Review
Materials, Weaving Parameters, and Tensile Responses of
Woven Textiles
Antonella Patti 1 and Domenico Acierno 2, *
Citation: Patti, A.; Acierno, D.
Materials, Weaving Parameters, and
Tensile Responses of Woven Textiles.
Macromol 2023, 3, 665–680. https://
doi.org/10.3390/macromol3030037
Academic Editor: Luis Alves
Received: 22 July 2023
Revised: 15 September 2023
Accepted: 19 September 2023
Published: 21 September 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Macromol 2023, 3, 665–680. https://doi.org/10.3390/macromol3030037
1 Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture (DICAr), University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6,
95125 Catania, Italy; antonella.patti@unict.it
2 Regional Center of Competence New Technologies for Productive Activities Scarl, Via Nuova Agnano 11,
80125 Naples, Italy
* Correspondence: acierno@crdctecnologie.it
Abstract: Fabrics have been recognized as a necessary component of daily life due to their involve-
ment in garments, home textiles, and industrial textiles. The mechanical performance of textiles was
considered essential to meet the end-user requirements for strength and durability. The purpose of
this work was to provide an overview of the textile structures and tensile strengths of woven textiles.
Different types of textile structures, depending on the weaving methods (woven, braided, knitted,
non-woven) and the most common architectures of woven fabrics (plain weave, twill and sateen),
were presented. Common materials constituting the textiles’ structures and a comparison in terms of
the density, Young’s modulus and tensile strength between natural (plant-based, animal-based, and
mineral-based) and synthetic fibers were reported. The mechanical properties of woven textiles were
presented for neat and coated textiles, primarily in terms of the tensile strength. Depending on the
cases, typical regions in the load–displacement curve (i.e., crimp, elastic, non-linear failure, thread
fracture) were highlighted. The impact of the architecture, yarn distance and size, and yarn twisting
on the tensile strength of woven fabrics was then illustrated.
Keywords: textiles structures; tensile properties; woven textiles
1. Introduction
Fabrics have emerged as a key element of everyday life. Contrary to past centuries,
when textiles were merely utilized for clothing, today they are employed for a number
of purposes [1]. In general, textiles should meet requirements for durability, strength,
colorfastness, aesthetics, and so on. These qualities are necessary for daily use. Moisture
transfer, temperature resistance, wicking, water proofing, and flame resistance are other
functional qualities of high-performance fabrics. Analytic awareness of fabrics’ behaviors
and properties is critical in textile design and development [2].
Textile fibers are exceptionally significant as the primary building block determining
the mechanical properties of textiles. However, the characteristics of a textile product are
determined not only by the physical and chemical properties of the constituent materials [3]
but also by the additional steps in the production process, such as spinning methods
(melt spinning, wet spinning) [4] and textile treatments [5] (mechanical, chemical and
biotechnological finishing).
Several parameters affect the mechanical properties of fabrics [6,7]: yarn linear den-
sity [8], yarn twist [9], yarn bending behavior [10], coefficient of friction [11] and initial
modulus of the yarn, warp and weft density [12], weave construction [13] or yarn interlace-
ment pattern, and environmental conditions such as temperature [14] and moisture [15].
The tensile strength of a yarn or fabric represents the greatest load that can be sus-
tained without breaking when the sample is subjected to uniaxial tensile loading [6]. Tensile
strength is one of the most essential mechanical properties to ensure the durability, comfort
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/macromol
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Macromol 2023, 3 666

Tensile strength is one of the most essential mechanical properties to ensure the durability,
and lifespan of textiles products. Woven fabric is one of the most utilized structural materi-
comfort and lifespan of textiles products. Woven fabric is one of the most utilized struc-
als.
turalhas
It excellent
materials. conformability
It has and integrity
excellent conformability and forintegrity
high-end fortechnical
high-endapplications
technical appli- and is
becoming more popular as a reinforcement material [16]. Woven
cations and is becoming more popular as a reinforcement material [16]. Woven fabrics are fabrics are anisotropic
and elastic. Their
anisotropic mechanical
and elastic. properties are
Their mechanical determined
properties by complex
are determined by combinations
complex combina- of fiber
bundles, yarn spacings, stacking sequences, yarn sizes, fiber orientations,
tions of fiber bundles, yarn spacings, stacking sequences, yarn sizes, fiber orientations, fiber architectures,
and fiber
fiber volume fractions.
architectures, and fiber Woven
volume fabrics provide
fractions. extra-high
Woven fabricsresistance to damage,
provide extra-high re-and
very hightostrain
sistance at failure
damage, and very under tension,
high strain compression,
at failure and impact
under tension, loadings
compression, anddue impact to the
interlacing
loadings due of fiber
to thebundles [17].of fiber bundles [17].
interlacing
This
Thiswork
workpresented
presented aa brief overview
overviewofofthe theeffect
effectofof weaving
weaving parameters
parameters (i.e.,(i.e.,
archi-archi-
tecture,
tecture,yarn
yarnspacing
spacinglength,
length,andandyarn
yarnstructure)
structure)on onthe
thetensile
tensile properties
properties of of woven
woven textiles.
tex-
The main
tiles. Thetextile
main structures, common
textile structures, materials
common used toused
materials create totextiles, and tensile
create textiles, and properties
tensile
ofproperties
synthetic of andsynthetic
naturaland natural
fibers havefibers have detailed.
also been also been detailed.
Thereview
The reviewfocused
focused on on full papers,
papers,which
whichincluded
includedjournal
journal articles,
articles, conference
conference pro-pro-
ceedings, book chapters, and review papers. Patents were not included
ceedings, book chapters, and review papers. Patents were not included in this literature in this literature
reviewstudy.
review study.Only
Onlyarticles
articles written
written in in English
Englishwerewereexamined.
examined. Scopus,
Scopus, ScienceDirect,
ScienceDirect, andand
Google Scholar were chosen as three common databases. A table
Google Scholar were chosen as three common databases. A table of contents was developed of contents was devel-
oped
with thewith the following
following key focuses:
key focuses: (i) differences
(i) differences in fiber
in fiber interweaving
interweaving provide
provide a wide
a wide range
range of textile structures; (ii) used materials in fiber production; (iii)
of textile structures; (ii) used materials in fiber production; (iii) basic principle behind basic principle be-
hind
the the tensile
tensile properties
properties of woven
of woven textiles
textiles by highlighting
by highlighting the the effect
effect of the
of the architecture,
architecture, yarn
spacing and yarn structure; and (iv) main applications of textiles. Duplicate and and
yarn spacing and yarn structure; and (iv) main applications of textiles. Duplicate ir-
irrelevant
relevant papers were removed based on the title and abstract. The review incorporated
papers were removed based on the title and abstract. The review incorporated more than
more than 90 contributions in total.
90 contributions in total.

2. 2.Textile
TextileStructures
Structures
The term textile is derived from the Latin “textilis” and the French “texere”, meaning
The term textile is derived from the Latin “textilis” and the French “texere”, meaning
“to weave”. It originally referred only to woven fabrics; then, it was extended to fabrics
“to weave”. It originally referred only to woven fabrics; then, it was extended to fabrics pro-
produced by other methods, such as threads, cords, ropes, braids, lace, embroidery, nets,
duced by other methods, such as threads, cords, ropes, braids, lace, embroidery, nets, and
and fabrics made by weaving, such as woven, knitted, braided, or non-woven fabrics
fabrics made by weaving, such as woven, knitted, braided, or non-woven fabrics [18,19].
[18,19].
The different operations that begin with fiber production and proceed to fabric real-
The different operations that begin with fiber production and proceed to fabric real-
ization
ization areasasfollows:
are follows: fiber production,yarn
fiber production, yarnproduction,
production, fabric
fabric production,
production, pre-treatment,
pre-treatment,
dyeing and printing, and finishing treatment [20]. A diagram of textile production
dyeing and printing, and finishing treatment [20]. A diagram of textile production from from
fiber to finished fabric is presented in Figure
fiber to finished fabric is presented in Figure 1.1.

Figure
Figure 1.1.Sequential
Sequentialoperations
operations in
in the
the manufacturing
manufacturingofoffabrics.
fabrics.Reprinted
Reprintedfrom [20].
from [20].

Technically,the
Technically, thebasic
basicprinciple
principle of
of weaving
weavinginvolves
involvestwo twoseries of of
series filaments: thethe
filaments: firstfirst
(i.e., the warp) is fixed, while the second (i.e., the weft) is inserted within
(i.e., the warp) is fixed, while the second (i.e., the weft) is inserted within the structure the structure
formedby
formed bythe
thewarp.
warp.
The weaving
The weaving process process (Figure
(Figure 2)
2) consists
consistsofofthree
threesteps:
steps:(i)(i)
shedding,
shedding, during which
during the the
which
warp sheet is divided into two patterns, one spaced, separated, and lifted
warp sheet is divided into two patterns, one spaced, separated, and lifted up from the other up from the
soother so to an
to create create an opening
opening between
between the warp
the warp series;
series; (ii)(ii) filling
filling insertion,which
insertion, whichprovides
provides for
for the insertion of a yarn inside the created opening; and (iii) beat-up, in which the filling
the insertion of a yarn inside the created opening; and (iii) beat-up, in which the filling yarn
yarn is pushed inside the weave of the fabric. Using this method, 2D planar weaving struc-
is pushed inside the weave of the fabric. Using this method, 2D planar weaving structures,
tures, i.e., with in-plane-oriented fibers, can be produced [19,21].
i.e., with in-plane-oriented fibers, can be produced [19,21].
 Macromol
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Macromol 2023, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 3

Figure
Figure
Figure 2.
2.Basic
Basic
2. Basic production
production
production process
process for for
process woven
for
woven textiles:
woven the the
textiles:
textiles: warpwarp
the filaments
warp
filaments are are
filaments opened, while
are opened,
opened, while the
weftweft
thewhile the weft
filaments
filaments
filaments movemove
move orthogonally
orthogonally
orthogonally in
in two two opposing
inopposing
two opposing directions.
directions.
directions. Reprinted
Reprinted
Reprinted from [19].
from [19].
from [19].

Other
Other
Other typical
typical
typical processes
processes
processes exist,
exist, depending
exist, on on
depending
depending the
theon interlocking
the type,
interlocking
interlocking type, that
type,
that can
canthat generate
can generate
generate
another
another type
type of
ofweaving,
weaving, such
such as knitting,
as braiding,
knitting, and
braiding, non-woven
and non-woven materials. In detail,
materials.
another type of weaving, such as knitting, braiding, and non-woven materials. In detail, In detail,
four
four
four main
main
main categories
categories
categories of textile
of textile
of textile structures can
structures
structures be
can becan recognized
be recognized
recognized (Figure 3)
(Figure(Figure [20].
3) [20].3) [20].

Figure
Figure
Figure 3.
3.Schematic
Schematic
3. Schematic of of
of 2D 2D planar
2D
planar andand
planar 3D
3Dand fibrous structures:
3D structures:
fibrous fibrous (a) woven,
structures:
(a) woven,(a) (b) braided,
(b)woven,
braided,(b) (c) knitted,
(c)braided,
knitted, (c)(d)
(d) knitted,
non-woven,
non-woven,
(d) andand
non-woven, (e) tridimensional.
(e) tridimensional.
and Reprinted
Reprinted
(e) tridimensional. from[19,20].
from[19,20].
Reprinted from [19,20].

Woven
Woven
Woven fabrics
fabrics
fabrics (Figure
(Figure 3a)3a)
(Figure 3a)
are are
mademade
are by by
made weaving
by
weaving twotwo
weaving sets
two
sets of interlaced
of sets yarn
of interlaced
interlaced yarn compo-
yarn
compo- compo-
nents
nents
nents (warp
(warp
(warp and
andand weft) weft)
weft) using
usingusing orthogonal
orthogonal
orthogonal interlacement
interlacement
interlacement at
at 0° and0° and◦
at 090°and90° intervals.
◦
90 intervals.
intervals. In
In wovenwoven
In woven
fabrics,
fabrics,
fabrics, warp warp
warp yams yams
yams areare are positioned
positioned
positioned vertically
vertically
vertically or
orlongitudinally,
longitudinally,
or longitudinally, andandand
weftweft
weft yarns
yarns areare
yarns areorien-
orien-orientated
tated
tated horizontally.
horizontally.
horizontally.
Braided
Braided
Braided fabrics
fabrics
fabricsareareare created
created by by
created byplacing
placing
placing fibers
fibers ininthe
in the
fibers thebias
bias direction
direction
bias according
according
direction to atospe-
according a spe-
to a specific
cific braided
cificbraided
braidedangle angle
angle(Figure (Figure
(Figure3b). 3b).
3b).The The
Thefirst first
firstsetset set of tows is called the axial yarns, while the
ofoftowstows is is called
called thethe axial
axial yarns,
yarns, while
while thethe
others are
others
others are
arethe called
called the
the braided braided yarns.
called braided yarns.yarns.
Knitted
Knitted fabrics are constructed by intermeshing loops and segments of fibers (Figure 3c).
Knitted fabricsconstructed
fabrics are are constructedby intermeshing
by intermeshing loops and
loopssegments of fibers
and segments (Figure
of fibers3c).
(Figure 3c).
In non-woven
In non-woven fabrics,
fabrics, the
the fibersfibers are randomly
are randomly oriented
oriented in the structure
in theinstructure in a discon-
in a discon-
In non-woven fabrics, the fibers are randomly oriented the structure in a discontin-
tinuous way
tinuous (Figure 3e).
uousway way(Figure
(Figure3e). 3e).
In
In the the
19th19th century,
century, three-dimensional
three-dimensional (3D) (3D) structures
structures were were a group
a group of fibers
ofafibers in multiaxial
in multiaxial
In
orientation the 19th
(i.e., century,
fibers three-dimensional
arranged in three dimensions) (3D) (Figure
structures 3e). were group of fibers in multi-
orientation
axialThe (i.e., fibers(i.e.,
orientation arranged
fibersinarranged
three dimensions)
in three (Figure
dimensions)3e). (Figure 3e).
The most mostcommoncommon architectures
architectures in woven
in woven fabrics
fabrics areare
plainplain weave,
weave, twill
twill andand sateen.
sateen. TheThe
plain The
weave mostis thecommon
main architectures
basic weave realizedin woven
through fabrics
filling are plain
yarns weave,
passing twill and
alternatively sateen.
over
plain weave is the main basic weave realized through filling yarns passing alternatively over
The under
plain weave is the main basic weave realized through filling yarns passing alternatively
andandunder other other yarns.
yarns.
overIn and under other yarns.
In the twill structure, thethe
the twill structure, filling
filling threads
threads arearewovenwoven over over
andand under
under twotwo or more
or more warp warp
yarns, Inproducing
the twill structure,
a the filling
characteristic diagonal threads
pattern.are woven
Numbers over and under
reflecting the two structure
twill or more warp
yarns, producing a characteristic diagonal pattern. Numbers reflecting the twill structure
yarns,
in the
in the form
producing
form of x/y
of x/y areare
afrequently
characteristic
frequently diagonal
provided.
provided. This
pattern.
This indicates
indicates
Numbers
thatthat
reflecting
x warp
x warp
the twill
strings
strings andand
structure
y weft
y weft
yarns are used to build up the diagonal stripe. For example, 3/1 twill means the alternation y weft
in the
yarns form
are used of x/y
to buildare frequently
up the diagonal provided.
stripe. ForThis indicates
example, 3/1 that
twill x warp
means strings
the and
alternation
yarns
of three
of three arewarp
warp used
strings to build
strings andand up
one theweft
one
weft diagonal
yarn yarn tostripe.
to build buildtheForthe example, 3/1 twill means the alternation
structure.
structure.
of three warp strings and one weft yarn to build the structure.
In the sateen weave, the filling threads are interlaced with the warp at widely spaced
intervals, creating the appearance of a continuous surface.
 Macromol 2023, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 4
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Macromol 2023, 3 668

In the sateen weave, the filling threads are interlaced with the warp at widely spaced
In thecreating
intervals, sateen weave, the fillingofthreads
the appearance are interlaced
a continuous surface.with the warp at widely spaced
Anexample
intervals,
An example of
creatingofthe the numerous
theappearance
numerous of weave combinations
a continuous
weave surface.
combinations in a woven
in a woven fabric is fabric
shownisin shown
Fig- in
Figure
ure 4.An4.example of the numerous weave combinations in a woven fabric is shown in Fig-
ure 4.

Figure
Figure4.4.Schematic
Schematicofofvariousvarious weaving
weaving combinations
combinations in woven
in woventextiles: plainplain
textiles: weave (1), twill
weave (1), 2/1
twill 2/1
Figure
(2), 4.
basketSchematic
2/1 (3), of
twill various
3/1 (4), weaving
twill 2/2 combinations
(5), warp satin in(4woven
healds) textiles:
(6), plain
basket
(2), basket 2/1 (3), twill 3/1 (4), twill 2/2 (5), warp satin (4 healds) (6), basket 2/2 (7), warp weave
2/2 (7), (1),
warp twill
satin 2/1
(6 satin
(2), basket
healds) (8), 2/1 (3),
twill 5/1twill 3/1 1/1
1/1 1/1 (4),(9),
twill 2/23/3
leno (5),(10),
warp satin
twill 7/1 (4
1/1healds)
1/1 (11),(6), basket
twill 2/21/1
4/2 1/1 (7),1/1
warp
(12),satin
weave(6
(6 healds) (8), twill 5/1 1/1 1/1 1/1 (9), leno 3/3 (10), twill 7/1 1/1 1/1 (11), twill 4/2 1/1 1/1 1/1
healds)on(8),
based twill
plain 5/1 1/1
weave 1/1diamond
(13), 1/1 (9), leno 3/3 (10),
specular twilltwill
broken 7/1 1/1
1/11/1
3/2(11),
(14),twill 4/2 1/1 1/1negative
and diamond 1/1 (12),broken
weave
(12), 1/1
based
twill weave
on2/2
plainbased
weave
(15). on(13),
Reprintedplain weave
diamond
from (13), diamond
specular
[22]. specular
broken twill broken
1/1 3/2 (14), andtwill 1/1 3/2
diamond (14), and
negative diamond
broken
negative
twill broken
1/1 2/2 twill 1/1 from
(15). Reprinted 2/2 (15).
[22]. Reprinted from [22].
3. Common Materials Constituting Textile Structures
3. Common
3. CommonMaterials
MaterialsConstituting
Constituting Textile
Textile Structures
Structures
Textile fibers can be broadly classified into two main categories (natural and synthetic
Textilefibers
Textile fiberscan
canbebe broadly
broadly classified
classified intointo
twotwo main
main categories
categories (natural
(natural and synthetic
and synthetic
fibers), as shown below (Figure 5).
fibers),as
fibers), asshown
shownbelow
below(Figure
(Figure
5).5).

Figure 5. Materials commonly used in textile fibers.

Figure
Figure5.5.Materials
Materialscommonly
commonlyused in in
used textile fibers.
textile fibers.

Natural fibers originate from animals, vegetables/plants, or mineral sources.

Examples of animal-based fibers are wool, silk, and hair, whereas plant-based fibers are
constituted by seed, bast, leaf, wood; finally, mineral fibers include asbestos, fibrous brucite,
Macromol 2023, 3 669

and wollastonite [23]. In terms of their compositions, plant-based fibers are constituted
by bio-based polymers such as cellulose, semi-cellulose, lignin and other components in
small percentages (impurities, ash, and extractives) [24]. Plant-based fibers, rather than
animal-based fibers, can attain superior performances, higher strengths, and stiffnesses.
Silk is an exception, as it can have very high strength but is very expensive, has lower
stiffness, and is less widely available [25]. Natural fibers are hydrophilic in nature due to
the presence of hydroxyls and other polar groups, and they have a high moisture absorption
and a low evaporation rate, as well as poor dimensional stability since they swell when
exposed to water [24].
Asbestos (as a part of mineral-based natural fibers) is often avoided due to the health
hazards associated with its inhalation/ingestion as well as the potentially carcinogenic
response in humans. In many countries, the use of asbestos fibers is even forbidden [25].
Synthetic fibers, also known as man-made fibers, are typically made from synthetic ma-
terials, such as petrochemicals (polyamide, polyester, polypropylene). However, some syn-
thetic fibers, such as rayon, modal, and lyocell, are made from natural cellulose (bleached
wood pulp) [23].
Compared to synthetic fibers, natural fibers possess very good characteristics in
terms of sustainability, given the recyclability and renewability of the raw materials, the
biodegradability, the relatively low cost and density, the low energy requirements during
the manufacturing process, and the low carbon dioxide contribution during the growth
and production [26].
However, being mainly hydrophilic in nature, the tensile characteristics of cellulosic
fibers are highly dependent on the relative humidity of the environment. Moreover, the
higher the fiber length of the cellulosic fibers, the lower the tensile strength. This is
attributed to the higher probability of them containing defects in longer fibers and to the
number of weak links or imperfections. Furthermore, the tensile properties of cellulosic
fibers are susceptible and sensitive to measurement conditions, such as speed, initial gauge
length, moisture, temperature, different cross-section of the fiber at a different point, and
surface treatment, chemical treatment, upgrading treatment, water treatment, and drying.
During the process used to produce cellulosic fibers, the different phases (plant growth,
harvesting, fiber extraction and supply) can alter significantly the quality [27,28].
A comparison in terms of the density, Young’s modulus and tensile strength among
plant-based fibers, animal-based fibers, asbestos and synthetic fibers is reported in Table 1.

Table 1. Components, density (g/cm3 ), Young’s modulus (GPa), and tensile strength (MPa) of the
main fibers.

Chemical Composition (Main

Density (g/cm3 ) Young’s Modulus (GPa) Tensile Strength (MPa)
Components)
Plant-based Fibers
Cotton 99% cellulose [29] 1.3–1.9 [30]; 1.5–1.6 [31] 5.1–13 [30]; 5.5–12.6 [31] 287–597 [30]; 287–800 [31]
55–90% cellulose; 15–22%
Hemp 1.47 [30]; 1.4–1.5 [31] 50 [30]; 23.5–90 [31] 690 [30]; 270–900 [31]
hemicellulose; 4–13% lignin [32]
78% cellulose; 8% lignin; 10%
Sisal 1.33–1.5 [30,31] 9.2 [30]; 9–38 [31] 511–635 [30]; 363–700 [31]
hemicellulose [33]
71.08% cellulose; 12.61%
Banana 0.95–1.5 [30]; 1.35 [35] 10–14 [30]; 4–32.7 [35] 498–502 [30]; 711–789 [35]
hemicellulose; 7.67% lignin [34]
90% cellulose; 14.0–17.9%
Ramie 1.3–1.8 [30]; 1 [37] 61–130 [30]; 61.4–128 [37] 400–1100 [30]; 400–938 [37]
hemicellulose; 0.8–1.5% linin [36]
58~63% cellulose; 20~24%
Jute 1.1–1.68 [30]; 1.3–1.45 [37] 9.5–31 [30]; 13–26.5 [37] 390–775 [30]; 393–773 [37]
hemicellulose; 12~15% lignin [38]
70% cellulose; 19% hemicellulose;
Kenaf 1.2–1.6 [40]; 1.2 [35] 41 [40]; 11–60 [35] 745–930 [40]; 223–1191 [35]
0.8–3% lignin [39]
Animal-based Fibers
33% keratin; 26% dirt; 28% suint;
Wool 1.3 [25]; 1.32 [31] 2.3–5 [25]; 2.7–17 [31] 50–315 [25]; 180–240 [31]
12% fat [41]
75–83% fibroin; 17–25% sericin; 1.5%
Silk 1.3 [25]; 1.37 [31] 5–25 [25]; 14 [31] 100–1500 [25]; 340–620 [31]
wax [42]
 Kenaf 41 [40]; 11–60 [35]
lulose; 0.8–3% lignin [39] [35] 1191 [35]
Animal-based Fibers
33% keratin; 26% dirt; 28% 2.3–5 [25]; 2.7–17 50–315 [25]; 180–
Wool 1.3 [25]; 1.32 [31]
suint; 12% fat [41] [31] 240 [31]
Macromol 2023, 3 75–83% fibroin; 17–25% seri- 100–1500 [25]; 670
Silk 1.3 [25]; 1.37 [31] 5–25 [25]; 14 [31]
cin; 1.5% wax [42] 340–620[31]
Mineral-based Fibers
28–68%
Table SiO2; 0–34% FeO;
1. Cont.
0.3–18% Fe2O3; 0–12.5%
Al2O3; 0.6–40%
Chemical Composition (Main MgO; 0.13– 3 Young’s Modulus
Asbestos Components)
Density (g/cm
2.5–6 ) [44] / (GPa) Tensile Strength
1000–4600 [44] (MPa)
11.5% CaO; 0–5.8% Na2O; 0–
Mineral-based Fibers
4.35% K2O; 0.03–3.6% MnO
28–68% SiO2; 0–34% FeO; 0.3–18%
Fe2 O3; 0–12.5% Al2 O3; 0.6–40%[43]
MgO;
Asbestos 2.5–6 [44] / 1000–4600 [44]
Organic Synthetic Fibers 0.13–11.5% CaO; 0–5.8% Na2 O;
0–4.35% K2 O; 0.03–3.6% MnO [43]
Polyester Terephthalic acid 1.2–2.5 [40] 2 [40] 40–90 [40]
Organic Synthetic Fibers
Caprolactam(nylon–6);
Polyamide
Polyester Terephthalic acid 1.16 [45]
1.2–2.5 [40] 25.3
[40][45] 919 40–90
[45] [40]
Polyamide
Adipic
Caprolactam(nylon–6); acidacid
Adipic (nylon–6,6) 1.16 [45] 5.3 [45] 919 [45]
(nylon–6,6)
Polypropylene
Polypropylene Propylene
Propylene 0.9 [30]
0.9 [30] 8 [30]
8 [30]
800 [30]
800 [30]
ViscoseViscose 97% cellulose [46]
97% cellulose [46] 1.50 [47]1.50 [47] 1111 [48]
[48] 593 [48]
593 [48]
Lyocell 87% cellulose [49] 1.52 [47] 36 [50] 1400 [50]
Lyocell 87% cellulose [49] 1.52 [47] 36 [50] 1400 [50]

Some
Somechemical
chemicalstructures of the
structures plant-based
of the and and
plant-based animal-based components
animal-based are dis-are dis-
components
played
playedininFigure
Figure6. 6.

Chemical
Figure6.6.Chemical
Figure structures
structures of some
of some fiberfiber components:
components: cellulose
cellulose [51]; keratin
[51]; keratin [52]; lignin
[52]; lignin [53]; and
[53]; and
fibroin
fibroin[54].
[54].

4.4.Tensile
TensileStrength
Strengthof of Woven
Woven Fabrics
Fabrics
AnAnimportant
important parameter
parameter forfor describing
describing the fabric
the fabric structure
structure is theis“crimp”
the “crimp” correlated
correlated
totothe
thewaviness
waviness of of
thethe fibers.
fibers. It isItexpressed
is expressed as a as a percentage
percentage (Equation
(Equation (1)) as(1))
theas the difference
difference
betweenthe
between the entire
entire length
length of aoffiber
a fiber
(L0)(Land
0 ) and its length
its length when when it is weaved
it is weaved withinwithin the fabric
the fabric
structure
structure(L(L
1) 1of thethe
) of entire length
entire length of fiber:
of fiber:

L0 − L1
crimp = × 100 (1)
L0

When a woven fabric is subjected to tensile loading, four regions can be distinguished
in the load–elongation curve (Figure 7). (i) The crimp region, in which the crimp increases
for one set of yarns and decreases for the opposite set of yarns (“crimp interchange”). When
a tensile force is applied in one direction (weft or warp), the load essentially straightens the
yarns and the crimp in the opposite direction increases. (ii) The elastic region, where the
straightened yarns start to take more loads and the slope of the curve increases compared
to the previous stretch (crimp region). At this stage, it is not possible to further reduce the
waviness of the fibers oriented in the direction of the tensile force, the load increases very
sharply and the tensile properties are related to the elongation under load of the fiber itself.
(iii) The non-linear failure region, in which a failure of the slope is observed before arriving
at the tensile strength. This behavior is attributed to the failure (initiation and propagation)
of random individual filaments within the yarns bundles. (iv) The abrupt decrement of the
load after the tensile strength, which is a sign of progressive yarn failure [55,56].
 totothetheprevious
previousstretch
stretch(crimp
(crimpregion).
region). AtAtthis
thisstage,
stage,it itis isnot
notpossible
possibletotofurther
furtherreduce
reducethethe
waviness
waviness of the fibers oriented in the direction of the tensile force, the load increasesvery
of the fibers oriented in the direction of the tensile force, the load increases very
sharply
sharply andandthe tensile
the tensileproperties
propertiesare related
are related totothe elongation
the elongation under
under load
loadofof
the fiber
the itself.
fiber itself.
(iii) The non-linear failure region, in which a failure of the slope is observed
(iii) The non-linear failure region, in which a failure of the slope is observed before arriving before arriving
atatthe tensile
the tensilestrength.
strength. This
Thisbehavior
behavior is is
attributed
attributed toto
thethe failure
failure(initiation
(initiationand
andpropagation)
propagation) 671
Macromol 2023, 3
ofofrandom individual filaments within the yarns bundles. (iv)
random individual filaments within the yarns bundles. (iv) The abrupt decrement The abrupt decrement ofof
the
the
load after the tensile strength, which is a sign of progressive yarn
load after the tensile strength, which is a sign of progressive yarn failure [55,56]. failure [55,56].

Figure
Figure Typical
7. 7.
Typical
Typical load–displacement
load–displacement
load–displacement curve
curve
curve during
during
during tensile
tensile testing
testing
tensile testingofofof woven
woven
woven fabrics
fabrics (a).
fabrics (a). (a). Schematics
Schematics
Schematics
the
of:of:
the crimp
crimp
the crimp region
region
region(b); the
(b);
(b); theelastic
the region
elastic
elastic (c);
region
region the
(c);
(c); non-linear
the
the failure
non-linear
non-linear region
failure
failure (d)(d)
region
region and
(d)
andyarn
and
yarnfracture
yarn (e).
fracture
fracture (e). (e).
Reprinted
Reprinted
Reprinted fromfrom
from [56].
[56].
[56].

This
This aspect
aspect
This aspect was
wasfully
wasfully
fullydemonstrated
demonstrated
demonstratedinin
[57].
in The
[57].
[57]. tensile
The
The properties
tensile
tensile ofof
properties
properties PP-based textiles
of PP-based
PP-based textiles
textiles
are
are shown
areshown in Figure
shownininFigure 8 in
Figure88in terms
in termsof the load–displacement
terms of the load–displacement curves
load–displacementcurves recorded
curves during
recorded
recorded tensile
during
during tensile
tensile
testing
testingboth
testing bothin
both ininthe
thewarp
the warp
warp and
andweft
and directions.
weft directions.
directions.

Figure 8. Load–displacement curves for PP-based fabrics: (a) neat PP in the warp and weft directions,
and (b) impregnated PP in the weft direction. Four distinct polyurethane dispersions were used
for the impregnation: polyether-based (PU-PETH), polyester-based (PU-EST), polycarbonate-based
(PU-CAR), and containing perfluoropolyether backbone (PU-PFPE). Reprinted from [57].

The neat PP fabric exhibited a breaking load of about 1 kN and almost isotropic
properties in both orientations. In the low deformation region (lower than 10%), a linear
elastic behavior with a change in the slope was detected. Then, the study investigated
the effect of polyurethane impregnation on the tensile features of the same PP textiles
by adopting different polyurethane aqueous dispersions. It was demonstrated that in all
cases, the impregnation of PP textiles with polyurethane led to an increase in the breaking
load regardless of the dispersion type. In every case, the slope of the load–displacement
curve was increased about three times compared to that detected in the pristine material.
This result was considered a sign of increasing fabric stiffness due to the polyurethane
hardening in the textile structure. After application and during drying, the polyurethane
polymer filled the space between the PP filaments by bonding the weft and warp threads
and resulting in a higher rigidity of the overall textile construction. For each impregnated
sample, the load–displacement curve was described by a linear trend with a change in slope
in correspondence to 3% in deformation. This was explained by considering that initially,
Macromol 2023, 3 672

the PU polymer and PP fabric were stretched together under uniaxial stress. After very low
deformation (3%), the polymeric PU bonds among the PP filaments yielded sooner in the
central internal part of the fabric than those in the outer layer of fabric, as usually happens
in the treated materials [58]. In fact, for the coated specimens, the filaments on the inside
were less impregnated than those on the outside. Subsequently, the fabric was extended
until the large percentage of the filaments kept failing under tensile stresses [59]. The
increase in the tensile properties was also verified for a polyester fabric (PET) impregnated
with water-based polyether polyurethane [60]. In addition, formulations containing silicon
dioxide (SiO2 ) nanoparticles of different percentages (up to 5 wt.%) were prepared. In
the impregnated PU fabrics, an increase in the tensile strength was verified of about 50%
compared to the basic material. The incorporation of SiO2 particles into the textile structure,
used as a dust carrier in the fabric-only water, had no effect on the fabric’s properties, and
during the tensile tests of the treated textiles, a recognizable spread of the white powder into
the environment was observed. Depending on the filler and content, the tensile strength of
the impregnated specimens appeared to slightly increase when the fabric was treated with
SiO2 embedded in the PU dispersion.
The deterioration of the tensile strength of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) woven
fabrics coated with polyvinylchloride (PVC) under different artificial weathering param-
eters, alone or in combination, such as UV light, humidity, and temperature, plus cyclic
loading, was studied in [61,62]. A strong decrease in stiffness in the investigated samples
was detected under various weathering conditions. The main mechanism of deterioration
was demonstrated to be photodegradation. When cyclic loading was combined with weath-
ering factors, the rate of tensile strength reduction was slightly higher than when artificial
weathering was used alone.

4.1. Effect of Architecture on the Tensile Strength of Woven Fabrics

Fabrics made from cotton/polyester blend yarns were manufactured in plain, matt,
twill, diamond, and sateen [63]. The mechanical characteristics of the prepared structures
were analyzed in terms of the tensile strength using the Grab (ASTM D5034-08) and Strip
(ASTM D5035-06) methods. The results demonstrated that the twill weave provided better
strength than the others, followed by the matt, diamond, plain weave, and sateen. The
average breaking strength evaluated in the warp direction using the Grab test method was
around 320 N for the matt and twill structures, 300 N for the diamond fabric, and 280 N for
the plain and sateen fabrics. Using the same procedure, the average breaking force in the
weft direction was highest for the twill (150 N) and lowest for the sateen fabrics (120 N). On
the other hand, using the Strip test method, the mean breaking force in the warp direction
was roughly 600 N (the highest) for the twill and matt structures and 450 N (the lowest) for
the plain weave. Then, the average breaking force was the maximum in the weft direction
(250 N) for the twill structure and reduced to 220 N for the sateen. The tensile strength of
the textile structures was correlated with the interlacement among the yarns, the crimp
ability, and the slippage of fibers.
Plain, twill, and satin structures, made from cotton, were produced from warp ring-
spun yarn and weft open-end spinning yarns [64]. The air and water permeability, thermal
resistance, water absorption, and stiffness of the prepared textiles were measured to study
the overall fabric comfort. Due to the compact structure, the plain-woven fabric possessed
the highest thermal resistance and water absorption, whereas the satin had the highest
water vapor and air permeability. The stiffness of the specimens, as evaluated according to
ASTM D1388, was used to measure the bending rigidity and fabric handling. Because of its
higher binding point than twill and satin, the maximum stiffness corresponded to the plain
weave fabric in both the warp and weft directions.
The performance in terms of the tensile strength, tearing, abrasion, pilling and stiffness
of cotton-based fabrics was compared in [65]. A shuttle loom at constant warp yarn tension
was used to produce 1/1 plain, 2/1 twill, and 2/2 twill fabrics. The plain weave had
higher tensile strength, abrasion resistance, stiffness, and pilling resistance than the twill
Macromol 2023, 3 673

weave since these mechanical properties were increased by increasing the number of
interlacements of warp and weft yarns and decreasing the number of float lengths in the
weave. On the contrary, the higher the number of floating lengths in the weave, the lower
the interlacements and the greater the tear strength.

4.2. Effect of Yarn Spacing Length on the Tensile Strength of Woven Fabrics
Yarn spacing is a key aspect of woven fabric quality and has a significant impact on
the fabric’s look. Fabrics must have uniform yarn spacing, and considerable variation in
this distance can be considered a failure of fabric weaving [66].
When a fabric is subjected to uniaxial or biaxial tension, it has been found that the
yarn–yarn interactions at the crossing points are of two types: adhesive and independent of
the pressure at the crossing point, and frictional and directly related to the normal pressure
generated by the applied tensions to the fabric. The pressure was generated by the tensile
force applied uniaxially or biaxially to the fabric, causing a tightening effect so as to increase
the pressure at the yarn contact points. The frictional force was created by the compressive
force imposed on the contact point of the interlacing yarns and was the main component of
the fabric stiffness. The adhesive component was generated during the pull-out of yarns
from the fabric, was determined by the surface geometry and yarns properties, and was
considered generally negligible [67,68]. It was considered that during the yarn pull-out, the
crossover point consisted of stick (due to the out-of-plane normal force) and slip regions
(due to in-plane forces) [69].
The yarn–yarn contact at the fabric crossing points is a key component of fabric
resistance, playing a significant role in fabric strengthening. If yarn–yarn interactions are
deemed insignificant, a woven fabric is analogous to a system of two sheets, each formed
of parallel but isolated yarns. The resulting properties are completely different from those
of a practical fabric. When individual yarns are woven into a fabric system, under tensile
load, a different behavior is shown due to the interactions with other yarns included in the
textiles. These interactions unavoidably modify the yarns’ properties. The yarns have been
theoretically considered as sub-bundle systems made of links of length Lc (Figure 9). From
this perspective, the fabric was theoretically described as a system of chains made by the
sub-bundles. The ratio Lc /Ly (where Ly is the original yarn (fabric) length) was considered
an expression of the yarn–yarn interactions. The smaller the ratio Lc /Ly (more interlacing
points), the higher the yarn–yarn interactions and the greater the strengthening effect
Macromol 2023, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 10 in a
fabric under tensile load [68].

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Interlacing
Interlacing points
pointsininaawoven
wovenplain
plainstructure.
structure.

Experiments wereconducted
Experiments were conducted in [70]
in [70] to study
to study the effects
the effects of interlacing
of interlacing yarns, theyarns,
spac- the
spacing between
ing between them,them, and
and the the interlacement
interlacement pattern onpattern on the
the tensile tensileofbehavior
behavior of woven
woven fabrics.
Plain andPlain
fabrics. satinette
andfabrics werefabrics
satinette producedwereat three pick densities
produced at three(18, 22,densities
pick and 26 ppcm:
(18,pick
22, and
per cm, number of yarns per length). No clear trend in tensile strength after
26 ppcm: pick per cm, number of yarns per length). No clear trend in tensile strength changing theafter
pick density and sample construction was shown. The satinette structure
changing the pick density and sample construction was shown. The satinette structurethen had lesser
tensile strength than the twill fabric while having the same interlacement index, number
of load-bearing yarns in the samples, and crimp. These findings validated the impact of
the interlacement distribution on fabric strength.
The same conclusion was drawn in [71]. The tensile properties of woven fabrics (100%
cotton) were investigated in two constructions, 3/1 twill and four-end satinette, which dif-
Macromol 2023, 3 674

then had lesser tensile strength than the twill fabric while having the same interlacement
index, number of load-bearing yarns in the samples, and crimp. These findings validated
the impact of the interlacement distribution on fabric strength.
The same conclusion was drawn in [71]. The tensile properties of woven fabrics (100%
cotton) were investigated in two constructions, 3/1 twill and four-end satinette, which
differed only in the interlacement pattern. The breaking load and breaking elongation of
the satinette fabric were higher than those of the twill structure. The authors concluded
that the traditional approach of considering yarn–yarn interlacement was insufficient for
studying the effect of construction on woven fabrics’ properties and should be improved
by taking into account the interactions between various neighboring yarn segments as well
as the distribution of the interlacement in the two constructions.

4.3. Effect of Yarn Count on the Tensile Strength of Woven Fabrics

The yarn count is a numerical expression that defines the yarn fineness. It is defined
as the mass per unit of length [72]. The yarn count is another component that can affect the
mechanical properties of textiles. The effect of the yarn count on the tensile properties of
m-aramid (100%) two-ply fabrics was investigated in [73]. The tensile strength of yarns
and fabrics was analyzed also under exposure to UV light. Figure 10 depicts a comparison
between two samples, A and B, which differed in terms of the yarn count (8.9 and 25 Ne,
respectively) and were in the form of yarns (on the left) or fabrics (on the right) in terms
of the tensile strength against UV exposure. The results demonstrated a higher tensile
strength in yarns of a larger size (i.e., higher yarn count). However, in terms of fabrics,
Macromol 2023, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 11
samples A and B behaved similarly, and the effect of the yarn size on the tensile properties
of woven fabrics was considered negligible.

Figure10.
Figure 10.Tensile
Tensile strength
strengthasasa afunction of the
function UV UV
of the exposure of yarns
exposure and fabrics
of yarns and (100%
fabricsaramid,
(100% two-
aramid,
ply). The yarn count in sample A and sample B was 18.9 Ne (312 dtex) and 25.0 Ne (236 dtex), re-
two-ply). The yarn count in sample A and sample B was 18.9 Ne (312 dtex) and 25.0 Ne (236 dtex),
spectively. Reprinted from [73].
respectively. Reprinted from [73].
Abou-Nassif [74], on the other hand, compared the breaking load and elongation of
Abou-Nassif [74], on the other hand, compared the breaking load and elongation of
compact and ring yarn woven fabrics as a function of the thread count (20, 24, and 30 Ne,
compact and ring yarn woven fabrics as a function of the thread count (20, 24, and 30 Ne,
respectively). The results validated the effect of the spinning type and yarn count on the
respectively). The results validated the effect of the spinning type and yarn count on the
tensile properties of woven materials. The breaking load and elongation of fabrics reduced
tensile properties of woven materials. The breaking load and elongation of fabrics reduced
as the yarn count was increased, especially with the ring spun yarns.
as the yarn
As alsocount was increased,
confirmed especially
in [70], a greater yarnwith
countthe
canring spun
result intoyarns.
two opposite effects: an
As also confirmed in [70], a greater yarn count can
increased strength due to an increase in the number of load bearing result into components
two opposite effects:
and a
andecreased
increasedstrength
strengthdue to a reduction in the used amount of the yarn strength. The de-and
due to an increase in the number of load bearing components
a crease
decreased
in thestrength due toofathe
used amount reduction in theasused
yarn strength amountofofyarns
the number the yarn strength.
increases was at-The
decrease
tributedinto the used amount
an increase of the yarn
in the possibility of strength
the weakestas link
the number ofof
in the case yarns increases
a larger numberwas
of yarns.

4.4. Effect of Yarn Twist on the Tensile Strength of Woven Fabrics

Various yarn architectures are widely utilized in the textile industry [75]: (i) single
Macromol 2023, 3 675

attributed to an increase in the possibility of the weakest link in the case of a larger number
of yarns.

4.4. Effect of Yarn Twist on the Tensile Strength of Woven Fabrics

Various yarn architectures are widely utilized in the textile industry [75]: (i) single
yarn, i.e., a group of fibers/filaments twisted together; (ii) plied yarns, i.e., two or more
yarns twisted together; (iii) cable or corn yarns, i.e., two or more plied yarns twisted
together; (iv) core-spun yarns, i.e., yarn with a central core of one fiber and an exterior layer
of another fiber; (v) fancy yarns, i.e., an irregular combination of stable and continuous
filament yarns with a sudden or periodic effect; and (vi) continuous filament yarns, i.e.,
straight, silky and slippery to the touch filaments combined together.
Twist is used to realize a single-fiber assemblage that works as one piece.
The effect of twist on the strength and stiffness of various high-performance yarns
(Kevlar, Vectran, Spectra, and Technorat) was investigated in [76]. The experimental results
showed that the initial modulus of a yarn fell monotonically with increasing twist. A high
degree of twist destroyed the fibers and reduced the tensile strength of the yarn. The
elongation to break of the yarns increased monotonically with the degree of twist.
Various core yarns were prepared by combining different kinds of high-tenacity
filaments (i.e., high-tenacity PET, the aramid, and the basalt) in the core with cotton staples
and various twist levels. As the twist level was increased (from 230 to 550 twists per meter),
the tensile strength of the aramid and basalt core yarns decreased, whereas it remained
unaltered for the PET core yarns. This result was ascribed to the PET core yarns having
stronger extensional qualities than the aramid and basalt core yarns.

5. Applications
The textile industry can be divided into two groups based on the final application
of the products: (i) traditional textiles, used for clothing, furnishing, apparel, and home
textiles, and (ii) technical textiles, utilized primarily for their unique functional features [77]
that come in a variety of fiber structures, ranging from simple filaments to complex final
products for use in agriculture (agrotech), construction (buildtech), clothing (clothtech),
furniture, upholstery, carpets (hometech), healthy protection (protech), filtration, cleaning
(indutech), and several other applications [78].
Shade nets, harvest nets, and mulch mats are examples of agro textiles. These products
can benefit agriculture by protecting crops from harsh weather and pests [79].
Because of their use in resisting the spread of viruses and germs (especially in the recent
COVID-19 outbreak), protective garments have become the most significant component of
technology textiles [80]. Protective clothing refers to clothes and other fabric-related objects
designed to keep the user safe from hazardous situations that could result in harm or
fatalities, such as fire protection [81], heat and cold protection [82], chemical and biological
protection [83], ballistic protection [84], and electromagnetic [85] protection. The potential
risks are frequently so particular that various kinds of clothes are required to provide
effective protection.
Numerous studies are currently underway to develop protective gear for a variety of
ordinary and specialist civilian and military applications [86].
Many industrial operations rely on the separation of gases and liquids using textile
filters. Filtration provides benefits such as product purity, energy savings, pollution
management, and the recovery of valuable components. Positive examples of the end-
products of textile media filtration include detergents, soaps, ceramics, fertilizers, pigments,
oil, and margarine, and so on. Furthermore, textile filter media aid in the refinement of
both industrial and domestic effluents, resulting in a cleaner environment [87–89].
Intelligent textiles, i.e., fibers or fabrics able to respond to external stimuli and adapt to
environmental changes, have recently gained popularity. The physical stimuli with which
these materials can interact include light, pH, temperature, polar solvents, chemicals, and
Macromol 2023, 3 676

electricity. Shape memory fibers, photochromic fibers, temperature sensitive fibers, pH

sensitive fibers, and healthy smart fibers are examples of smart fibers [90,91].
Textiles are also employed in sports clothing, footwear, and equipment. The sports
goods sector has also contributed to the advancement of textile science and technology to a
level comparable to that of other industrial sectors. Many sporting goods’ performance
criteria frequently demand widely varied qualities, such as protection against snow, cold,
heat, and rain, while also meeting the requirements for comfort, stretching and simplicity
of movement [92].
Fabrics are utilized as reinforcement in structural and civil engineering parts to pro-
duce very thin composite and concrete parts. The benefits of utilizing textiles in these
applications are no risk of reinforcing material corrosion and the flexibility to fabricate
structural pieces with complex geometries [93]. Numerous studies concerning the effect of
weaving parameters on the mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced polymer composites
have recently been conducted (see Table 2).

Table 2. Prospective studies on the use of textile structures as reinforcement in composite laminates.

Weaving Parameters Materials Applications Year

Weave type (satin and basket
patterns)
Linear density and yarn structure
Yarn twist
Weave type (Plain, basket,
herringbone, and intra-ply)
Weave designs (plain, matt, twill)
Weave designs (plain weave, satin 6,
twill 6)
Weave designs (plain and basket)
Weaving architecture (woven,
knitted)
Weave arrangements
Hemp-fiber/polylactide acid Composite applications 2015 [94]
Ramie fiber yarns/epoxy resin Impact critical components 2016 [95]
Flax fiber/epoxy resins Technical applications 2017 [96]
Hybrid fabric Low- and medium-load
2018 [97]
(jute/banana)/polyester resin applications
E-glass fabric/epoxy resin Composite applications 2019 [98]
Hemp fabric/epoxy resin Composite applications 2020 [99]
Enset fibers/bioresin Light-weight applications 2021 [100]
Lyocell fabrics/polyester resin Composite laminate 2022 [101]
Structural or semi-structural
Cotton, bamboo and cotton-bamboo
components in light-weight 2023 [16]
fabric/epoxy resin
applications

6. Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to offer an overview of the tensile properties of wo-
ven fabrics as well as of the effect of several parameters on fabric strength, such as the
constituent materials, fabric architecture, yarn spacing length and size, and twisting.
Different forms of textile structures (woven, knitted, braided, and non-woven) can
be realized through various types of yarns interlocking. At the same time, various woven
fabric combinations, such as plain weave, twill, and satin, can be developed based on the
number of filling yarns that pass alternately over and under other yarns.
Natural (cotton, hemp, sisal, jute, wool, silk, asbestos) and synthetic (polyester,
polyamide, polypropylene, viscose, lyocell) materials are used to make textile fibers. Natu-
ral fibers are more sustainable than synthetic fibers due to their increased biodegradability
and ability to be recycled; nevertheless, because natural fibers are primarily hydrophilic in
nature, their tensile properties are highly dependent on the environmental relative humid-
ity. Natural fibers generally have a higher specific density and a lower tensile strength than
synthetic fibers.
Under tensile stress, the load–displacement curve of woven fabric was found to
be divided into four regions (crimp, elastic, non-linear failure, yarn breakage). When
compared to basic specimens, polymer-based coated textiles showed an improvement in
fabric stiffness and strength, and the load–displacement curve exhibited a linear trend. The
Macromol 2023, 3 677

weathering conditions induced through humidity, temperature and UV light reduced the
tensile properties of textiles and the main dominant mechanism was the photo-oxidation.
It was discovered that increasing the number of interlacements of the warp and weft
yarns and decreasing the float length in the weave raised the tensile characteristics of
textiles. In other words, plain weave fabric had a higher tensile strength than twill weave
fabric. The tensile strength of textiles could then be improved by decreasing the yarn–yarn
spacing (i.e., increasing the yarn–yarn interaction) and the increasing yarn size. However,
the tensile strength of the woven fabric appeared to be affected also by the distribution of
the yarn interlacement inside the textile structure. Finally, a larger degree of yarn twisting
had a detrimental impact on the mechanical performance of textiles since the yarns were
more stressed and perhaps damaged in this condition.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.P. and D.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.P.;
writing—review and editing, D.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: A.P. wishes to thank the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research
(MIUR) under the framework of Action 1.2 “Researcher Mobility” of the Axis I of PON R&I 2014–2020
under the call “AIM- Attrazione e Mobilità Internazionale”.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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