quired to permit needle insertion: Oa translation of
AB-warps and BB-warps to the left to make spaces
for the insertion of the A-heddles, then Ob translation
of all warps to the right to make spaces for the in-
sertion of the B-heddles, and Oc return to the basic
position in preparation for shed formation 1.
Pick Insertion and Beat-Up 2-4
Pick insertion and beat-up is essentially the same
as for the basic weave, involving two sets of beaters
( B2 and At) and the same warp-traverse motions to
make room for the insertion of those beaters. Be-
cause AB-warps and the BA-warps are in their
the
original position, with the BA-warps and AA-warps
between them and the pick, the greater vertical separ-
ation between them than for the basic weave, pre-
viously noted to be required, must be provided.
Shed Inversion 5
.

Shed inversion-which has no counterpart in the

basic weave-with needle heddles involves (Fig. 18):
4a return to the first basic position, 4b interchange of
lateral position of AA- and AB- and of BA- and BB-
warps, 5 shed inversion, 5a lateral positioning, etc.
Pick Insertion and Beat-Up S-6 .

Because of the double. number of weft yarns, com-

pared to the basic weave, a second pick insertion and

.
FIG. 16. Plan view of first basic position for
second-variant weave.
place to position the yarns. The nominal beater.
diameter is 0.732d. Important to future loom devel-
opment is the fact that smaller beaters are not re-
quired.
In cross-sectional elevation (Fig. 17), it becomes
beat-up occurs before warp advance.
Warp Advairce and Beat-Up 7-12
weaving Yarn positions for warp advance and beat-up are
shown in steps 7-12 of Figure 17. Achievement of
these positions with hooked-needle heddles requires
getting the needles out of the way. One possible
method for doing this is by unmaking the shed as in
the sequence 5a-5e shown in Figure 18. Warp ad-
vance can then be accomplished and the shed remade,

apparent that there are twice as many yarns as for the if desired. This unmaking and remaking of the shed,
basic weave. There are now two sets of A-warps however, must be coordinated with the beating-up of

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 993

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994

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 995

the to insure against warp yarn entanglement

pick,
near the work.
From this point on, the weaving sequence is mostly
repetitive and straightforward, and it will not be dis-
cussed in detail.

First-Variant Weave
The first-variant weave (Fig. 3), intermediate in
density between that of the basic and second variant,
is the most difficult of the three to weave on a hooked-
needle heddle apparatus. The basic position is shown
in Figure 19, and the yarn sequence position diagrams
are given in Figure 20. The closer yarn spacings
(beater diameters nominally 0.54d) are evident and
also the fact that three sets of beaters are required
to establish the basic position. Furthermore, because
of the pairing of the B-warps, the selvaging becomes
more troublesome, as evidenced in Figure 21. Be-
cause of these complications, the first variant
appears
unattractive for early weaving studies, and it has not
been investigated further.
’

FIG. 20. Cross-sectional elevations of yarns and beaters

FIG. 19. Plan view of the first basic position for weaving near heddles for each step in the weaving cycle for the first-
the first,-variant weave. , variant weave.

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 996

pick insertion from left to right and inverted for re-

turning the pick from right to left. Additionally, of
course, advances must be made in the warp yarns
transversely across the work after each pick insertion
to provide the inclinations to the 11 o’clock and 1
o’clock yarns.

FIG. 22. Loose-weave pattern for Doweave triaxial fabrics.

As seen from obverse side: 11 o’clock yarns over all 1 o’clock
yarns and alternately over and under horizontal yarn pairs;
1 o’clock yarns under all 11 o’clock yarns and alternately over
and under horizontal yarn pairs; horizontal yarns by pairs
alternately over all 11 o’clock and under all 11 o’clock yarns
and also by pairs over all 1 o’clock and under all 1 o’clock
yams.
-

The bread-board loom used in making the loose-

FIG. 21. Plan view of first-variant weave with even number
sample is shown in Figures 23. The over-all
weave
view shows the rotating creel A, the ball-chain warp
advance mechanism B, the hooked-needle heddles C,
the beaters D, and the take-up reel E. A typical
view of a formed shed is shown below the over-all
view, with the llth and 12th yarns from the left on
the lower half of the shed snagged on the same
needle. No mechanical drive or locating mechanisms
for warp advance were used; the operator positioned
the warps as best as he could by eye, raising and
lowering heddles and inserting picks and comb-like
’

of warp yarns showing varying selvages. beaters by hand.

The bread-board loom was of necessity (budgetary
limitations) of maximum simplicity. Thus, for ex-
Loose Weave and Bread-Board Loom
ample, its heddles were made with needles having
The loose-weave (Fig. 22) produced by Prodesco open hooks, even though their likelihood to snag was
as the nearest approximation of the first variant pos- recognized. Similarly, the need for precision machine
sible on the bread-board loom is essentially a variant alignment was recognized, but not possible of achieve-
of the basic weave which incorporates double wefts, ment with available funds. Despite the minimal char-
alternate pairs of which pass over the 1 o’clock yams acter of the bread-board loom, it revealed no problems
and under the 11 o’clock yarns. These alternate weft which appear beyond the scope of straight-forward
pairs are not &dquo;locked&dquo; in place by the adjacent yam engineering solution.
,

intersections (as is evident in Fig. 22), and they give

the weave a looseness and lack of stability. Further, Results of Weaving Studies
.

the fact that there are twice as many yarns in the The detailed studies of yarn motions reveal that
.

weft direction as in either of the other two directions weaving of the basic, first-, and second-variant
’

makes the material nonisotropic. Doweave, patterns is feasible by using a pair of

The loose weave. is relatively easy to weave on a traversing warps and conventional pick-insertion equip-
hooked-needle heddle loom, and the operations in- ment. Moreover, the space available between adjacent
volved are the closet possible to those of weaving yams for shed formation and for beater insertion, is
ordinary fabrics, i.e., the shed is made one way for ample (see Figs. 6, 16, and, 19), even when weaving

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