Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752

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Composite Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compstruct

Finite element modeling of ballistic inserts containing aramid fabrics under

projectile impact conditions – Comparison of methods
Pawel Zochowski a, Marcin Bajkowski b, Roman Grygoruk b, Mariusz Magier b, Wojciech Burian c,
Dariusz Pyka d, Miroslaw Bocian d, Krzysztof Jamroziak d, *
a
Military Institute of Armament Technology, Prym. S. Wyszyńskiego 7, 05-220 Zielonka, Poland
b
Institute of Mechanics and Printing, Faculty of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, 10 Narbutta 85, 02-524 Warsaw, Poland
c
Łukasiewicz Research Network—Institute of Non-Ferrous Metals, Sowinskiego 5, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
d
Department of Mechanics, Materials and Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Smoluchowskiego
25, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Effectiveness of simplified modeling methods of ballistic inserts containing high-strength para-aramid fabrics
Ballistic laminate under projectile impact condition was analyzed in the article. Various types of experimental tests including
Ballistic impact material characterization and ballistic impact were carried out in order to define and to validate numerical
Finite element modeling
models of the individual components of the analyzed phenomenon. Experiments were subsequently reproduced
Aramid fabric
Yarn strength
with numerical simulations. Four different modeling techniques were used to describe the fabric layers, i.e.: shell
elements, solid elements merged or detached at shared nodes and beam elements representing packs of indi­
vidual fibers. The effectiveness of the individual methods was compared in terms of quality (mapping of char­
acteristic phenomena that occur during the penetration process), quantity (dimensions of deformations of
components, number of perforated fabric layers) and time required to complete the calculations. On the basis of
the analysis results it was concluded that hybrid method of modeling of yarns of the fabric in which principal
yarns were modeled with solid elements attached at nodes was the most effective. Such approach allowed to
accurately reproduce the response of the yarns to the acting loads without significant increase of time required to
complete the calculations.

1. Introduction para-aramid fibers are characterized by a favorable combination of

High-strength fibers have been successfully used in engineering for
many years. They can be used as short fibers reinforcing basic engi­
neering materials [1–4] as well as woven fabrics made by interlocking of
yarns or threads. Amongst the different types of synthetic fibers para-
aramid ones are particularly interesting due to their outstanding
strength-to-weight properties. Such fibers with a diameter of few to
several micrometers are transversely isotropic–they show significantly
higher mechanical parameters along their axis than in the transverse
direction [5,6]. The fiber exhibits a linear elasticity under axial tension
and a non-linear response during transverse compression [7,8]. A set of
several hundred up to several thousand (depending on the type of fabric
[5,6]) of parallel fibers constitute a yarn. Yarns arranged perpendicular
to each other (weft and warp) are intertwined in an appropriate manner
to form a fabric layer. Thanks to this specific structure, fabrics made of
mechanical properties (high strength, flexibility, energy absorption
capability, impact resistance) and low mass. Therefore, they are
frequently used in the defense industry, e.g. in elements of personal
protections (bulletproof vests, helmet shells) and vehicle armor (ballistic
panels and spall-liners) where they are usually used in the form of
multiple-layer packages.
High energy absorption and dissipation abilities of para-aramid
fabrics results from high strength of individual fibers (tensile strength,
Young’s modulus, elongation) as well as the mechanisms of interaction
of individual components of the fabrics at all levels of their structure
(fibers-yarns- fabric layers-ballistic insert). Due to the complexity of
mechanisms that affect the behavior of fabrics under projectile impact
conditions their experimental observations are often supported with
numerical analyses. Simulations allow to better understand the phe­
nomenon and to provide vital information on the course of the process.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: krzysztof.jamroziak@pwr.edu.pl (K. Jamroziak).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2022.115752
Received 30 September 2021; Received in revised form 25 March 2022; Accepted 8 May 2022
Available online 18 May 2022
0263-8223/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Zochowski et al.
In the literature there are three main approaches in numerical
modeling of ballistic fabrics in which fabrics are simulated on three
structural levels: macro-structural for layers, meso-structural for yarns
and micro-structural for fibers. Each approach has its own advantages
and limitations. At the macro-structural level fabric layer is described as
uniform membrane [9–15] made of SOLID or SHELL elements. Both
isotropic [10] and anisotropic [11–14] material models are used to
describe properties of such layer. Since the geometry of yarns and their
interlacing is neglected in the model the computational cost of such
modeling method is very low. Thanks to this, it is possible to model
impacts on ballistic inserts containing many layers of considerable size
(e.g. in the work [13] the authors analyzed the impact of a projectile
against a ballistic insert containing 28 fabric layers). However, many
significant interaction mechanisms at the yarns and fibers level are
neglected e.g., dissipation of energy by friction of interacting fibers and
yarns, which is particularly important in the case of projectile impacts
into woven fabrics and significantly influences their high protection
capability [16–20].
The most common is modeling of fabrics at the meso-structural level.
Since the geometry of yarns as well as the mechanisms of their inter­
action are included in such models, more accurate results can be ob­
tained than in macro-structural approach [20–30]. Both SHELL [30–35]
and SOLID [21–30] elements can be used in such models. SHELL ele­
ments are preferred when fabrics are loaded in plane (longitudinal
tension or compression). Since SHELL elements with one integration
point do not take into account changes in thickness and shape of the
yarns SOLID elements are preferred for modeling yarns subjected to
transverse loads (transverse compression, shearing). Size of the elements
should be adjusted in such a way to ensure an accurate reproduction of
the shape of the cross-section of the yarn. As a result, interactions be­
tween yarns, including friction, can be accurately reproduced [21–30].
The use of SHELL elements with the same thickness in all nodes prevents
precise reproduction of the actual shape of the yarns which disrupts the
mechanics of interaction of neighboring yarns [22,36]. This problem can
be eliminated by using SHELL elements with non-uniform thickness at
individual nodes. In this way the shape of the cross-section of yarns can
be reproduced with higher accuracy [37–39]. In the literature, there are
also other, less popular methods of meso-structural fabrics modeling. For
example, in the works [20,26] the authors modeled yarns with the use of
one-dimensional TRUSS elements, which could transfer the load in the
axial direction only. The diameters of beam elements were selected in
such a way that they corresponded to the cross-sectional area of the
modeled yarn. In the work [20] the process of penetration of a single
layer of fabric and the influence of friction coefficients on the results
obtained were analyzed. The influence of the projectile geometry and
the impact angle on the penetration process of a single fabric layer was
analyzed in the work [26]. In both studies, the results of numerical
analyzes were compared to the experimental data and a satisfactory
agreement was achieved. Replacing SOLID with BEAM elements in
modeling of the yarns allowed to reduce the computational time by 90%
[26].
In the micro-structural approaches fabric is modeled as a set of
parallel fibers, densely packed in the contour of the cross-section of the
yarn [39–52]. Thank to this a majority of the characteristic mechanisms
of deformation and interactions between the components of fabrics
subjected to both in-plane and transverse loads (friction between fibers
and yarns, fiber dislodgement, damage and failure of individual fibers)
can be reproduced. However those methods are extremely demanding
regarding computational power. Generally, modeling of the actual
number of fibers is possible in analyses of short fragments of single yarn
only. For example, in the work [38], the authors numerically analyzed
the impact on a single yarn, in which each of the 400 Kevlar® KM2 fibers
was modeled with three-dimensional solid elements (9 or 36 elements
on the fiber cross-section). In turn, in the work [53] the authors analyzed
experimentally and numerically (using the 2D model) the response of an
infinitely short fragment of a single fiber and yarn (made of 400 Kevlar®
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Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752
KM2 fibers) in the process of transverse compression. The authors found
that it is necessary to use a minimum of 84 finite elements on a single
fiber cross-section (which gives 33,600 elements on a yarn cross-section)
to fully reproduce its nonlinear response to the applied loads observed
during experimental tests.
Usually, in a computer model, one fiber represents a collection of
several dozen or several hundred fibers in the actual yarn. In the work
[44], the authors modeled fibers in yarns using 1-dimensional non-
deformable ROD elements connected to each other with frictionless
pins. They called this method the DEM - digital element method. The
authors stated that 19 fibers in the numerical model of yarn are suffi­
cient to reproduce the behavior of 400 fibers in the real yarn with a
satisfactory accuracy. The residual velocities of a semi-spherical pro­
jectile with a diameter of 8 mm and the initial velocity v = 100 m/s after
perforation of one layer of the fabric with dimensions of 33 × 33 mm,
obtained experimentally and numerically, were compared. In the work
[48], the authors analyzed the tension process of yarns modeled with
TRUSS elements. On the basis of the analyzes, the authors concluded
that although the numerical solution converges to the real one with the
increase in the number of numerical fibers in the yarn, the differences
between yarn modeling with 72 and 145 fibers are invisible, and be­
tween yarn modeling with 30 and 72 fibers are negligible. However,
even in case of modeling a single yarn with 30 fibers, the computational
cost is very high. The use of such a level of accuracy is impossible in case
of analyzes of the phenomenon of a projectile impact into ballistic in­
serts containing several layers.
To provide a compromise between the demand for computational
power and the accuracy and reliability of the results obtained, hybrid
methods of modeling fabrics under projectile impact conditions are
used. They combine several different levels of modeling and element
formulation types [36,38,39,54,55] taking advantage of the fact that
over 90% of the projectile’s energy is absorbed by the principal yarns
(yarns that are in direct contact with the projectile) [56]. Then principal
yarns (or their fragments) are modeled with the highest accuracy, while
the areas distant from the point of projectile impact are modeled in a
simplified manner.
For example, in the works [36,54] the area of direct impact of the
projectile was modeled at the meso-structural level using SHELL ele­
ments, while the remaining fabric fragments were treated as a homog­
enized membrane (macro-scale). These works, however, omitted the
aspect of joining elements with different formulations in terms of wave
impedance. It is important because the large difference of the impedance
on the contact surface of various formulations of elements may result in
the reflection of the stress wave, which in turn may lead to premature
failure of the yarns. In the work [37], three different approaches within
one model were used to describe fabric. Similar like in the work [39], the
yarns in the area of the projectile impact were modeled using 8-node
SOLID elements. The area around the point of impact was described
by impedance adjusted SHELL elements with non-uniform thickness at
the nodes. Additionally, the areas furthest from the impact point were
described in a macro-scale (without taking into account the interlacing
of yarns) as a homogenized membrane made of SHELL elements.
On the basis of the cited literature, it can be concluded that accurate
numerical reproduction of the phenomenon of projectile impact into
ballistic insert containing woven layers is a challenging issue. In­
teractions of the individual fabric components on the lowest (micro-
scale) level of the structure (fibers) have to be reproduced in order to
include all of the energy absorption and dissipation mechanisms. Such
approach has already been successfully applied in a few studies [36–39].
However, only single yarns or small fragments of layers were modeled at
a sub-yarn level in those works. Modeling of whole ballistic inserts
containing several layers of fabrics of significant size requires
completely different approach in order to keep the computational time
at a reasonable level. In the literature, there is a lack of studies in which
ballistic inserts containing several fabric layers are modelled in micro­
scale. The main reason is high demand for the computational power. At
P. Zochowski et al.
least several fabric layers are required to stop even the less effective
projectiles. For those reasons, direct numerical reproduction of the
ballistic impact into target made of fabrics (e.g., insert containing of
several fabric layers, each 30 × 30 cm, in which small fragment of the
single fabric layer of the 10 × 10 cm size is made of 60 × 60–120 × 120
yarns, where each yarn is made of 500–2000 fibers [5,57]) is almost
impossible at a microscale level within reasonable time, even taking into
consideration rapid growth of the computational power of modern
computers. Therefore, simplified methods of fabrics modeling have to be
applied. In such methods, it is extremely important to find an appro­
priate balance between the level of the adopted simplifications in
modeling of fabric layers and their influence on the accuracy of results
obtained. Considering the above, the main aim of the work described in
the article was to compare the effectiveness of several simplified nu­
merical modeling techniques of ballistic inserts containing several layers
of high-strength para-aramid fabrics under projectile impact conditions,
and to select a methodology that would ensure a favorable relationship
between the level of convergence of the numerical results in relation to
the experimental observations and the degree of adopted simplifica­
tions, as well as the time required to complete the calculations.
2. Materials and methods
Methodology of the research included ballistic impacts experiments,
material characterization tests and numerical reproduction of the ex­
periments. Material characterization tests included uniaxial tension of
the fabric yarn and quasi-static perforation of fabric layers by a non-
deformable steel penetrator with a semi-spherical tip, moving at a
constant low speed (punch test). In order to determine the behavior of
the individual components of the analyzed phenomenon under high
strain-rate conditions, ballistic impact tests of the 9 × 19 mm FMJ (Full
Metal Jacket) projectile were carried. During the tests projectile
impacted into a rigid steel target (to collect data required to defining and
validating numerical model of the projectile) and into a ballistic insert
containing fabric layers to check the behavior of the fabric under high
strain rates.
2.1. Description and characteristics of para-aramid fabric
The T750 fabric made of high-tenacity Twaron® para-aramid fibers
produced by the Dutch company Teijin Aramid was analyzed in the
article. Para-aramid fibers contain long polyamide chains along the fiber
axis with a significant share of amide groups (NH CO) (Fig. 1).
These groups are linked to two benzene rings. Due to this specific
structure, para-aramid fibers are very strong in the axis direction - their
Fig. 1. Para-aramid fibers: (a) chemical structure; (b) weave a single fabric yarn; (c) weave of fibers in magnification.
3
Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752
tensile strength is about 5 times greater than that of steel of the same
mass (Table 1).
Additionally, para-aramid fibers are thermally stable [5], they do not
melt, and the temperature of their decomposition in the air is approx.
450 ◦ C. They are flame resistant, and they stop burning when the source
of the fire is removed. The disadvantages of aramid fibers include
sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation, which reduces their strength after a
long-term exposure.
The T750 fabric made of Twaron® fibers is created with a thick, two-
dimensional weave and exhibits mechanical properties characteristic of
all fabrics based on para-aramid fibers, i.e:
high tensile strength due to highly oriented structure;
low bending stiffness due to the spreading and sliding of fibers in
relation to each other;
low resistance to transverse compression and shearing caused by the
movement and spreading of yarns under loads.
The T750 fabric is used mainly as a component for the production of
laminates used in hard inserts for bulletproof vests, anti-ricochet layers
(spall-liners) and helmet shells. Mechanical parameters of the fabric
were listed in Table 2, and the cross-section dimensions were shown in
Fig. 2.
Thickness of the fabric layer (Fig. 2) was measured with a micro­
meter with a resolution of 0.001 mm.
The measurement was repeated five times and then the average
value of fabric thickness was determined as: g = 0.592 mm. Based on this
value, the thickness of a single yarn was determined t = 0.296 mm,
assuming that g = 2 t.
The width of the yarns was determined from a high-resolution photo
of the fabric at high zoom and magnification. Five measurements were
taken at different locations in the image to limit the influence of
perspective. The width of the yarns was determined w = 1.426 mm and
the spacing between the edges of successive yarns was S = 1.472 mm
(width w plus span s = 0.046 mm). Measured dimensions of Twaron
T750 were different from those provided by the manufacturer. Although
spacing between the edges of successive yarns was similar in both cases
(Smeasured = 1.472 mm while Smanufacturer = 1.492 – 67 yarns per 10 cm)
the difference in thickness of the fabric was significant and equaled
about 10% (gmeasured = 0.592 mm while gmanufacturer = 0.650 mm). For
this reason it was decided to check the influence of the thickness of the
fabric on the protection efficiency of the insert by performing additional
simulation in chapter 3.3.
P. Zochowski et al. Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752

Table 1
Properties of Twaron® fibers in relation to other high-strength materials [5,58].
Specification Unit Twaron® UHMWPE Carbon E-Glass PBO Steel
3
Density g/cm 1.44–1.45 0.95–0.98 1.73–1.91 2.48–2.62 1.54–1.56 7.50–8.0
Tensile strength GPa 2.70–3.60 1.60–4.00 3.30–60.0 3.00–4.90 5.80 <2.60
Strength N/tex 1.90–2.50 1.70–4.20 1.90–3.50 1.20–1.90 3.70 <0.35
Young modulus GPa 60–145 34–190 230–550 70–90 180–279 140–210
Elongation at failure % 2.30–2.20 1.50–80.0 0.70–2.10 4.50–5.80 2.50–3.50 <15
Decomposition or melting temperature ◦
C 500 145 3700 830–1056 650 >1400

Table 2
Properties of Twaron T750® fabric [5].
Fabric Linear density, [dtex] Fiber type Weave type Areal density, [g/m2] Thickness, [mm] Minimum breaking strength, [N/5 cm × 1000]
type

T750 3360 1000 plain 460 0.65 16.20–17.40

Fig. 2. Approximate geometrical dimensions of Twaron T750 fabric yarns: (a) micrometer; (b) the physical image of a weave of a fabric; (c) the geometrical image of
a weave of a fabric; (d) the geometrical image of a weave of single yarn.

2.2. Characteristics of a pistol cartridge
The 9 mm FMJ (Full Metal Jacket) projectile was analyzed in the
study [59,60]. The projectile has a rounded tip and consists of a core
made of a lead-antimony alloy and a jacket made of brass or steel pla­
tered with tombac (Fig. 3). Depending on the type, the weight of the
projectile is m = 6.8–8 g, and its initial velocity is v0 = 300–420 m/s,
what gives the kinetic energy of up to about 600 J.
The 9 mm FMJ projectile was chosen to the study due to computa­
tional efficiency reasons. The 9 mm FMJ is one of the less vulnerable
projectiles in bulletproof vest standards (e.g. NIJ level IIA or IIIA body
armor depending on the impact velocity [61]). Thanks to this lower
number of fabric layers are required to stop the impacting projectile
than in case of e.g. 7.62 projectiles. As a result the calculations were
finished earlier and the comparison of different modeling techniques
was more convenient.
2.3. Methodology of material characterization tests
Material characterization tests were carried out in order to collect
data (force–displacement curves) required for definition and subsequent
validation of numerical model of Twaron T750 fabric. Two types of
mechanical tests under quasi-static conditions were carried out: uniaxial
tension of a single yarn of the fabric and perforation of fabric layer by a
non-deformable steel penetrator with a semi-spherical tip, moving at a
constant low speed (punch test). The tests were carried out on a uni­
versal testing machine with a hydraulic drive (Fig. 4).
During the tests, the force acting on the specimen holders with end
grippers and their displacement were recorded. On the basis of the
recorded data, force–displacement curves were determined for the
analyzed samples. Single yarns for the quasi-static tensile test were
separated from the Twaron T750 fabric and tested with a methodology
similar to ASTM D2256 standard [62]. The measuring length of the
yarns was 150 mm (Fig. 4b).
In the punch test (performed with the methodology similar to ASTM
D6264 standard [63] used earlier in the works [64–66]), a cylindrical
penetrator with a hemispherical tip of 12.6 mm diameter, perforated a
layer of Twaron T750 fabric placed in a special holder. The fabric sample
had the shape of a square with a side of 200 mm. The part of the fabric
that was subjected to deformation was a circle with a diameter of 100
mm. The penetrator was punching the fabric layer at its central point.
The scheme of the test was shown in the Fig. 4c. Displacement of the

Fig. 3. The 9 × 19 mm FMJ projectile FMJ: (a) bullet; (b) projectile; (c) projectile cross-section.

4
P. Zochowski et al. Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752

Fig. 4. Illustration of quasi-static tests fixture: (a) universal testing machine; (b) machine jaws with a sample mounted in holders; (c) scheme of the punch test.

penetrator (after the moment of contact with the upper surface of the
fabric) and the reaction force of the fabric were recorded. After reaching
the maximum force, the central fibers in the sample were damaged and
the reaction force dropped to zero value.
projectiles after perforation of the samples. Measuring gates were used
to measure the impact velocity of projectile. High speed camera with a
mirror and a Doppler radar were used in order to record the target
behavior during impact and to measure the projectile residual velocity.
Five shots were performed for each variant of ballistic insert.

2.4. Methodology of ballistic impact tests

2.5. Methodology of numerical simulations

The behavior of the Twaron T750 aramid fabric under high strain
Numerical analyses were performed in LS-Dyna® software [68,69].
rate conditions was analyzed during the ballistic impact of the 9 × 19
Four types of simulations were carried out, reproducing previously
mm FMJ projectile according to the European Norm CEN EN 1522 [67].
performed experimental tests. Simulations were performed in order to
The scheme of the test stand was shown in Fig. 5.
compare different numerical techniques of high-strength para-aramid
Several variants of ballistic inserts with different number of Twaron
fabrics modeling. The yarns in the simulations were modeled in
T750 fabric layers (10–16) were tested. The projectile was fired from a
following ways:
ballistic barrel placed in a holder on a metal platform rigidly fixed to the
ground. Distance between the ballistic barrel and the sample was L = 5
1. using 4-node quadrilateral SHELL elements with non-uniform
m. The barrel was perpendicular to the surface of the sample - in a
thickness at the nodes (Fig. 6a): 6 elements and 7 nodes on the
vertical and horizontal plane. Samples were mounted in the holder and
yarn cross-section;
their edges were fixed by the clamp of the frame (internal dimensions of
320 × 320 mm) tightened with screws. A projectile recovery system was
set up at a distance of 2 m behind the sample surface in order to catch the

Fig. 5. The scheme of the ballistic impact tests.

5
P. Zochowski et al.
Fig. 6. Yarn modeling methods: (a) schematic representation of SHELL elements showing non-uniform nodal thickness; (b) BEAM elements; (c) merged SOLID
elements; (d) detached SOLID elements.
2. using 8-node SOLID elements in which the nodes of adjacent ele­
ments were attached: 10 elements and 17 nodes on the yarn cross-
section (Fig. 6c);
3. at the sub-yarn level using 1-dimensional BEAM elements: 24 ele­
ments and 24 nodes on the yarn cross-section (Fig. 6b).
4. at the sub-yarn level using 8-node SOLID elements in which the
nodes of adjacent elements were detached and spaced 0.001 mm
apart: 10 elements and 32 nodes on the yarn cross-section (Fig. 6d).
The boundary conditions were set in such a way that the numerical
model reflected the features of the actual experimental system. In sim­
ulations of transverse compression of a single yarn, a 0.25 mm long
fragment of the yarn was placed between two non-deformable punches
(Fig. 6). The top punch was given a constant displacement of 10 mm/s
and moved only in the yarn compressive direction. The bottom punch
was fixed. The reaction force of the yarn and the displacement of upper
punch were measured.
In simulations reproducing the uniaxial tension of a single yarn of the
fabric, the nodes at one of the ends of the yarn were attached to the grip
using tied contact algorithm [69–71], while the nodes at the opposite
(upper) end of the yarn were given a constant displacement of 10 mm/s
(Fig. 7). The displacement ratio in simulations was increased by the
factor of 10 compared to the experiments in order to speed up the
computations. However, the influence of the displacement ratio incre­
ment was checked, and was negligible. The reaction force of the yarn
and the displacement of the upper grip until the failure of the yarn were
measured.
As in the case of modeling of single yarns, four modeling methods
were used in the simulations reproducing the response of woven layers
to applied loads. In the first variant, the entire layers were modeled
using SHELL elements (Fig. 8a and 8b). In other variants 10 principal
yarns (5 wefts and 5 warps) were modeled at higher level of accuracy
(Fig. 8b), using SOLID elements attached/detached at nodes (Fig. 8e and
8f, respectively) and BEAM elements (Fig. 8d). Such methodology was
based on the information available in the literature, according to which,
in the phenomena of high speed impacts, the vast majority of the load is
transferred by the principal yarns of the fabric that are in direct contact
with the penetrator [56]. Using of elements detached at nodes was
intended to cover, in a simplified and limited manner, some of the
mechanisms and interactions specific to the fiber level (spreading).
Comparison of the applied discretization methods and the number of
DoFs in the representative volumes of fabric (area 12.25 mm2) was
shown in Fig. 8.
In analyses reproducing punch tests and ballistic impacts all DoFs
were taken away from nodes of fabric lying outside a circle with a
Fig. 7. Scheme of numerical analyzes of uniaxial tension of a single yarn of the fabric.
6
Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752
diameter of 100 mm. The penetrator was given a constant displacement
of 10 mm/s (Fig. 9a) and initial linear velocity of v0 = 460 m/s was
assigned to the projectile (Fig. 9b). In order to speed up the calculations,
two symmetry planes were used, thus modeling only 1/4 of the systems.
Elements lying on the planes of symmetry were deprived of the possi­
bility of displacements in the direction normal to the planes of symmetry
and rotation in relation to the axes lying in the planes of symmetry. The
reaction force of the fabric and the displacement of the penetrator until
the failure of the layer were measured.
Numerical model of the 9 × 19 mm FMJ projectile was shown in
Fig. 10. Because two symmetry planes were used in the model angular
velocity of the projectile was neglected. Finite elements in the Lagrange
formulation with appropriate erosion criteria were used in the projectile
jacket modeling (Fig. 10b). It was discretized using 15,232 8-node
SOLID elements with reduced integration and viscous control of Hour­
glass effects. Reproduction of soft lead cores of projectiles behavior
under large deformations and high strain rates conditions is problem­
atic. Using of Lagrange’s formulation in this case usually leads to
improper results. Severe deformations cause that a large number of the
elements has to be removed by erosion algorithms that to prevent pre­
mature termination of calculation. As a result, a certain mass and energy
of the core is removed, which reduces the penetration capability of the
projectile. Therefore the projectile core was described with finite ele­
ments in the ALE (Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian) formulation. For this
purpose, the domain of Euler elements was created, and filled with air
material. Then the appropriate elements of the domain were filled with
lead, forming the shape of the projectile core (Fig. 10a). Thanks to the
ALE [71–72] formulation, only a small area around the projectile core
had to be modeled because the domain could move with the projectile
and change its size. In case of classic Euler formulation the entire area in
which the presence of the analyzed material (lead) is predicted during
the phenomenon has to be modeled, which is more demanding in terms
of computational power.
Several different constitutive models were used to correctly describe
the materials from which the simulation components were made. Since
commonly used and well-known constitutive relations available in LS-
DYNA software [68,69] were used in the simulations, they have not
been explained in the article. Details and theory of the constitutive
equations and material models used can be found in the literature
[73–76]. Initial values of material constants for numerical models were
taken from the literature and from the own library of materials devel­
oped on the basis of own research characterizing the materials [77,78].
Then these values were modified in the validation process to obtain
simulation results similar to the experimental observations. The final
values of material parameters for the projectile components used in the
P. Zochowski et al. Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752

Fig. 8. The methods of modeling fabric layers: (a) the entire layer modeled with SHELL elements; (b) principal yarns (marked in green and yellow), modeled with
SOLID or BEAM elements; (c)-(f) methods of modeling of the representative volume of the fabric in numerical analyses. (For interpretation of the references to color
in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 9. Scheme of numerical reproduction of: (a) punch test; (b) ballistic impact tests.

Fig. 10. Numerical model of the 9 mm FMJ projectile: (a) lead core and the surrounding air domain in the ALE formulation; (b) projectile jacket in the Lagrange
formulation (c) final model.

Table 3
Parameters of the *MAT_098-SIMPLIFIED_JOHNSON_COOK model for steel and projectile components.
Specification RO, E, PR, A, B, n, C, PSFAIL, D1 D2 D3
[Tonnes] [GPa] [-] [MPa] [MPa] [-] [-] [-] [-] [-] [-]

Lead 1.01 × 10-8 13.8 0.42 5 10 1.000 0.010 – – – –

Brass 8.52 × 10-9 115.0 0.31 499 1195 0.420 0.010 1.75 – – –
Steel 7.85 × 10-9 210.0 0.33 1580 756 0.199 0.005 – 0.068 5.32 − 2.55

where: RO – mass density, E – Young’s modulus, PR – Poisson’s ratio, A – strength constant, B – strength exponent, C – strain rate factor, PSFAIL – plastic strain to
failure, D1,D2,D3 – JC failure constants.

7
P. Zochowski et al.
Table 4
Parameters of the * MAT_002-OTHOTROPIC_ELASTIC model for the Twaron T750 fabric.
RO, EA, EB, EC,
[Tonnes] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
1.440 × 10-9 34,000 5000 5000
where: RO – mass density, EA – Young’s modulus in a-direction, EB – Young’s modulus in b-direction, EC – Young’s modulus in c-direction, PRBA – Poisson ratio in the
ba direction, PRCA – Poisson ratio in the ca direction, PRCB – Poisson ratio in the cb direction, GAB – shear modulus in the ab direction, GBC – shear modulus in the bc
direction, GCA – shear modulus in the ca direction.
simulations were summarized in Tables 3 and 4.
The popular material model developed by Johnson and Cook (J-C)
[77–79], together with the Gruneisen equation of state (EOS) [69,80],
were used to describe the behavior of the projectile components (lead
core and brass jacket). The values of parameters in the equations of
projectile components are presented in Table 3.
Behavior of aramid fabrics was described by the * MAT_002-
ORTHOTROPIC_ELASTIC model [69]. In this model the elastic and
shear moduli as well as Poisson’s ratios may differ for the different
principal directions. As a yarn failure criterion, it was assumed that the
failure was initiated when the stresses in the material reached the
limiting value of σ 1 = 4.2 GPa. The initial values of the material pa­
rameters adopted for the analyses were presented in Table 4.
In case of the analyses of Twaron T750 fabric at the microstructural
level, it was assumed that individual fibers show elastic behavior until
failure. Therefore the linear-elastic model was used. The assumed fiber
density was ρ = 1.44 × 10-9 tons, Young’s modulus E = 34 GPa and
Poisson’s ratio v = 0.
Several contact models, based mainly on the penalty function
method [68,69] and considering the friction between individual com­
ponents, were used in the analyses. Interactions between the structural
components of the simulations (modeled with Lagrange formulation)
were conducted by general contact algorithm. In case of components in
which damage and erosion was predicted, the eroding contact model
was used. Threaded joints were modeled in a simplified manner,
through the tiebreak contacts with appropriate values of normal and
shear forces that breakaway the joint. In turn the interactions between
the MMALE and Lagrange components were conducted by the fluid­
–structure interaction (FSI) algorithms.
The friction in LS-Dyna® software is based on the Coulomb formu­
lation. It is determined by the following dependency:
μ = μd + (μs − μd )e− c|v|
where µs – static friction coefficient, µd – kinematic friction coefficient, v
– relative velocity between two surfaces in contact, c – exponential
transformation coefficient determining the transition from static to ki­
nematic friction.
The values of the friction coefficients were adopted on the basis of
works [38,55] and for individual pairs they equaled: for yarn-yarn
contact: µk = 0.19; µs = 0.23; α = 108; for the projectile-fabric con­
tact: µk = µs = 0.18; α = 108.
Numerical model of the projectile was validated against the experi­
mental data. The validation was carried out according to the method­
ology similar to the classic Taylor test. The projectiles fired at
Fig. 11. Impact of the 9 mm FMJ projectile into an Armox 500 T steel plate with a nominal velocity of v = 360 m/s, recorded with a high-speed camera.
Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752
PRBA, PRCA, PRCB, GAB, GBC, GCA,
[-] [-] [-] [MPa] [MPa] [MPa]
0 0 0 17,000 2500 17,000
appropriate velocities (50–360 m/s – achieved by weighing the gun­
powder) impacted into surface of a non-deformable target – a 10 mm
thick Armox 500 T armor steel plate. An example of the projectile impact
process (in this case with a nominal velocity v = 360 m/s) recorded with
a high-speed camera was shown in Fig. 11.
In this way, the values of characteristic projectile deformations for
different strain rates were determined. In order to limit the influence of
friction on the deformation of the projectile during impact, the surface of
the armor plate was previously polished. After the impacts, the
deformed projectiles were embedded in epoxy resin and cut in order to
show their cross-section. The results of the projectile validation were
shown in Fig. 12 and Table 5.
High correlation between the experimental and numerical results
was achieved. The differences between the results, measured by the
relative error value, for parameters such as length L and diameter D of
the deformed projectile did not exceed 7% which can be seen visually in
Fig. 12a, and the values of these spreads are summarized in Table 5. A
slightly larger relative error (≤13%) was noticed for the parameter of
the displacement of the rear surface of the core of the projectile T (see
Table 5). This results from the small values of this parameter. However,
when comparing the parameter values directly (not by means of the
relative error value), the differences in the respective dimensions of the
deformed projectile did not exceed 1 mm. This proves that the co­
efficients for the Johnson-Cook model for the projectile components
were determined correctly.
3. Results of analyses
3.1. Results of material characterization tests
Material characterization tests were carried out in order to collect
data required for subsequent definition and validation of numerical
(1)
models of fabrics. Their response to the applied characteristic loads
achieved during experimental tests and numerical simulations was
compared. The results of experimental tests of quasi-static tension of
single yarns separated from the Twaron T750 para-aramid fabric were
presented in Table 6 and Fig. 13a.
Values of characteristic parameters and force–displacement curves
obtained during quasi-static perforation of single layers of the Twaron
T750 para-aramid fabrics were shown in Table 7 and Fig. 13b. Three
trials were carried out in each of the tests.
The force–displacement curves shown in Fig. 13a, obtained during
the tensile tests of yarns, differ from each other, especially in the value of
displacements corresponding to yarn breakage. This is mainly due to the
lack of repeatability in the fastening of the yarns between the handles of
8
P. Zochowski et al. Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752

Fig. 12. Results of validation of the 9 mm FMJ projectile numerical model: (a) summary of validation results for specific impact velocity, (b) an example of numerical
validation of projectile deformation for velocity v = 289.3 m/s.

Table 5 Table 6
Results of validation of the 9 mm FMJ projectile numerical model. Results of quasi-static uniaxial tensile tests for single yarns of Twaron T750
fabric.
Impact velocity, vi [m/s]
Specification Undeformed 58.8 m/ 100 m/ 134.3 m/ 289.3 m/ No. Sample Max. Max. Displacement Elongation,
s s s s description Force, Displacement, after yarn [%]
[N] [mm] uncrimping,
[mm]
Length of deformed projectile, L [mm]
Exeriment 15.5 13.00 11.45 9.55 2.75 1 Yarn No. 1 527 9.1 7.2 4.8
Simulation 13.30 11.70 9.90 2.95 2 Yarn No. 2 504 10.8 9.0 6.0
Relative error, 2 2 4 7 3 Yarn No. 3 562 11.0 8.3 5.5
[%] Average: 531 10.3 8.2 5.4
Standard deviation 29.2 1.0 0.9 0.6

Diameter of deformed projectile, D [mm]

Exeriment 9 9.00 11.20 13.50 –
Simulation 9.00 10.40 12.50 – of Twaron T750 fabric show high repeatability. For each of the three
Relative error, 0 7 7 – tests, similar force–displacement curves were obtained (Fig. 13b). In the
[%] initial stage of the perforation process, the forces recorded on the testing
machine were close to zero due to the straightening of the yarns. In all
Displacement of the rear surface of the bullet core, T [mm] three tests, the layers were broken with a force of about 6.5 kN and a
Exeriment 0 1.75 2.70 3.10 – corresponding displacement of 21 mm.
Simulation 1.80 2.40 2.55 –
Relative error, 3 11 13 –
[%]
3.2. Results of ballistic impact experiments

the testing machine and, consequently, the different degree of initial
tension of the yarns. Thus, various values of the displacements necessary
to completely straighten the yarns were noted, i.e. until the testing
machine began to record any reaction forces from the yarns. In this
study, however, the values of the breaking forces were much more
important. They were not affected by an error related to the mounting
method, and were more reliable. The difference in the values of the
breaking forces of yarns obtained during the tests did not exceed 10%,
which proved the repeatability in determining the value of this
parameter.
The results obtained during quasi-static perforation of single layers
The results of the ballistic experiments of the 9 × 19 mm FMJ pro­
jectile impact into inserts containing layers of Twaron T750 para-aramid
fabric were shown in Table 8. Five shots were performed for each variant
of inserts: containing from 10 to 16 layers. The number of perforated
layers was counted and the dimensions of the deformed projectiles were
measured for each sample after impact.
In all five trials of impact into insert containing 16, 15, 14, 13 and 12
layers, the projectile was stopped, penetrating 5 to 11 layers. On the
other hand, in the case of the impact into the inserts containing 10 and
11 layers of Twaron T750 fabric, the perforations of targets occurred (in
five trials for target made of 10 layers and in three trials for target made
of 11 layers). Thus, it can be concluded that the minimum number of

9
P. Zochowski et al. Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752

Fig. 13. Force-displacement curves obtained in: (a) quasi-static uniaxial tensile tests of single yarns of Twaron T750 fabric; (b) quasi-static perforation tests of single
layer of Twaron T750 fabric.

Table 7
Results of the quasi-static perforation tests of single layer of Twaron T750 fabric.
Parameter Sample No. 1 Sample No. 2 Sample Average Standard
No. 3 deviation

Max. Force, [kN] 6.49 6.75 6.56 6.6 0.1

Max. Displacement [mm] 20.8 20.8 21.5 21.0 0.4

Sample No. 1 Sample No. 2 Sample No. 3

Table 8
Results of the ballistic experiments of the 9 × 19 mm FMJ projectile impact into inserts containing layers of Twaron T750 para-aramid fabric.
Shoot No. of Impact Result * No. of perforated Length of deformed Diameter of deformed Displacement of projectile Residual velocity
No. layers layers projectile [mm] projectile [mm] rear surface [mm] of projectile
velocity, [m/s]
[m/s]

1–5 16 429–451 S, S, S, S, 5–8/16 6.9–8.2 15.8–17.0 2.2–2.7 0

S
6–10 15 434–454 S, S, S, S, 7–9/15 6.8–8.7 14.9–16.4 1.9–2.8 0
S
11–15 14 439–449 S, S, S, S, 8–11/14 7.1–9.3 13.2–14.6 1.4–2.1 0
S
16–20 13 441–454 S, S, S, S, 9–11/13 8.1–10.2 13.3–13.9 1.4–1.7 0
S
21–25 12 438–454 S, S, S, S, 10–11/12 9.4–11.3 11.3–12.2 0.9–1.2 0
S
26–28 11 442–452 P, P, P 11/11 – – – 19–61
29–30 11 442–448 S, S 10/11 10.3–12.1 10.7–11.8 0.4 0
31–35 10 439–452 P, P, P, P, 10/10 – – – 120–175
P

*P – perforation of target, S – stopping of the projectile.

layers of Twaron T750 fabric required to stop the 9x19mm FMJ pro­
jectile with an impact velocity of v0 = 450 m/s is in the range of 11–12
layers. Projectile impact processes recorded with high speed camera
(100000 fps) were shown in Fig. 14. Deformations of the fabric layers
and projectiles for cases in which they were stopped after impact into
insert containing 16-layers of fabric were shown in Fig. 15.
Deformations of projectiles constituted a quantitative data set for the
verification of the phenomenon numerical modeling method. In case of
perforations of samples the projectiles were retained on a dditional
layers of aramid fabric located 2 m away from the rear surface of the
samples. These further deformations caused that these data could not be
used in the validation process. It should be noted, however, that in the

10
P. Zochowski et al. Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752

Fig. 14. Projectile impact process recorded with high speed camera (100000 fps): area marked with red color presents mirror view of the sample; projectile was
marked with a cyan circle. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 15. Deformation of: (a) samples after projectile impact; (b) projectiles stopped on the target containing 16 layers of fabric.

case of perforation of the inserts (impacts on 10 layers of Twaron T750
fabric), the projectile deformation was smaller (projectile length longer
by about 30–50%, maximum diameter smaller by about 10–20%) and
the mushroom shape was more oval than in case of impacts into insert
containing 16 layers of fabric.
In order to analyze failure mechanisms of fabrics after projectile
impact a micro computed tomography (µCT) analyzes were carried out
on SkyScan 1172 (Bruker) high-resolution 3D X-ray microscope. The
source of radiation (X-Ray lamp) was set to voltage of 60 kV and current
intensity of 167 µA. A thousand of X-ray images was obtained in each
measurement. The pixel size was 13 µm.
On the basis of the X-ray images obtained reconstruction of fabrics
cross sections was carried out with the use of Feldkamp algorithm.
Reconstructed cross-sections were then exported to the dedicated soft­
ware in which internal structure of the analyzed sample could be
visualised in two and three dimensions (Fig. 16).

11
P. Zochowski et al.
Fig. 16. Exemplar results of CT scans including 3D reconstruction and cross section of: (a) undamaged fabric; (b) fabric after shot; (c) displacement map of fabric
after shot.
In the figure some specific failure mechanisms of fabric can be
observed e.g., breaking of single fibers, fibers pull-out, fibers spreading
and slippage as well as transverse movement.
Additionally, microscopic examinations of damaged samples were
carried out using the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Failure
mechanisms of fabrics after projectile impact and the quasi-static
perforation tests were examined on the Hitachi TM-3000 scanning mi­
croscope. Fig. 17 shows the results of piercing the front side of the first
layer.
As noted, the damage process of para-aramid fibers is different due to
the speed of piercing. This proves that the strain rate is of decisive
importance in identifying the dissipation of the impact energy. In the
case of punching with an impactor (Fig. 17a), the fibers broke up
because their plastic strain exceeded the limiting value. During ballistic
impact the fibers are cut due to the transverse compression and shear
stresses generated by the penetrating projectile.. The visible ends stratify
of the fiber indicate that this process is a consequence of the wave effect
resulting from the impact velocity (linear and rotational), which in the
literature refers to the Cuniff effects [81,82]. Additionally, it can be seen
that during piercing with the impactor, the fibers are sliding, spreading
and they are stretched to the limit until they break up. Under ballistic
load, fibers are compressed, sheared and additionally twisted.
Fig. 17. Exemplar results of the pictures of the SEM failure mechanisms of fabrics: (a) fiber damage as a result of quasi-static piercing; (b) fiber damage as a result of
projectile impact.
12
Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752
3.3. Results of simulations
3.3.1. Simulation of quasi-static transverse compression of a single yarn
The results of simulation of the quasi-static transverse compression
of single yarns fragments extracted from the Twaron T750 fabric were
shown in Fig. 18. The course of the force–displacement curves and the
behavior of yarns (modeled by four different techniques) during the
compression process obtained in simulations were compared.
On the basis of the results, it can be stated that the correct behavior of
the yarns during transverse compression is possible only when
deformable elements are used. With the use of SHELL elements, the
changes in the shape of the cross-section of the yarns were not correctly
reproduced. In consequence too high values forces act on the punch and
the stress distribution in the yarn is asymmetrical (Fig. 18). In the case of
BEAM elements, the fibers diverge excessively, due to the lack of the
possibility of deformation. The forces acting on the punch did not in­
crease enough. The best results were obtained for variants in which solid
elements were used. Thanks to the using of elements detached at nodes,
the phenomenon of yarns spreading under the action of loads was
partially reproduced, what may be important especially in the analysis
of sharp penetrators impacts. However, this effect is strictly dependent
on the density of the computational mesh. The smaller the size of ele­
ments of yarns, the more accurate reproduction of interaction mecha­
nisms at the fiber level. Taking into account the results of the analysis of
the transverse compression of the yarns, it was decided to abandon the
P. Zochowski et al.
Fig. 18. Results of simulation of the quasi-static transverse compression of single yarns fragments extracted from the Twaron T750 fabric: (a) force–displacement
curves; (b) behavior of yarns during compression and the stress distribution.
Fig. 19. Force-displacement curves obtained in simulations of: (a) quasi-static uniaxial tensile test of single yarns of Twaron T750 fabric; (b) quasi-static perforation
test of single layers of Twaron T750 fabric.
approach of the yarns modeling based on the BEAM elements.
3.3.2. Simulation of the material characterization tests
Results of numerical reproduction of the quasi-static uniaxial tensile
test of single yarns extracted from the Twaron T750 fabric and quasi-
static perforation of fabric layer were shown in Figs. 19 and 20. The
shapes of the force–displacement curves obtained in experiments and
simulations were compared. Numerical analyses were carried out for
three variants of the yarn modeling: with the use of SHELL elements and
SOLID elements attached and detached at nodes. Similar, in case of
fabric layers they were modeled in three different ways:
1) the entire layer was modeled by SHELL elements;
2) the principal yarns were modeled with solid elements attached at
nodes, and remaining yarns were described with SHELL elements;
3) the principal yarns were modeled with solid elements detached at
nodes, and remaining yarns were described with SHELL elements.
Simulation results most similar to the experimental observations
were obtained for the yarn variant modeled with SHELL elements.
Especially when ignore the initial range of yarns straightening, where
the forces recorded on the testing machine were close to zero. The
13
Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752
breaking force of the yarn modeled with SHELL elements was approxi­
mately 480 N and was within the range determined during the experi­
mental tests. Solid elements overestimated the strength of the yarns
during the stretching process due to their too high bending stiffness. This
effect was reduced by the use of solid elements detached at nodes. But in
the variants of analyses using both types of solid elements, the forces
recorded at the breaking of the yarns were almost twice as high as in the
experiments.
Taking into account the results of numerical analyses of tension and
transverse compression of the yarns, it was decided that in the final
analyses of the projectile impact into ballistic inserts, the principal yarns
in the woven fabrics, which are mainly subjected to compressive and
shear loads, will be modeled using SOLID elements. The remaining yarns
in which tensile stresses are dominant will be modeled with SHELL
elements.
Due to the low velocity of the penetrator and the presence of only one
layer of the fabric, the mechanisms of transverse compression and
shearing were limited and tensile loads dominated during the process of
its perforation. Therefore, similar results were obtained for the three
methods of fabric modeling. All variants showed higher stiffness than
real fabric layer. This was mainly due to the inability to accurately
reproduce the interactions of the fibers, which in the real yarns may, for
P. Zochowski et al.
Fig. 20. Deformations and stress distribution in the fabric for individual simulation variants.
example, spread, reducing the global stiffness of the entire layer. The
layer modeled with SHELL elements was perforated by the penetrator at
the lowest force F = 5.9 kN and the smallest displacement D = 19.1 mm.
On the other hand, the layer modeled with SOLID elements detached at
nodes turned out to be the most durable. It showed lowest stiffness due
to the partial, simplified reproduction of the fiber interaction mecha­
nisms. It seemed that in this case, by using denser discretization and
modeling a larger number of fibers on the cross-section of the yarn, a
higher convergence with the results of the experiment could be ach­
ieved. The deformation and stress distribution in the layers were shown
in Fig. 20. In all cases, the vast majority of the load was carried by the
principal yarns, similar like in experiments.
3.3.3. Simulation of ballistic tests
Numerical analyses of the 9 × 19 mm FMJ projectile impact into
ballistic inserts containing Twaron T750 fabric layers were performed to
verify the fabric modeling techniques by comparing the results of
computer simulations with experimental observations. Simulations
allowed more detailed analysis of the phenomena that occur during the
penetration process. General course of the penetration process was
similar in all variants of fabric modeling. Similar like in experiments the
projectile penetrated the target containing 10 layers of Twaron T750
fabric in all variants of simulations. The highest residual velocity of the
projectile after penetrating the layers (vr = 165 m/s) was recorded in
variant in which the yarns were modeled using SOLID elements de­
tached at nodes (Fig. 21a). In turn, the most energy of the projectile was
absorbed by the layer described with the use of solid elements attached
in nodes (vr = 125 m/s).
In the case of simulation of the projectile impact into ballistic insert
containing 16 layers of fabric, in all calculation variants the projectile
was stopped by the armor. The curves showing the dependence of the
projectile velocity against time of the penetration process are similar for
all methods of yarn modeling. During the penetration processes, initial
14
Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752
kinetic energy of a projectile was converted mainly into fabric energy
(kinetic and internal shown in Fig. 21b), was dissipated by frictional
interaction of fabric yarns (sliding energy shown in Fig. 21c) as well as
projectile-yarns interaction and was consumed by work converted into
plastic deformation of projectile. On the basis of Fig. 21b and 21c it can
be concluded that in case of yarns modeled with SOLID elements values
of energies absorbed and dissipated by fabrics are comparable and both
mechanisms are equally important. As it was mentioned earlier in case
of yarns modeled with SHELL elements it is difficult to properly repro­
duce the changes in the thickness and shape of the yarns under loads and
in consequence the frictional interactions between yarns are improperly
modeled. For this reason the sliding energy in the variant with SHELL
elements was significantly lower (twice up to triple) than in variants
with SOLID elements.
The values of the energy removed from the model due to erosion of
failed elements was similar in all variants of fabrics modeling. It should
be noted that these values were very low and constituted only about
1.25% of initial kinetic energy of the projectile what testified that
erosion criteria did not significantly affect the results obtained in
simulations.
The correlation ratio between the simulation and experiments was
assessed on the basis of the number of perforated layers of fabric
(Figs. 22-23), residual velocity of projectile in case of target perforations
(Fig. 23), the way of fabrics failure (Fig. 24) and the values of charac­
teristic deformation parameters of the projectile (Fig. 25). Regarding
modeling methods, for ballistic inserts modeled with SHELL elements,
SOLID elements attached and detached at nodes, the projectile pene­
trated 8, 8 and 9 of all 16 layers respectively. These results were very
similar to the results of experiments where the number of perforated
layers was in the range 5–8.
Reasonable agreement was achieved also taking into consideration
results of simulations and experiments for the ballistic inserts containing
different number of layers. In order to limit calculation variants
P. Zochowski et al.
Fig. 21. Results of simulation: (a) projectile velocity; (b) target energy; (c) sliding energy; (d) eroded energy; in function of time for individual simulation variants.
simulations were carried only with Solid elements attached at nodes.
The number of perforated layers in case of stopping of projectile, as well
as residual velocity of projectile in case of perforation of target in each of
the analyzed variant (Fig. 23) were within the ranges determined during
experimental tests (Table 8). Similar like in experiments, the minimal
number of Twaron T750 layers for which perforation of target did not
occur was equal 12.
Since measured dimensions of Twaron T750 yarns were different
from those provided by the manufacturer (chapter 2.1) additional
simulation was carried out to check the influence of the thickness of the
fabric on the protection efficiency of the whole ballistic insert (Fig. 23).
Thickness of each of 10 layers of fabric was scaled up by about 10%
(from gmeasured = 0.592 mm to gmanufacturer = 0.650 mm). After increasing
of the thickness the projectile was stopped in the target perforating 9/10
layers. This result indicates that defined numerical model is very sen­
sitive to changes of the geometrical dimensions of yarns, and the
determined parameters of material models are valid only for the
measured dimensions of yarns. Even small change of the dimensions of
yarn requires that material parameters determination and validation
procedures should be carried out from the beginning.
In the Fig. 24 the failure mechanisms of the last fabric layer in the
ballistic insert were shown. The interaction between the projectile and
the target can be divided into global and local fabric responses. From the
global point of view the response of the target was similar in all variants
of fabric modeling. Formation of the specific pyramidal shape of the
deformed area of the ballistic insert as well as principal yarns pull-out
mechanisms can be observed. In the initial state before the impact
there were 6–7 principal yarns under the projectile radius. However
15
Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752
during the penetration process due to the deformation (the so called
“mushrooming”) of projectile the number of principal yarns that directly
interact with the projectile is increasing. In the model with shell ele­
ments, the greater number of fully fractured yarns was observed. The
fracture of 5 weft and 5 warp yarns was noticed. Therefore, the number
of broken yarns in this variant was higher than during experimental tests
where, three principal warp and three principal weft yarns were fully
fractured. Probably it was caused by inability to properly reproduce the
response of shell elements to transverse loads and their premature
failure.
Therefore the results of simulations more similar to experimental
observations were obtained when solid elements were used for modeling
yarns. The yarns changed their cross-section shapes when they were
compressed by impacting projectile. More intensive slippage of the
yarns from the surface of the penetrating projectile was observed. The
lower number of principal weft and warp yarns were fully fractured than
in variant with SHELL elements. In case of fabrics modeled with SOLID
elements detached at nodes beside the more intensive yarns slippage
additionally the mechanisms of fibers spreading were clearly visible. In
this variant the failure of single fiber bundles were also noticed, what
may be particularly important in analyses of sharp penetrator impacts.
The examples of fabric yarns behavior observed in target samples
after ballistic impact tests (Fig. 24) showed intensive spreading of fibers
in individual yarns of the fabric. Numerical reproduction of this
important mechanism cannot be realized when the yarns are modeled as
continuum. Only with the use of solid elements detached at nodes the
spreading of fibers can be partially reproduced, but to a very limited
extent (10 deformable fibers packs simulated several hundred fibers in
P. Zochowski et al.
Fig. 22. Deformations of the simulation components for individual variants of calculations.
the real yarn. Unfortunately it is impossible to model the phenomenon of
a projectile impact into ballistic inserts containing multiple layers of
fabrics at the level of accuracy taking into account the presence of
several hundred or even several dozen of deformable fibers in the yarn,
even taking into account the dynamic growth of the computational
power of modern computers.
On the basis of the comparison of the characteristic dimensions of the
projectile deformation, it can also be concluded that a very high corre­
lation between the simulation and experiment results was achieved. The
length L and the diameter D of the deformed projectile were measured
after impact into 16 layers of fabric. The differences in the values of
deformation recorded during the experiments and numerical analyses
measured with the value of the relative error did not exceed 16%
(Fig. 25), which proves a very high degree of reproduction of the actual
behavior of the components during the impact phenomenon.
Small discrepancies between experimental and numerical results
prove that with the use of simplified yarn modeling methods, which
neglect some mechanisms of fiber interactions, it is possible to satis­
factorily reproduce the phenomenon of the 9 mm FMJ projectile impact
into ballistic insert containing high-strength Twaron T750 fabrics. Slight
modification of the material parameters, allows obtaining similar results
of the analyses for all three methods of yarn modeling used in the work.
The yarn modeling method should be adapted regarding the predicted
load characteristic. SHELL elements are preferred for the cases when the
tensile stresses along the axis of the yarns dominate in the fabric layer.
On the other hand, in cases where the transverse compression of the
yarns or their shearing dominates, much more accurate results can be
16
Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752
obtained by using deformable solid elements. Unfortunately, the use of
solid elements significantly increases the number of DoF in the model
and thus the need for computational power. Therefore, it was justified to
use the hybrid method of fabric modeling in which only the principal
yarns carrying a major part of loads and subjected to compression and
shear were described by means of SOLID elements, and the remaining
yarns in which tensile stresses predominated along the axis were
modeled with the use of SHELL elements. Such approach allows to in­
crease the efficiency understood as the time required to complete the
calculations. Comparison of the time required to complete the calcula­
tions for each variant of yarn modeling was shown in Fig. 26. The cal­
culations were performed on 8 cores clocked at 3.2 GHz and with the use
of 10 GB of RAM.
The shortest calculation time was recorded for the variant in which
the SHELL elements were used to describe the yarns. It resulted directly
from the smallest number of nodes and DoFs in the model, as well as the
lack of deformation of elements under the influence of compressive
loads. Thanks to this, the characteristic dimension of the element did not
change and did not decrease the value of the time step limited by the CFL
stability condition (Courant-Friedrichs-Levy). When using SOLID ele­
ments attached in nodes, the computation time for both variants of
ballistic inserts (10 and 16 layers) was almost twice as long, which, apart
from greater number of nodes, was also caused by the possibility of
deformation of the elements and the resulting reduction of the time step.
The method that used solid elements detached at nodes was the most
demanding in terms of computational power. In addition to the obvious
increase in the number of DoFs in the model, it was also caused by a
P. Zochowski et al.
Fig. 23. Simulation results (deformations of components and projectile velocity plots) for different target configurations modeled with Solid attached elements.
much larger number of segments that had to be considered by the
contact search and implementation algorithms. Therefore, the calcula­
tion time was almost 4 times longer than in case of SHELL elements.
Taking into account the slight differences in the achieved results of the
ballistic impact simulation, it could be concluded that the method based
on SHELL elements was the most effective. However, the selection of the
optimal method of modeling of yarns subjected to impact loads
perpendicular to the plane of the layers should take into account several
additional factors. One of the most important is the shape of the pene­
trator, which determines to a certain extent the nature of the loads to
which the target will be subjected and way of the layer response. For
example, in case of knife, spike or even a projectile with a sharp tip
penetration, it will be much more important to reproduce the yarns
spreading mechanism in the simulations, which will force the user to use
finite elements separated at nodes, which are more demanding in terms
of computational power.
4. Conclusions
On the basis of literature review [76–77,82–83] as well as performed
experimental and numerical analyses the following conclusions can be
drawn:
1. Ballistic impact experiments indicated that minimum 11–12 layers of
Twaron T750 fabric should be used in order to stop the 9 × 19 mm
FMJ projectile with initial velocity of v0 = 450 m/s (at the applied
conditions of tests). When a ballistic package containing 10 layers
was used it was perforated in each of 5 shots. When 12 layers of
fabric were used the projectile was stopped in each of 5 shots. In case
of 11 layers of Twaron T750 three perforations of target and two
stoppings of the projectile were noticed
17
Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752
2. Since it is impossible to model the phenomenon of a projectile impact
into ballistic inserts containing multiple layers of fabrics at the level
of accuracy taking into account the presence of several hundred or
even several dozen of deformable fibers in the yarn, It is extremely
important to find an appropriate balance between the level of the
adopted simplifications in modeling of fabric layers and their influ­
ence on the accuracy of results obtained.
3. Defined simplified methodology of numerical modeling ensure a
satisfactory level of reproduction of the actual behavior of both the 9
× 19 mm FMJ projectile and the ballistic inserts containing layers of
Twaron T750 fabric under dynamic conditions (at high strain rates).
Penetration capability of projectiles was similar in experiments and
simulations.
4. SHELL elements are preferred for the cases in which tensile stresses
along the axis of the yarns dominate in the fabric layer.
5. More accurate results in cases where transverse compression of the
yarns or their shearing dominates can be obtained by using of
deformable SOLID elements.
6. Application of hybrid method of fabric modeling in which only the
principal yarns are described by means of SOLID elements, and the
remaining yarns are modeled with the use of SHELL elements allows
to increase the accuracy of the results and efficiency of calculations
understood as a time required to complete the calculations.
Fundings
This work was supported by the National Centre for Research and
Development of Poland, grant No. TECHMATSTRATEG 2/410049/12/
NCBR/2019.
P. Zochowski et al. Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752

(a)

(b)
Fig. 24. Failure of the last 10th fabric layer in the inserts modeled with different approaches: (global and local examinations) (a) and the examples of yarns behavior
(spreading) during experiments (b).

18
P. Zochowski et al. Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752

Fig. 25. Deformations of projectiles stopped by an insert containing 16 layers of fabric for individual simulation variants and comparison of projectile deformations
obtained in simulation and experiments.

Fig. 26. Comparison of the calculation time for individual simulation variants.

CRediT authorship contribution statement Declaration of Competing Interest

Pawel Zochowski: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
Software, Writing – original draft. Marcin Bajkowski: Methodology,
Formal analysis, Resources, Data curation. Roman Grygoruk: Formal
analysis, Writing – review & editing. Mariusz Magier: Validation, Re­
sources, Data curation, Visualization, Project administration. Wojciech
Burian: Visualization, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition.
Dariusz Pyka: Software, Writing – original draft, Investigation. Miro­
slaw Bocian: Software, Visualization, Data curation. Krzysztof Jam­
roziak: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Visualization,
Supervision.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
Calculations have been carried out in Wroclaw Centre for
Networking and Supercomputing (http://www.wcss.pl), grant No. 452.

19
P. Zochowski et al. Composite Structures 294 (2022) 115752

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