112 IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 4, No.

2, May 1989

Implications of Frequency Control Bias Settings

on
Interconnected System Operation and Inadvertent Energy Accounting
Louis S. VanSlyck Nasser Jaleeli W. Robert Kelley
Senior Member IEEE Member IEEE Member IEEE
Engineering Computer Applications System Operation
American Electric Power Service Corporation
Columbus, Ohio
~-
A b s t r a c t -- A d v e r s i t i e s o f p r e s e n t p r a c t i c e s f o r i c a l l y and a d j u s t v a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s i n r e s p o n s e t o
i n a d v e r t e n t e n e r g y and time e r r o r c o r r e c t i o n have been management e d i c t s a s p r e c i p i t a t e d by b u s i n e s s o r regu-
i n d i c a t e d by r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e . This paper d e s c r i b e s latory decisions. Of c o u r s e , t h e r e a r e many management
t h e m f r o m t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n p o i n t o f v i e w by c o n - d e c i s i o n s which do n o t a l t e r o p e r a t i o n s c o n t r o l becaust.
s i d e r i n g t h e i r c o n s t r a i n e d c o u p l i n g e f f e c t s between t h e y o n l y r e l a t e t o a c c o u n t i n g methods o r o t h e r p o l i c y .
c o n t r o l a r e a s . P a r t i a l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s of d e c o m p o s i t i o n
theory are suggested a s p r a c t i c a l solutions t o the The power l o o p , o f t e n c a l l e d l o a d - f r e q u e n c y c o n t r o l
i n i q u i t i e s and d e f i c i e n c i e s of t h e p r e s e n t scheme. (LFC), would be a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s i f i t were p u r e
a n a l o g , b u t w i t h t h e p r e s e n t and a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l u s e of
An i m p l e m e n t a t i o n scheme f o r p h a s i n g - i n d e c o m p o s i t i o n d i g i t a l c o n t r o l , i t t y p i c a l l y f u n c t i o n s on a two o r f o u r
a c c o u n t i n g which c a n be v o l u n t a r y , by a r e a , i s s u g g e s t e d second c y c l e i n most c o n t r o l a r e a s . The LFC l o o p i s
and e x p l a i n e d . An argument is made f o r an o f f i c i a l and d r i v e n by ACE, d i f f e r e n c e s between measured and con-
e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t a n n u a l v a l u e of f r e q u e n c y b i a s t o t r a c t u a l power v a l u e s (and a f r e q u e n c y e r r o r t e r m ) w i t h ,
be used f o r d e c o m p o s i t i o n . The f r e q u e n c y b i a s used i n o f f s e t s t o c o r r e c t f o r a c c u m u l a t e d d e v i a t i o n s between
a r e a c o n t r o l e r r o r (ACE) n e e d n o t b e c o n s t a n t , o r d e s i r e d and o f f i c i a l exchanges.
n e c e s s a r i l y e q u a l t o t h e decomposition parameter.
The f i r s t two o b j e c t i v e s of LFC a r e t o match gen-
INTRODUCTION e r a t i o n w i t h power d e m a n d s on t h e a r e a , a n d t o h e l p
The c o s t s of r e g - u l a t i n g- d e f i c i e n c y_. . i n o n e - s own a r e a m a i n t a i n s c h e d u l e d f r e q u e n c y of the interconnected
and i t s i m p a c t s on o t h e r a r e a s , and , t h e c o s t s i n c u r r e d system. Since it i s impossible t o continuously s a t i s f y
by o n e c s own a r e a due t o t h e r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s , g u i d e l i n e s f o r m e e t i n g them have t o do
remote a r e a s of t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n , have been d i s c u s s e d w i t h t h e i r d e v i a t i o n s and t h e time i n t e g r a l s of t h e s e
i n previous l i t e r a t u r e . [ l - 3 ] T h i s p a p e r d e s c r i b e s some deviations. Such g u i d e l i n e s have been a d o p t e d [ 4 ] i n
a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s , g e n e r a l l y overlooked b e f o r e , that t h e i n d u s t r y v i a NERC.
a c c r u e t o a l l c o n t r o l a r e a s i f time e r r o r i s t y p i c a l l y
i n c u r r e d on-peak and c o r r e c t e d o f f - p e a k . TASK AND CYCLE CONTROL LOOP
-
The c h o i c e of f r e q u e n c y b i a s , i.e. t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of
I POWFR IAUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL
frequency d e v i a t i o n i n t h e e x p r e s s i o n €or a r e a c o n t r o l Load Frequency Control, NERC criteria
guidelines, disturbance detection, etc.
e r r o r (ACE), i m p a c t s t h e l o c a l a r e a , o t h e r a r e a s , and
t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d s y s t e m i n i n t e r r e l a t e d ways.
i m p a c t s have r e l e v a n c e on time s c a l e s from a b o u t t e n
These - Seconds
COORDINATION
seconds a f t e r d i s t u r b a n c e s , t o s e v e r a l minutes f o r North Generation curtailments, emergency
American E l e c t r i c R e l i a b i l i t y C o u n c i l (NERC) c o n t r o l energy schedules, transmission
guidelines, t o a few weeks f o r i n a d v e r t e n t e n e r g y switching, short term policy changes,
payback. While t h i s paper is m o s t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e economic dispatch, etc.
Asynch. in hour
l a t t e r s u b j e c t , i t s c o u p l i n g w i t h t h e f o r m e r two c a n n o t
be t o t a l l y i g n o r e d e i t h e r i n d i s c u s s i o n o r i n p r a c t i c e . P DESIRED ENERGY TRACKING
0 Energy schedule changes, preliminary
S i n c e o p e r a t i n g p r a c t i c e s d i f f e r between s y n c h r o n o u s w energy data accounting and analysis,
r e g i o n s , some m a t e r i a l i n t h i s paper may n o t a p p l y t o E ACE offset adjustments for time error,
other than the Eastern Interconnection which is R inadvertent correction, etc.
c o m p r i s e d of 105 c o n t r o l a r e a s a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . For AUDITING
b r e v i t y t h e paper a l s o uses t h e term " i n a d v e r t e n t " S Energy accounts auditing, crosschecks
r a t h e r t h a n " i n a d v e r t e n t energy." Y with adjacent control areas, energy
S sales-purchasescheduling, unit
C0KTAO-I LOOPS AND ERROR SIGNALS T commitment, etc.
I n t e r c o n n e c t e d power s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n h a s e v o l v e d t o E
i t s p r e s e n t s t a t e a f t e r a s i x decade e v o l u t i o n of t i e - M
l i n e bias control. T h i s p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s power, e n e r g y , MANAGEMENT
and mismatch c o r r e c t i o n l o o p s , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h Final accounts auditing, control per-
a c c o u n t i n g , management, and r e g u l a t o r y c o n t r o l f e e d b a c k formance reviews. unit maintenance.
I
a s d e s c r i p t e d i n f i g u r e 1. Some l o o p s o p e r a t e a p e r i o d - I I fuel costing and inventory, etc.
Monthly

4
1
- ,EVFA%lgement, regulatory
reporting and review, etc.
88 SM 697-5 A p a p e r recommended and approved I
by t h e I E E E Power Sy4tem E n g i n e e r i n g Committee of Asynch. in year
t h e I E Z E Power E n g i n e e r i n g S o c i e t y € o r p r e s e n t a t i o n
a t t h e IEEE/PES 1988 Summer Y e e t i n g , P o r t l a n d ,
Oregon, J u l y 24 -
29, 1988. M a n u s c r i p t s u b m i t t e d
F e b r u a r y 1, 1988; made a v a i l a b l e € o r p r i n t i n g
1
4
- I I
!:H
i mOe"Rok:%!;Aknao
lg to digital
conversion. decomoosition
implementition, etc.
A p r i l 28, 1988. - Long term
Figure 1. Power System Operations Control
0885-8950/89/0500-0712$01 .WO1989 IEEE

___

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 713
The t h i r d o b j e c t i v e o f t h e a u t o m a t i c g e n e r a t i o n End-of-hour,and end-of-day auditing
c o n t r o l (AGC) l o o p i s t o accommodate o f f s e t s i n ACE s o adjustments to tie-line energy metering, etc.
a s t o c o r r e c t f o r accumulated p a s t d e v i a t i o n s from
desired operation. P r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e s of r e c e n t
mismatches a r e o b t a i n e d h o u r l y from t h e e n e r g y t r a c k i n g
l o o p which p r o v i d e s a p r o c e s s t o c o o r d i n a t e v a l u e s of on- and off-peak inadvertent, time error by hour,
e n e r g y exchange w i t h c o n t r a c t s c h e d u l e s . Rather than
i n t e g r a t i n g power v a l u e s , e n e r g y m e t e r i n g i s n o r m a l l y
o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y from a second measurement system.

D e s i r e d o p e r a t i o n , of c o u r s e , i s c o n t r a c t u a l l y and
managerially predetermined, but " o f f i c i a l " operation is to power loop
a l s o businesswise determined, although a f t e r the f a c t . Figure 2. Converslon of measured Operations lnformat1on
The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s p o i n t , and t h e c r o s s c o r r e l a - into accounting data and the feedback Into current control.
t i o n between d e s i r e d , o f f i c i a l , t r u e , and metered d a t a
v a l u e s , seem t o have been s l i g h t e d i n most r e c e n t l i t e r -
a t u r e on t h i s s u b j e c t . By t h e term " o f f i c i a l o p e r a t i o n " s h o w s t h e time d e l a y i n t h e auditing process that
w e mean t h a t which f i n a l l y becomes t h e permanent "opera- ietermines o f f i c i a l operation.
tion-of-record" i n a business sense. U n t i l a u d i t i n g of
d a t a becomes f i r m , u s u a l l y t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , c a n d i d a t e F i g u r e 3 shows f o u r l e v i a t i o n s ( i n a d v e r t e n t energy,
o f f i c i a l o p e r a t i o n remains s u b j e c t t o r e v i s i o n . s y s t e m e r r o r , ACE, and time e r r o r ) which r e s u l t from t h e
power a n d e n e r g y c o n t r o l l o o p s . In various control
O f f i c i a l operation, prior t o auditing, is mostly areas, this logic may be accomplished somewhat
o b t a i n e d from h o u r l y e n e r g y m e t e r r e a d i n g s which d i f f e r d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n a s shown h e r e .
from t r u e v a l u e s by u n a v o i d a b l e e r r o r and b e c a u s e t h e y
a r e rounded t o t h e n e a r e s t megawatt-hour. When a n The e n e r g y l o o p (above t h e d a s h e d l i n e i n f i g u r e 3 )
e n e r g y measurement is m i s s i n g , o r known t o be wrong, i t u t i l i z e s t h r e e of t h e e r r o r o u t p u t s t o p r o v i d e d a t a f o r
i s s u p p l a n t e d by a v a l u e which i s a g r e e d upon by b o t h d e t e r m i n i n g o f f s e t s a s needed f o r t h e ACE s i g n a l . The
control areas. s y s t e m e r r o r o u t p u t a p p r a i s e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between
t o t a l metered e n e r g y and t h e i n t e g r a l of metered power
At t h e end of e a c h h o u r , time e r r o r is r e c o r d e d t o f o r t h e hour. An o f f s e t (shown a s " e r r o r b i a s s e t t i n g " )
one one-hundredth of a second by t h e r e s p o n s i b l e c o n t r o l may be made t o n e t power i n t e r c h a n g e t o compensate f o r
area. The o f f i c i a l v a l u e is t h e n communicated t o ad- components of "system e r r o r ' ' which a r e b e l i e v e d t o be
j a c e n t c o n t r o l a r e a s and s o on a c r o s s t h e i n t e r c o n n e c - continuing. T h i s scheme p r e v e n t s any l o n g term d i v e r -
tion. The r e s p o n s i b l e a r e a a l s o s u b m i t s a p r i n t e d gence between t h e power and e n e r g y c o n t r o l l o o p s .
r e p o r t t o t h e NERC p e r f o r m a n c e c o m m i t t e e . Treated
s i m i l a r t o inadvertent, o f f i c i a l t i m e e r r o r is s p e c i f i c , Inadvertent energy f o r each c o n t r o l a r e a i s t h e
h a v i n g been t r u n c a t e d , o r rounded, t o two d i g i t s . difference between o f f i c i a l and c o n t r a c t u a l energy
exchange. Totaled over the interconnection, both
Each c o n t r o l a r e a d a i l y v e r i f i e s ( t y p i c a l l y between desired (contractual) and a c t u a l ( o f f i c i a l ) e n e r g y
a i d n i g h t and 1:00 am) w i t h e a c h of i t s n e i g h b o r s t h a t exchanges a r e f o r c e d e x a c t l y t o z e r o a t t h e end of e v e r y
t h e y a r e u s i n g i d e n t i c a l c o n t r a c t s c h e d u l e s and t h a t hour. Although t h i s c o n d i t i o n may n o t be r e a l i z e d u n t i l
t h e y have i n d i c a t e d i d e n t i c a l t i e - l i n e by t i e - l i n e accounting e r r o r s a r e corrected, it ultimately f o r c e s
e n e r g y v a l u e s hour-by-hour f o r t h e r e c o r d s of t h e pre- t h e h o u r l y i n a d v e r t e n t e n e r g y a c c o u n t s t o add t o z e r o
v i o u s day. This insures (barring e r r o r s i n recording) over the interconnection. ere-audited ( h o u r l y ) inad-
t h a t t o t a l s c h e d u l e s and t o t a l e n e r g y exchanges of v e r t e n t and ( c o n t i n u o u s ) time e r r o r , a r e u s e d f o r
r e c o r d e a c h add t o z e r o hour-by-hour f o r the inter- f o l l o w i n g and o b s e r v i n g t h e p r o c e s s so t h a t g r o s s e r r o r s
connection. can be q u i c k l y n o t e d .

A s a follow-up t o c o r r e c t any e r r o r s i n r e c o r d i n g , Thus t h e scheme a l l o w s a l l measurement e r r o r s of t h e

t h e r e i s a monthly checking loop around t h e i n t e r - power a n d e n e r g y m e t e r i n g s y s t e m s e v e n t u a l l y t o b e
c o n n e c t i o n . Each a r e a r e p o r t s ( t h r o u g h i t s c o o r d i n a t i n g overridden. R e v o l v i n g a c c o u n t b a l a n c e s of i n a d v e r t e n t
c o u n c i l t o NERC) t h e t o t a l s c h e d u l e s a n d t o t a l n e t f o r the control areas a r e maintained within reasonable
o f f i c i a l e x c h a n g e s on a l l t i e s w i t h e a c h of i t s i n t e r - bounds. The time e r r o r a d j u s t m e n t p r o c e s s k e e p s t h e
c o n n e c t e d u t i l i t i e s f o r t h e month. These r e p o r t s a r e of p u b l i c ' s synchronous c l o c k s a c c e p t a b l y a c c u r a t e .
a c c u m u l a t i o n s f o r on-peak, o f f - p e a k , and t o t a l h o u r s of
the nonth. A NERC committee t h e n t o t a l s t h e s e d i f - -
REVIEW--OF CONTROL AND DECOMPOSITION
ferences for a l l coordinating councils i n the inter-
c o n n e c t i o n . O c c a s i o n a l l y , when t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s do n o t The b a s i c e q u a t i o n f o r t h e power control loop
sum t o z e r o , an e r r o r i n r e c o r d i n g o f d a t a i s i n d i c a t e d . e x p r e s s e s ACE f o r a c o n t r o l a r e a .
The means t o f i n d and c o r r e c t i t i s e x p e d i t e d by h a v i n g
r e t a i n e d v a r i o u s s u b t o t a l s throughout t h e process. ACE=(T - T - T )
a s 0
Thus, o f f i c i a l o p e r a t i o n of r e c o r d i s a c t u a l l y - 10 B ( Fa - Fs - Fo) (1)
agreed-upon d a t a , t h e m a j o r i t y of which had been ob-
t a i n e d from measured v a l u e s . Whatever t r u e o p e r a t i o n where t h e s u b s c r i p t s r e f e r t o a c t u a l , s c h e d u l e d , and
was, it c o u l d n e v e r have been e x a c t l y known anyway and offset quantities. The terms a r e f o r n e t t i e - l i n e
remains b u r i e d i n t h e n e t h e r - n e t h e r l a n d of i m p r e c i s i o n , interchange and frequency deviation respectively.
etc. D e v i a t i o n s between o f f i c i a l and d e s i r e d o p e r a t i o n Because B i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y s p e c i f i e d a s a n e g a t i v e
a r e c a r r i e d f o r w a r d a s p a r t of t h e permanent d a t a r e c o r d number i n MW/O.lHz, t h e frequency b i a s term has a
f o r each hour. Their accumulated d i f f e r e n c e s , kept c o e f f i c i e n t of minus t e n .
s e p a r a t e l y f o r on-peak and o f f - p e a k p e r i o d s , a r e p r e -
v e n t e d from d i v e r g e n c e by o f f s e t s i n t h e AGC p r o c e s s . In o r d e r t h a t t h e c o n t r o l p r o c e s s m i g h t i n v o k e
c o r r e c t i o n f o r p a s t e r r o r , it is d e s i r e d t h a t inad-
A s a c o n t r o l p r o c e s s , power s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n s i s made v e r t e n t and time e r r o r s h o u l d n o t be z e r o d u r i n g
u n i q u e by t h e l o n g t i m e d i s p a r i t y of d e t e r m i n i n g i t s selected intervals. T h i s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by t h e ACE
e r r o r s i g n a l s and by t h e i r d i s c r e t e n a t u r e . Figure 2 o f f s e t s a s shown i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) .

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 714

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1-

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MWH DEL NET INTERCHANGE ENERGY
METERS TIE x 3
REC TIE x 3

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Figure 3. Power and Energy loop coupling showing error signals for control.
The p r o p e r c h o i c e of b i a s v a l u e t o u s e i n e q u a t i o n
( 1 ) h a s h a d much d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . [ 5 - 6 ]
Many p e o p l e b e l i e v e t h a t t h e " c o r r e c t " v a l u e s h o u l d make
ACE i n s e n s i t i v e t o e x t e r n a l a r e a l o s s of g e n e r a t i o n o r
load. I f s u c h v a l u e s c o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d and u s e d i n
a l l a r e a s , t h e n e a c h would a v o i d t h e f o l l o w i n g of
external load or generation loss. However, s y s t e m
f r e q u e n c y r e c o v e r y f o l l o w i n g a d i s t u r b a n c e would have t o
w a i t on t h e s o l e r e s p o n s e of t h e d i s t u r b e d a r e a .
T h i s o b j e c t i v e h a s most r e c e n t l y been espoused by M r .
Kennedy, e t a 1 , [ 5 ] p r i m a r i l y t o a v o i d what t h e y c a l l
overcontrol. F o r r e a s o n s g i v e n by o n e o f u s i n a
d i s c u s s i o n [ 7 ] of t h a t p a p e r , we b e l i e v e t h a t B s h o u l d
be l a r g e r (more n e g a t i v e ) t h a n t h e s o - c a l l e d " c o r r e c t "
v a l u e , and c o u l d be k e p t c o n s t a n t , s a v e f o r a n n u a l
review. We t h i n k o v e r c o n t r o l s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d by
f i l t e r i n g and o t h e r p r e p a r a t i o n of ACE b e f o r e i t s i n p u t
t o t h e LFC l o g i c .
An e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s c o n s t a n c y s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d
f o r major d i s t u r b a n c e c o n d i t i o n s , e.g. a sudden f r e -
q u e n c y s h i f t o f more t h a n 0.05 h e r t z i n t h e E a s t e r n
Interconnection. On November 3, 1987 a b o u t 2700 Mw of
F l o r i d a l o a d was s e p a r a t e d from t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n .
A f t e r a b o u t t e n s e c o n d s of g o v e r n o r r e s p o n s e , and b e f o r e
any LFC r e a l i z a t i o n , f r e q u e n c y had s t a b i l i z e d a t a b o u t
60.06 Hz. Net AEP t i e - l i n e r e s p o n s e was a b o u t 150 Mw,
some 30 Mw l e s s t h a n t h e f r e q u e n c y t e r m o f o u r ACE.
C o n s e q u e n t l y LFC c a l l e d f o r a 30 Mu g e n e r a t i o n r e d u c t i o n
i n AEP t o a s s i s t i n r e s t o r a t i o n of s y s t e m f r e q u e n c y .
I n the Eastern Interconnection there are generation
complexes e x c e e d i n g 4000 Mw. In-flows from Canadian
h y d r o g e n e r a t i o n may a l s o r e a c h or e x c e e d t h i s l e v e l i n
a few y e a r s . We a r e c o n c e r n e d t h a t t r i p p i n g of s u c h
l a r g e b l o c k s of g e n e r a t i o n could r e s u l t i n t i e - l i n e
r e s p o n s e which e x c e e d s t h e ACE f r e q u e n c y term i n many
c o n t r o l a r e a s and t h u s c a l l f o r LFC t o r e d u c e g e n e r a -
tion. I f s e v e r a l a r e a s were t o reduce g e n e r a t i o n
f o l l o w i n g s u c h a d i s t u r b a n c e , t h e s y s t e m may c o l l a p s e .
F i g u r e 4 shows t h e system r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
(SRC) i n t h e ACE p l a n e . Bias values a r e p r e s e n t l y
d e t e r m i n e d from t h e l a r g e s t l o s s e s e x p e r i e n c e d , a b o u t
0.06 Hz p e r 2500 Mw. I f t h e ACE e q u a l z e r o l i n e i s n o t
between t h e SRC and t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s , t h e n LFC w i l l
c a l l f o r t h e i n c o r r e c t g e n e r a t i o n change f o r a d i s t u r -
bance. The SRC l o c u s i s n o t known f o r l o s s e s e x c e e d i n g
a b o u t 2500 MW. Beyond t h e c r o s s o v e r p o i n t ( t h e "danger
zone" i n f i g u r e 4 ) , i t may be a p p r e c i a b l y above t h e ACE
e q u a l z e r o l i n e f o r l a r g e r d i s t u r b a n c e s a s shown.
I f s t u d i e s show c r e u i b i l i t y o f s u c h a p o t e n t i a l
c a t a s t r o p h e , a s o l u t i o n might be t o a d a p t a two segment
bias characteristic. Upon d e t e c t i n g a f r e q u e n c y s h i f t
e x c e e d i n g 0.05 Hz, a c o n t r o l a r e a would a u t o m a t i c a l l y
invoke a much l a r g e r (emergency) b i a s v a l u e i n i t s ACE
c o m p u t a t i o n and t h u s a s s u r e a r e s p o n s e t h a t would n o t be
destabilizing t o the interconnection. Later discussion
w i l l show t h a t s u c h p r a c t i c e , i f a d a p t e d , w o u l d n o t
impact t h e u s e of d e c o m p o s i t i o n t e c h n i q u e s .
DECOMPOS ITION
S i n c e 1978 M r . Cohn h a s been an a d v o c a t e f o r a method
of d e c o m p o s i t i o n , d e v e l o p e d by him, t o s e p a r a t e c o n t r o l
a r e a i n a d v e r t e n t e n e r g y and s y s t e m time d e v i a t i o n i n t o
components c a u s e d by " r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s " i n i n d i -
v i d u a l a r e a s of t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n . [ 2 - 3 ] The mathema-
t i c a l s o u n d n e s s of t h e method i s a c c e p t e d and needs no

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 715

AF D = - B s e / 6 (3)
150 180 Mw
AT where Bs i s t h e sum of a l l a r e a b i a s e s .

W r i t i n g t h e s e t of e q u a t i o n s ( 2 ) f o r a l l a r e a s g i v e s :
suggested 0 1 0 .*.

D
a
O 1 ..-
-.06.
*
b
= . . . . (4)
D 0 0 -*.

ADn
n- 1
J -1 -1 ...
-1 -Bn/6

where t h e n-th row also u s e s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e sum or

Figure 4. System Response and ACE Bias
i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n i n a d v e r t e n t s is z e r o .
r e v i e w , b u t r e c o l l e c t i o n of some of t h e e q u a t i o n s is
necessary. E q u a t i o n ( 4 ) c a n be i n v e r t e d t o g i v e :
D e c o m p o s i t i o n t h e o r y s t a n d s on t h e d e f i n i t i o n of
r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y of a c o n t r o l a r e a :
D = I i - B i e / 6 12)
i
where: (5)

i i d e n t i f i e s the i-th control area

B. i s i t s f r e q u e n c y b i a s i n MW/O.IHz
It i s i t s i n a d v e r t e n t e n e r g y
and
e is t h e s y s t e m t i m e e r r o r i n s e c o n d s . Each term i n t h e e q u a t i o n from t h e l a s t row of (5) c a n
be e x p r e s s e d a s :
Equation (2) a p p l i e s t o t o t a l accumulations t o d a t e ,
e i = -6 Di / BS (6)
o r t o any e l a p s e d time i n t e r v a l i f e i s t h e change i n
system t i m e e r r o r during t h a t i n t e r v a l ( p o s i t i v e i f
where e i can be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e a i's s h a r e of s y s t e m
c l o c k s have g o t t e n f a s t e r ) . T i i s t h e i n c r e a s e of t o t a l
i n a d v e r t e n t e n e r g y ( d e l i v e r e d minus r e c e i v e d ) f o r con- time e r r o r , c a u s e d by i t s r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y .
t r o l area i i n the interval.
E q u a t i o n (2), and t h u s a l s o ((4) o r (5), w i l l n o t a p p l . ,
e x a c t l y t o a time i n t e r v a l i n which any b i a s v a l u e ha.$
It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t a l l t h e e n t i t i e s i n ( 2 ) a r e
been v a r i e d . T h i s c a n be s e e n by w r i t i n g ( 2 ) f o r t h e
known f o r one's own c o n t r o l a r e a . T h e r e f o r e Di c a n be
p a r t s of a two-part i n t e r v a l , t h e n a d d i n g t o g e t :
computed f o r one's a r e a w i t h o u t any a d d i t i o n a l communi-
c a t i o n of d a t a from o t h e r a r e a s . D' + D" = 1
' + 1" - ( 'B e' + B" e'' ) / 6 '
M r . Cohn a r r i v e s a t ( 2 ) by a n i n t e g r a t i o n "over any and n o t i n g t h a t d i r e c t d i v i s i b i l i t y of t h e l a s t term by
designated t i m e interval." H i s integrand, " t o t a l control e' + e" r e q u i r e s t h a t B' e q u a l B".
e r r o r and o f f s e t s " , i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y u n a v a i l a b l e i n
practice[Zl. The r e s u l t " r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y " , how- The l a t t e r o b s e r v a t i o n no t w i t h s t a n d i n g , u t i 1i z a t i on
e v e r , becomes o f f i c i a l l y known o n l y on a n h o u r l y b a s i s of a v a r i a b l e b i a s f o r ACE d o e s n o t make d e c o m p o s i t i o n
i n terms of i n a d v e r t e n t and t i m e e r r o r , a l t h o u g h t h e s e impractical. T h i s c a n be c o n c l u d e d f r o m l a t e r d i s -
a r e not firm u n t i l a f t e r f i n a l auditing. cussion.

In any t i m e i n t e r v a l , on-peak, o f f - p e a k , an h o u r , __ - -OF

THE COST - -_-
TIME- -ERROR
_--- - __
e t c . , t h e r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y of an a r e a is a conse-
A non-zero time e r r o r e x i s t i n g when a l l i n a d v e r t e n t s
quence of b o t h d e s i r e d and u n d e s i r e d e f f e c t s . The
a r e z e r o means t h a t g e n e r a t i o n h a s n o t matched 60 Hz
d e s i r e d e f f e c t s , h o p e f u l l y r e a l i z e d by t h e o f f s e t s . a r q
f o r t h e p u r p o s e of c o r r e c t i n g p a s t a c c u m u l a t e d a c c o u n t s load. I f clocks a r e slow, each c o n t r o l a r e a has
s u f f e r e d a s h o r t f a l l of p o t e n t i a l l y b i l l a b l e l o a d . The
of i n a d v e r t e n t a n d / o r time e r r o r . I n t h e t e r m i n o l o g y of
Mr. Cohn's p a t e n t I 8 1 , t h e s e o f f s e t s a r e f o r t h e p u r p o s e power l o s s i n e a c h a r e a amounts t o :
of r e a l i z i n g a d e s i r e d "non-zero r e g u l a t i n g s t a t e " . Any dP = f 3 P dF (7)
u n d e s i r e d e f f e c t s , f o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n t h e y may e x i s t , where
a r e l a t e r d e t e r m i n e d e x a c t l y i n a b u s i n e s s w i s e s e n s e and P is the average area load
c a r r i e d f o r w a r d t o be c o r r e c t e d by f u t u r e o f f s e t s . dF i s t h e a v e r a g e f r e q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n
flis t h e l o a d t o f r e q u e n c y
One must c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of equa- c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e a r e a
t i o n ( 2 ) f o r t i m e i n t e r v a l s o t h e r t h a n an h o u r , s u c h a s V a r i o u s r e f e r e n c e s g i v e 6 i n t h e r a n g e of 1 t o 5 p e r c e n t
t h e a c c u m u l a t e d o n - p e a k p e r i o d s of R d a y , o r m o n t h .
change i n l o a d p e r p e r c e n t change i n frequency.[9-101
S e p a r a t e a c c u m u l a t i o n s of t i m e e r r o r a r e n o t k e p t f o r
s u c h i n t e r v a l s b u t c o u l d be computed from h o u r l y d a t a of B u t t h e s e r e l a t e t o c o n d i t i o n s up t o a f e w s e c o n d s
record. I f B h a s been changed i n t h e i n t e r v a l , t h e n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s t u r b a n c e s , and may o n l y be a p p r o x i m a t e f o r
f r e q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n s s u s t a i n e d f o r many m i n u t e s a s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y m u s t b e re-
pertinent t o the present subject. V a l u e s of R a t t h e
visited. 'Chis p o i n t w i l l be f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d l a t e r .
lower end of t h i s r a n g e g i v e v a l u e s f o r dP which a r e
Total regulating deficiency (D ) of t h e system i s a b o u t t e n p e r c e n t of t h e f r e q u e n c y term i n ACE. This
b i l l a b l e s h o r t f a l l however, is l o s t a t consumer r a t e s
o b t a i n e d by a d d i n g t h e e q u a t i o n s ( 2 ) f o r a l l a r e a s of which a r e much g r e a t e r t h a n i n c r e m e n t a l c o s t .
the interconne,*tion. I J t t l I z i n g I he f ;et th,jt Lnadver-
t e n t sums t o z e r o o v e r all c o n t r o l a r e a s , i t is: The l o s s e s !n billable load incurred while clocks

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 716

have l o s t time a r e o f f s e t by r e a l i z a t i o n s when t h e t i m r ACE i s a p r e s e n t e s t i m a t e of c u r r e n t g e n e r a t i o n

e r r o r is c o r r e c t e d . I t i s t y p i c a l however, f o r system
time t o r u n slow o v e r h i g h l o a d p e r i o d s and t o be made
up o v e r low l o a d p e r i o d s . Using h o u r l y s y s t e m l o a d and
time e r r o r d a t a t h e w r i t e r s ' have made some c o m p u t a t i o n s
of t h e l o n g t e r m n e t l o s s u s i n g e q u a t i o n ( 7 ) . 4t
6b/kWh, and a f t e r r e c o g n i z i n g t h e f u e l b u r n a v o i d a n c e
and e x c e s s i n t h e low and h i g h f r e q u e n c y p e r i o d s r e s p e c -
t i v e l y , l o s s e s a r e i n t h e r a n g e of $1 p e r week p e r Mw of
average system load.
These c o s t s a r e d i s t i n c t from and i n a d d i t i o n t o
t h o s e d e s c r i b e d by Messrs. Cohn[l-3] and K e n n e d y . [ l l ]
W h e t h e r t h e y a r e s i g n i f i c a n t o r n o t d e p e n d s on t h e
e x t e n t t o which t h e y a r e a v o i d a b l e . C l e a r l y they could
be a v o i d e d by a p o l i c y of m a i n t a i n i q q 50 Hz d u r i n v h i g h
load periods. C o n t r o l a r e a s which d r a g t h e s y s t e m i n
s u c h p e r i o d s a r e a c o s t bur4en t o t h e m s e l v e s and t o
e v e r y o t h e r member of t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n a s well.
e x c e s s w i t h o f f s e t s t o c o r r e c t f o r p a s t e n e r g y mismatch
and f r e q u e n c y d e v i a t i o n . The d i s t i n c t i o n between
r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y and t h e i n t e g r a l of ACE is q u i t e
e x p l i c i t i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 5 ) of r e f e r e n c e 2. I t s h o u l d be
n o t e d t h a t Y r . Cohn a r r i v e d a t t h a t e q u a t i o n , n o t by
i n t e g r a t i n g ACE, b u t by i n t e g r a t i n g " t o t a l c o n t r o l e r r o r
with offsets."
One may a s k : Should t h e same "Bl' be used i n e q u a t i o n
( I ) f o r ACE a s used i n ( 4 ) f o r r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y ?
In e q u a t i o n ( 4 ) , t h e B v a l u e s d i s b u r s e time e r r o r t o t h e
control areas. What i s t h e p r o p e r c h o i c e o f v a l u e s t o
make t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n e q u i t a b l e ? What a r e t h e meanings
of e q u a t i o n s ( 2 ) t h r o u g h ( 6 ) when a p p l i e d t o a c c u m u l a t e d
t o t a l i n a d v e r t e n t and s y s t e m t i m e e r r o r ? When a p p l i e d
f o r s u c h a p u r p o s e , what v a l u e s of B s h o u l d t h e equa-
t i o n s employ, c u r r e n t , a v e r a g e o v e r t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n
p e r i o d , e t c . ? These q u e s t i o n s w i l l now be a d d r e s s e d .

Everyone a c c e p t s t h e d u t y t o s u p p o r t an a r e a i n i:quation ( I ) e x p r e s s e s a p r e l i m i n a r y ACE s i g n a l f o r

g e n u i n e d i f f i c u l t y b u t a p o l i c y review seems t o be i n use i n the c o n t r o l process. But p r i o r t o LFC u s a g e , i t
o r d e r when t h e t y p i c a l d a i l y i n t e g r a l of e q u a t i o n ( 7 ) is t y p i c a l l y conditioned f o r purposes OE smoothing,
h a s s i g n i f i c a n t magnitude due t o a phase r e l a t i o n s h i p a v e r a g i n g o r f i l t e r t n g , and p e r h a p s by a d d i t i v e s t o
between the daily load and time error CurlreS. a n t i c i p a t e demand changes. Also, some a r e a s e s p o u s e t h e
u s e of 1 v a r i a b l e b i a s t o f i l t e r t h e f r e q u e n c y component
T_H_E_-D_E_c_o_M25~T-i-~N- -C-!3tcFfl of A C E , o r f o r some o t h e r r e a s o n o f t h e i r c h o o s i n g .
E q u a t i o n ( 5 ) shows t o t a l i n a d v e r t e n t f o r e a c h are^ These p r o c e s s e s a r e n o t s t a n d a r d f o r d i f f e r e n t c o n t r o l
decomposed i n t o s e l f and r e m o t e l y c a u s e d p o r t i o n s a:; a r e a s . The s y s t e n s t a t e , a f t e r two m i n u t e s , an h o u r , or
g i v e n by t h e d i a g o n a l and o f f - d i a g o n a l terms r e s p e c - a d a y , e t c . , depends n o t o n l y on a p r o c e s s c o n d i t i o n e d
tively. Y r . Cohn h a s c h o s e n t o c a l l t h e s e primary an1 A C E , b u t a l s o on l o a d c h a n g e s , a c t i o n i n o t h e r a r e a s ,
s e c o n d a r y i n a d v e r t e n t components. and t h e f a c t t h a t g e n e r a t i o n d o e s n o t p r e c i s e l y f o l l o w
LFC o u t p u t .
The p r i m a r y component i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t ' e
a r e a s r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y , and t h u s i t is s e l f c a u s c d . Equation ( 2 ) e x p r e s s e s t h e r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y i n
T h e r e i s a t e r m o f s e c o n d a r y i n a d v e r t e n t , c a u s e d by t e r m s of t h r e e p a r a m e t e r s . V a l u e s of i n a d v e r t e n t and
r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y i n e a c h remote a r e a of t h e time e r r o r a r e o f f i c i a l l y a u d i t e d d a t a . In Mr. Cohn's
i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n , o v e r w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t a r e a had no p a t e n t h e r e f e r s t o them a s "memory p a r a m e t e r s . " I t
control. N o t e t h a t p r i m a r y i n a d v e r t e n t , t h e a r e a - s would seem t h a t an a n n u a l l y c o n s t a n t and o f f i c i a l v a l u e
s h a r e of t i m e e r r o r from e q u a t i o n ( 6 ) , and t h e s e c o n d a r y o f b i a s w o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o a l s o " o f f i c i a l i z e "
i n a d v e r t e n t component c a u s e d i n a remote a r e a , a r e a l l r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y .
d i r e c t l y proportional to regulating deficiency in the
subject area. W i t h i n any y e a r t h e o n l y r e a s o n f o r a c o n t r o l a r e a t o
change o f f i c i a l b i a s v a l u e might be b e c a u s e of a s i g n i -
I t i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t u n t i l remote a r e a f i c a n t change i n i n t e r n a l l o a d demand, s u c h a s due t o a
i n f o r m a t i o n is o b t a i n e d ( a f t e r t h e end of t h e month by s h i f t of c o n t r o l a r e a boundary. Thus, t h e b i a s v a l u e
p r e s e n t p r a c t i c e ) , one c a n n o t compute t h e d i s b u r s e m e n t u s e d i n e q u a t i o n s ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) might w e l l be d i f f e r e n t
of s e c o n d a r y i n a d v e r t e n t t o i n d i v i d u a l remote a r e a s . c o n c e p t u a l l y , w h i l e any n u m e r i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s c o u l d
These e q u a t i o n s show t h e c o u p l i n g between s y s t e m time depend on i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l a r e a p r a c t i c e . I f adopted
e r r o r and t h e i n a d v e r t e n t a c c o u n t s and make i t c l e a r i n s u c h a way, d e c o m p o s i t i o n would n o t be confounded by
t h a t c o r r e c t i o n of t i m e e r r o r and a r e a i n a d v e r t e n t t h e u s e of v a r i a b l e b i a s i n some c o n t r o l a r e a s .
s h o u l d be c o u p l e d r a t h e r than c a r r i e d o u t i n d e p e n d e n t l y .
Each c o n t r o l a r e a r e c e i v e s from i t s c o o r d i n a t i n g
I f t i m e e r r o r , w h i c h was i n c u r r e d o n - p e a k , i s c o u n c i l a r e p o r t of on-peak, o f f - p e a k , and t o t a l inad-
c o r r e c t e d i n o f f - p e a k times, t h e r e s u l t i s a j u g g l i n g of v e r t e n t f o r e a c h member c o n t r o l a r e a , and e a c h of t h e
oEf-peak r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s due t o p r i o r on-peak o t h e r c o o r d i n a t i n g c o u n c i l s oE t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n , e a c h
regulating deficiencies. T h e r e i s t h u s a need t o month. Using t h i s d a t a , t h e published annual b i a s
m a i n t a i n time e r r o r a c c o u n t i n g s e p a r a t i o n f o r on-peak v a l u e s , and r e c o r d s of o f f i c i a l t i m e e r r o r , any a r e a
and o f f - p e a k p e r i o d s . A p p a r e n t l y t h e p r e s e n t p r a c t i c e c o u l d compute monthly r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s of t h e s e
f o r o n - p e a k a n d o f f - p e a k i n a d v e r t e n t a c c o u n t i n g was c o n t r o l a r e a s and c o u n c i l s . Although t h e o f f i c i a l d a t a
adapted under the false belief that no s i m i l a r may be b e l a t e d , p r e s e n t p r a c t i c e makes i t a v a i l a b l e t o
a c c o u n t i n g f o r time e r r o r a c c u m u l a t i o n was needed t o any c o n t r o l a r e a w i s h i n g t o perform t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o n
k e e p them s e p a r a t e . calculations.

-----_- OF DECOMPOSITION TO CONTROL

RELATIONSHIP - - - _ _ _ _ _ l _ _ _ _ _ _ l _ _ _ _
I f one i n t e g r a t e s e q u a t i o n ( l ) , w i t h t h e o f f s e t s
e q u a l t o z e r o , t h e r e s u l t is t h e r i g h t hand s i d e o f
equation (2). Based on t h i s , some p e o p l e have s a i d t h a t
d e c o m p o s i t i o n i s a n a r g u m e n t f o r LFC t o f o l l o w t h e
i n t e g r a l of ACE. However, one s h o u l d remrnber t h a t I_
and e a r e o f f i c i a l numbers, of u n c e r t a i n v a l u e u n t i l
Using a v a r i a b l e b i a s , i n ( 1 ) f o r LFC, i s a way of
f i l t e r i n g t h e ACE f r e q u e n c y t e r m . Whether o r not a
c o n t r o l a r e a u s e s t h e p u b l i s h e d b i a s v a l u e as a c o n s t a n t
p a r a m e t e r i n t h e i r ACE c o m p u t a t i o n i s u n i m p o r t a n t . Rut,
t h e b i a s p a r a m e t e r s p r o v i d e d by NERC g u i d e l i n e s may be
q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r computing r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y
11s in (7'''

t o a day a f t e r t h e f a c t , and n o t t h i n k of r e g u l a t t n g TJhen c o m p u t e d u s i n g a n o f f i c i a l b i a s p a r a m e t e r ,

deficiency as an Of ACE. Fq'lation (2) dis- r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y o v e r s h o r t i n t e r v a l s seems t o be
b u r s e s time e r r o r t o a c o n t r o l a r e a . 9 n e s h o u l d be a n i d e a l way t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t t o which a c o n t r o l
r e l u c t a n t t o do t h i s u n t i l d a t q h a s h e n ? l i d i r e d ha; , - o m p ~ : u d w i t h i t s r , + s p o n s l b i l i t y t o s u p p o r t
become o f E i c i a 1 . s r s t r m ubjer.tivr~4. ??.:ulicing d e f i c i e n c v . Eron (2),

Authorized licensed use limited to: AMRITA VISHWA VIDYAPEETHAM AMRITA SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING. Downloaded on August 20,2023 at 08:14:43 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 717
d i r e c t l y measures t h e d e v i a t i o n i n any i n t e r v a l of t h e -411 example of t h i s o c c u r r e d a t n i d n i z h t Greenwich
a r e a s d e s i r e d c o n t r i b u t i o n t o change i n i n a d v e r t e n t or time ( 7 : O O pm EST) on December 71, 1957. To accommodAte
time e r r o r f o r t h a t i n t e r v a l . This s u b j e c t w i l l be a c o r r e c t i o n i n o f f i c i - a 1 time t h e s y s t e m 'lad t n d r o p
f u r t h e r a d d r e s s e d in t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f f i g u r e 5. back one s e c o n d . Prom t h e l a s t r i m e b e f o r e 7 : O O ; ) m
u n t i l t h e f i r s t time a f t e r 7:OO pm t h a t time e r r o r !<a<;
tEE25-E.NJ- Pp_A_T-I-C-E- -V_Ep_s!l,., -cE-C-O!-P-?S IT t ON z e r o , a v e r a g e s y s t e m f r e q u e n c y was l e s s t h a n 6 0 !lz.
P r e s e n t p r a c t i c e is t o c o r r e c t f o r t o t a l i n a d v e r t e n t
i n d e p e n d e n t l y of s y s t e m time e r r o r . Any " c o r r e c t i v e " O f f i c i a l v a l u e s of B i n t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n a r e
a c t i o n d e v e l o p s , d u r i n g t h e c o r r e c t i v e p e r i o d , a reg- subject t o annual revision. O f f i c i a l v.alues of inad-
u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y intending t o reduce e i t h e r t o t a l v e r t e n t and time e r r o r do n o t change s i m p l y b e c a u s e b i a s
i n a d v e r t e n t o r s y s t e m time e r r o r . E q u a t i o n ( 5 ) shows v a l u e s have been a d j u s t e d . For s u c h r e v i s i o n , t h e o n l y
how t h i s c h a n g e s t h e s e c o n d a r y i n a d v e r t e n t i n a l l o t h e r l o g i c a l t h i n g t o do i n t h e w r i t e r s ' o p i n i o n s , i s tn re-
a r e a s and u s u a l l y p r e c i p i t a t e s t h e need f o r a s u b s e q u e n t v i s e a l l r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s by u s i n g t h e new b i n s
round of c o r r e c t i o n s . I n i g n o r a n c e of d e c o m p o s i t i o n values. We w o u l d a r g u e t h a t r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y
p r i n c i p l e s , one c a n be v a i n l y a p p l y i n g u n c o r r e l a t e d a c c u m u l a t i o n i s n o t a p p r o p r i a t e o v e r p e r i o d s o f chansiiig
o f f s e t s f o r i n a d v e r t e n t and t i m e e r r o r a d j u s t m e n t s . h i a s , b u t s h o u l d s i m p l y be computed f r o m ciirreiit o f f i -
c i a l b i a s u s i n g t h e p r e s e n t accum1ilations o f i n a d v e r t e n t
E q u a t i o n ( 4 ) makes i t c l e a r t h a t a b i l a t e r a l inad- and time e r r o r .
v e r t e n t c o r r e c t i o n between any two a r e a s a f f e c t s t h e
r e g u l a t i n g d e E i c i e n c i e s f o r o n l y t h o s e two a r e a s , b u t T E time e r r o r c o u l d always be k e p t ne,?r z e r u , t h r n
p e r h a p s u n f a v o r a b l y . I f t h e b i l a t e r a l c o r r e c t i o n i s not r e p i 1 a t i n . g d e f i - c i e n c y wotild be n e a r l y e q u a l t o inadver.-
c a r r i e d o u t s o a s t o reduce (magnitude w i s e ) both requ- tent. I t i s w o r t h w h i l e t o c o n t e m p h t e e q u a t i o n s ( 4 ) :ind
l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s , and p r e f e r a b l y s o a s t o l e a v e one ( 5 ) under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s . Note t h a t a l l o f Yr. Cohn'c;
of them a t z e r o , t h e s y s t e m and a t l e . i s t one of t h e two o b s c r v a t i o n s .ibout p r i m a r y and s e c o n d a r y components nf
a r e a s , Is worse o f f t h a n b e f o r e . T h i s i s Seen by n o t i n g i n a d v e r t e n t , and t h e i r d i s p a r i t y o f w o r t h , a r e s t i r :
Erom ( 4 ) t h a t o n l y two d e E i c l e n c i e s and two i n a d v e r t e n t ? app1ic;tbIe.
changed, t h e n a p p l y i n g e q u a t i o n ( 5 ) and n o t i n g th,it
t o t a l i n a d v e r t e n t a c c o u n t s have changed i n a l l a r e a ? . For t h e time e r r o r term i n r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y t i ;
be n e g l i g i b l e r e q u i r e s t h a t i t be l e s s t h a n t h e nnt. Win
A u n i l a t e r a l c o r r e c t i o n f o r c e s changes i n i i a d v e r - resolution o E ~ E E i c i n l inadvertent. The l a r g e s t h i a s
t e n t s of o t h e r a r e a s b e c a u s e t h e t o t n l of i n a d v e r t e n t s s e t t i n g i n the. E a s t e r n I n t e r c o n n e c t i o n i s n h o u t 509
must always be z e r o . Such a c o r r e c t i o n is allowed by HW/O.1 Hz f o r t h e M i d - A t l a n t i c Are..i C o u n c i l . T h e r e F o r e ,
g'iidelines i f the o f f s e t is i n a favorable d i r e c t i o n f o r i f time e r r o r i s t o be n e g l i g i b l e , i t shci.ild be k e p t
t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s c o r r e c t i o n of t i m e e r r o r , b u t i t w i l l l e s s t h a n 0.012 s e c o n d s . Although t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i \ l e ,
produce a f a v o r a b l e change i n t h e s u b j e c t a r e a o n l y i f t h i s s m a l l t o l e r a n c e l e v e l i s n o t l i k e l y t o hecome
i t c o r r e c t s t h e area's regulating deficiency. I f the p o l i c y i n t h e nedr E u t u r e .
v e c t o r on t h e r i g h t i n ( 4 ) i s h e l d c o n s t a n t , e x c e p t f o r
Area Total Inadvertent
t h e c o r r e c t i n g a r e a , t h e n I n must change. The e q u a t i o n
s e t implicitly contains T as t h e negative o f the t o t a l
i n a d v e r t e n t s of o t h e r a r e a s i n t h e l a s t row e x p r e s s i o n
S - - o + D
for D
n
. T
I
0 good ok ok NA NA U
i W 7 7 7 nd ok B
Time e r r o r may o r may n o t change d u r i n g an i n t e r v a l m
>€ unilateral correction. I f i t r e m i i n s ConStdnt, a s
w e l l a s a l l i n a d v e r t e n t s s a v e f o r t h e s u b j e c t and n-th
e Z 0 + D
e NA NA NA
a r e a , t h e n r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c l e n c y changes i n o n l y t h e s e r U
t w o a r e a s also. This describes a €alse unilateral 0 6 no 2 B
correction. I t was r e a l l y a b i l a t e r a l a c t i o n between
one a r e a and t h e n-th a r e a . F - o + + + D

I f time e r r o r is a l s o a l l o w e d t o change, a s might he a NA NA ok ok good U

expected for a u n i l a t e r a l correction, then another t ok nd 1 1 1 B
l e g r e e of f r e e d o m h a s b e e n i n t r o d u c e d . T h i s can be
nccommodated i n v a r i o u s ways s u c h a s h o l d i n g a l l
regulating deficiencies constant except for the
c o r r e c t i n g a r e a , b u t t h e sum of a l l t h e i n a d v e r t e n t s
n u s t s t i l l be z e r o . Each and e v e r y i n a d v e r t e n t a s w e l l
F i g u r e 5 shows u n i l a t e r a l ,and b i l a t e r a l (rows l a h e l e i '
1s time e r r o r must c h a n g e , a s c a n c l e a r l y be s e e n from
U and R ) c o r r e c t i o n a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t m i g h t h? mad.
.quation (5).
d e p e n d i n g on whether time crr'or and t o t a l i n a d v e r t e n t
are negative, zero, or positive. I t i s b a s i c a l l y ,I
U n i l a t e r a l , o r b i l a t e r a l , c o r r e c t i o n of r e g u l a t i n g t h r e e by t h r e e m a t r i x e x c e p t t h a t i n t h e upper r i s h t and
deficiencies are the only reasonable desired objectives. lower l e f t p o s i t i o n s t h e r e a r e two a d d i t i o n a l p o s s i b l c
I n t h e w r i t e r s ' o p i n i o n s , NERC s h o u l d a d o p t s u c h a
s i t u a t i o n s each. T n columns 7 a n d 5 o f t h e s e c o r n e r s ,
policy. I t would r e q u i r e no new i n t e r c h a n g e of d a t a , s e c o n d a r y i n a d v e r t e n t d o m i n a t e s and i s of o p p o s i t e s i g n
and v e r y minor c h a n g e s i n g u i d e l i n e s .
from primary. I n columns ? and 6 of t h e same c o r n e r s ,
primary inadvertent i s zero. Rows l a b e l e d "D" show t h e
Suppose a leap-second time c o r r e c t i o n i s t o be
p o s s i b l e s i g n s of r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y .
invoked. E q u a t i o n ( 4 ) shows t h e r e is a c o n s e q u e n t
change i n r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y i n every a r e a . One
Consider (through t h e next four paragraphs) t h e f i r s t
s h o u l d i n t e r p r e t t h i s a s a d e s i r e t o invoke a f r e q u e n c y
row, t h o s e c a s e s where c l o c k s a r e slow. Any a r e a ha-ving
d e v i a t i o n u n t i l s y s t e m time is c o r r e c t e d t o o f f i c i a l
h e l p e d c a u s e t.his c o n d i t i o n WO-ild have a n e g a t i v e regu-
time. 9 f c o u r s e , t h i s time c o r r e c t i o n i s t o be s u p e r -
l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y a s shown i n c o l u m n s 2 , 4 , o r 5 .
imposed on any o t h e r c o r r e c t i o n s . Notice that the
Column 4 o r 5 c o u l d r e s u l t from f l a t , o r a l m o s t f l a t ,
c o n t r o l process d e s i r e s an average z e r o time e r r o r ,
t i e - l i n e c o n t r o l i n t h e a r e a . 4 col~unil 7 p o s i t i o n c o u l d
r a t h e r t h a n m s i n t n i n i n g a v e r a g e f r e q u e n c y a t 6 0 Hz.
be t h e r e s u l t of E l a t - f r e q u e n c y c o n t r o l , o r over-biasin::
t h e ACE Erequency term i n t h e .ires.

Authorized licensed use limited to: AMRITA VISHWA VIDYAPEETHAM AMRITA SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING. Downloaded on August 20,2023 at 08:14:43 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
 718

Delivering inadvertent f > I J \ o u t o f columns 4 a r 5 b e o e f i t t h e s y s t e m t h r o u g h t h e a v o i d a n c e of o v e r c o n t r o l -

i s l i b e l e d "ok", b u t would be c o n s i d e r e d o n l y by an a r e a I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t c o n t r o l a r e a s a d o p t t h i s schemp.
p r a c t i c i n g a d e c o m p o s i t i o n scheme because S U C ~a move i s (The New England Power Exchange a l r e a d y h a s [ l 2 ] , and
u n d e s i r a b l e from a non-decomposition v i e w p o i n t . Uni- c l a i m s t o s e e b e n e f i t s . ) S i g n i f i c a n t b e n e f i t s inay n o t be
l a t e r a l r e l i e f from column 2 i s l a b e l e d a "good" c h o i c e c l e a r l y o b s e r v a b l e u n t i l some f r a c t i o n , p e r h a p s one-
f o r any p r a c t i c e . U n i l a t e r a l r e l i e f from columns 6 o r 7 f i f t h , of t h e s y s t e m had done s o , but t h i s would be a
i s n o t a l l o w e d ( l a b e l e d NA) by e x i s t i n g ( o r s u g g e s t e d ) s t r a i g h t forward iqplenentation process.
g u i d e l i n e s b e c a u s e t o do s o would r e q u i r e r e c e i v i n g
i n a d v e r t e n t t o d r a g t h e s y s t e m when c l o c k s a r p ? I r e a d y Simply by r e f e r r i n g t o r e g u l a t i n g d e f i c i e n c y r a t h e r
slow. t h a n i n a d v e r t e n t , a NERC g u i d e l i n e change c o u l d e l i m i -
nate the m u l t i - i t e r a t i v e c o r r e c t i v e process of t h e
When u n i l a t e r a l c o r r e c t i o n i s n o t a l l o w e d , one c a n present practice. R e l a t i v e t o the lack of s e p a r a t e
p i t h e r w a i t f o r a p e r i o d of Eavorable time e r r o r o r s e e k on-peak and o f f - p e a k c o r r e c t i o n of time e r r o r , g u i d e l i n e
-ip a r t n e r f o r a b i l a t e r a l a r r a n g e m e n t . From column 6 o r r e v i s i o n o r p o l i c y r e v i e w might a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d .
7 t h i s i s t h e o n l y o p t i o n , b u t from 6 i t i s l a b e l e d "not
R_E_F_ENCES
l e s i r e d " ( n d ) b e r a u s e t h e r e i s no d e s i r e d c o r r e c t i o n
[ I ] N. Cohn , "Hidden C o s t s of I n a d v e r t e n t I n t e r c h a n g e " ,
from a d e c o m p o s i t i o n p o i n t of view. From columns 2 , 4 ,
INSIGHTS 86 , E d i s o n E l e c t r i c I n s t i t u t e , Washington. DC.
)r 5 ( l a b e l e d 7 ) t h e d e s i r e d b i l a t e r a l p a r t n e r must be September 7-10, 1986.
iound i n column 7 a l t h o u g h a n a i v e p a r t n e r might be
[2] N . Cohn, "Decomposition of Time 9 e v i a t i o n and
Found i n column 6 , o r e v e n 5. I n a d v e r t e n t I n t e r c h a n g e i n I n t e r c o n n e c t e d Systems. P a r t
L, Identification, Separation and Measurement of
R i l a t e r a l r e l i e f must be d i s c u s s e d under s i t u a t i o n s C o m p o n e n t s . P a r t I T , U t i l i z a t i o n of Components f o r
where t h e s u b j e c t a r e a and t h e c a n d i d a t e p a r t n e r a r e Performance E v a l u a t i o n and C o r r e c t i v e C o n t r o l . " IEEE
e a c h u s i n g e i t h e r p r e s e n t p r a c t i c e ( t y p e P ) o r decom- PA&S 1 0 1 , No. 5 ?lay 1 9 5 2 p . 1 1 4 4 a n d No. S Aug 1 9 8 2 ,
p o s i t i o n ( t y p e r)) corrections. U n l i k e u n i l a t e r a l p.2711.
arrangements, t h o s e f o r b i l a t e r a l c o r r e c t i o n do n o t [ 3 1 N. Cohn, "Auditing Control Performance of
c o n s i d e r o r have an e f f e c t on t h e s y s t e m time e r r o r and I n t e r c o n n e c t e d Areas U t i l i z i n g t h e Components Concept
c a n c o n t i n u e i n e f f e c t whether or n o t time e r r o r g o e s t o and i t s Decomposition and E v a l u a t i o n T e c h n i q u e s , P a r t I :
zero. Audit Technology and F i e l d T e s t s , and P a r t I T : Test
R e s u l t s . " I E E E 1987 PICA C o n f e r e n c e , M o n t r e a l , QE May
C o n t i n u i n g t h e slow time d i s c u s s i o n , t o g a i n r e l i e f 1987.
from column 2 a n a r e a must e x p o r t e n e r g y t o a t y p e P [ 4 1 North American E l e c t r i c R e l i a b i l i t y C o u n c i l , "Guide
p a r t n e r i n column 5, 6 , o r 7 , o r t o a t y p e D p a r t n e r i n Nos. 2 and 4", NERC O p e r a t i n g Manual, December 3 , 1986.
column 7. I € t h i s c o r r e c t i o n s t a y s i n e f f e c t u n t i l time [ 5 ] T. Kennedy, S. Y . Hoyt, and C. F. A b e l l , " V a r i a b l e ,
e r r o r g o e s t h r o u g h z e r o , t h e two a r e a s w i l l f i n d them- Non-Linear Tie-Line B i a s f o r I n t e r c o n n e c t e d Systems
- e l v e s i n columns 2 and 6 a t z e r o time e r r o r , and sub- C o n t r o l . " IEEE Summer Power Meeting 1987, San
3 e q u e n t l y i n columns 1 or 2 f o r t h e e x p o r t i n g a r e a and F r a n c i s c o , C4, J u l y 12-17, 1987, ( 3 7 SM 477-3).
7 , 4 , or 6 f o r t h e importing area. A r e c e i v i n g t y p e P [61 D. N . Ewart, "Autamatic G e n e r a t i o n C o n t r o l --
a r e a would s t o p t h e b i l a t e r a l c o r r e c t i o n a t z e r o t o t a l Performance Under Normal Conditions," Systems
i n a d v e r t e n t b e f o r e r e a c h i n g column 3. E n g i n e e r i n g f o r Power: S t a t u s and P r o s p e c t s , 1J.S.
Government document CONF-750867, 1975, pp. 1-14.
T h i s m a t r i x i s symmetric, so t h e e x p l a n a t i o n need n o t [71 L. S . VanSlyck, D i s c u s s i o n of [51.
:he r e p e a t e d f o r t h e o t h e r h a l f . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t [ 8 1 N. Cohn, "Energy C o n s e r v a t i o n by Improved C o n t r o l of
! - o r a n y s i t u a t i o n o f d e s i r e d c o r r e c t i o n a b i l a t e r a l Bulk Power T r a n s f e r s on I n t e r c o n n e c t e d Systems", U . S.
, ' a r t n e r c a n a l w a y s be found. However, i n r e g a r d t o t h e P a t e n t 4,267,571, May 1 2 , 1981 (See a l s o Canadian P a t e n t
J a r l i e r b e a t i t u d e of m a i n t a i n i n g time e r r o r n e a r z e r o , 1,142,589, 1983.
o n e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t o h a v e a b i l a t e r a l c o r r e c t i o n ( 9 1 N. Cohn, " C o n t r o l of G e n e r a t i o n and Power Flow on
p r a c t i c e i s b o t h n e c e s s a r y a n d p r o p e r i f p e r p e t u a l I n t e r c o n n e c t e d Systems.' (Book) John Wiley and Sons,
s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n i s t o b e s u s t a i n e d on o r n e a r t h e I n c . 1971 Lib. of Cong. Cat. No.66-23753.
-1iddle row where u n i l a t e r a l c o r r e c t i o n i s b a r r e d . 1101 A. J. Wood, and B. .F. Wollenberg, "Power
S e n e r a t i o n , O p e r a t i o n , and C o n t r o l . " , (Book) John Wiley
To b e t t e r comprehend t h e s e r e l a t i o n a l e f f e c t s , one and Sons, I n c . 1984 L i b . of Cong. Cat. No.83-1172.
,.,light p r o g r a m e q u a t i o n s ( 4 ) a n d ( 5 ) w i t h j u s t a f e w [I11 T. Kennedy, "Cost of Power System R e g u l a t i o n " from
areas. S e l e c t one a r e a t o b e o n e ' s own a n d s e l e c t " C u r r e n t O p e r a t i n g Problems A s s o c i a t e d w i t h Automatic
a n o t h e r a b o u t t h e same s i z e . One o r two a d d i t i o n a l G e n e r a t i o n C o n t r o l " , IEEE PAbS 9 8 , J a n / F e b 1979.
a r e a s , e i t h e r l a r g e r o r s m a l l e r m i g h t o p t i o n a l l y b e 1121 J. Ginnetti, "Experiences with Inadvertent
included. X l a s t a r e a s h o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e b a l a n c e of Decomposition T e c h n i q u e s a t t h e New England Power
the interconnection. The program c o u l d be k i c k e d o f f by Exchange", NERC System Performance Subcommittee, S a l t
i n p u t of t h e i n a d v e r t e n t s and time e r r o r . Subsequent Lake C i t y , Utah, May 7 , 1987.
i n p u t s would b e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e o u t p u t l i s t . I n p u t s of
primary or secondary inadvertent changes, e t c . , could be
e a s i l y accommodated.
Dr. L o u i s S . VanSlyck h a s o v e r 30 y e a r s
Cp_N_CLUS IONS e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e power i n d u s t r y , p r i -
The p r e s e n t d a t a i n t e r c h a n g e between a r e a s of t h e m a r i l y i n computer applications for
i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n h a s been d e s c r i b e d . Without c h a n g i n g s y s t e m s o p e r a t i o n and e n g i n e e r i n g . He
NERC g u i d e l i n e s , t h e p r e s e n t d a t a and i t s a v a i l a b i l i t y , r e c e i v e d t h e BSEE and MSEE d e g r e e s from
i s s u f f i c i e n t t o implement c o n c e p t s of d e c o m p o s i t i o n . N o r t h Dakota S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y (NDSU) and
Any c o n t r o l a r e a c a n c o r r e c t f o r i t s own r e g u l a t i n g t h e PhD from I l l i n o i s I n s t i t u t e of
d e f i c i e n c y e i t h e r b i l a t e r a l l y , o r u n i l a t e r a l l y when time Technology.
e r r o r is f a v o r a b l e . T h i s would c o r r e c t i t s p r i m a r y
i n a d v e r t e n t , and i t s s h a r e of time e r r o r a s g i v e n by J o i n i n g American E l e c t r i c Power S e r v i c e
e q u a t i o n ( 6 ) . V a r i a b l e or emergency b i a s v a l u e s used i n C o r p o r a t i o n i n 1968, Dr. VanSlyck p a r t i c i p a t e d i n r e -
ACE need n o t e f f e c t t h o s e used t o compute i n a d v e r t e n t . sixarch, development, and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e f i r s t
l a r g e power s y s t e m network s t a t e e s t i m a t o r i n t h e world.
By s h u n n i n g , t o t h e e x t e n t p e r m i t t e d by g u i d e l i n e s , He i s p r e s e n t l y a s e n i o r s t a f f e n g i n e e r i n E n g i n e e r i n g
iny c o r r e c t i o n s of s e c o n d a r y i n a d v e r t e n t , a n a r e a c o u l d Computer A n p l i c a t i o n s a t AEP i n Columhus, Ohio.

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 719

I n t h e TEEE Dr. VanSlyck h a s been chairman, 1966, o f t h e - Emergency Frequency Bias Settings
Red R i v e r V a l l e y S u b s e c t i o n . lle was a n o r i g i n a l mcmber This paper serves as a good reference for understanding the practical
o € t h e Power E n g i n e e r i n g E d u c a t i o n Committee (PEEC) and aspects of system control. However, the paper points up an area of need;
s e r v e d t h a t committee from 1963 t o 1975, i n c l l i d i n g f o u r and that is TERMINOLOGY. It is a fault of the industry and NOT of the
years a s secretary. He was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p u b l i s h i n g authors.
t h e s u r v e y s of E l e c t r i c Power E n g i n e e r i n g Educatioival. Too often in this paper the authors were required to use the term ACE,
R e s o u r c e s i n US a c c r e d i t e d s c h o o l s f o r 1970, 1972, and and then have to define which way they were using it:
1974. I n 1980 he r e c e i v e d t h e t E E E award f o r r e c o g i i -
t i o n of d i s t i n g u i s h e d s e r v i c e t o t h e Cornmitt-ee. ACE-Total control error with offsets
ACE-TRUE ACE “remains buried in the nether-nether land of impreci-
Dr. VnnSlyck i s d member of Tau B e t a P i , E t a Kappa Nu, sion.”
a n d t h e S o c i e t y oE t h e S i g m a X i f o r d e d i c a t i o n t o ACE-CLASSIC AGE ( T o - T,) - 10B (Fo- F,)
research i n science. He h a s b e e n a r e g i s t e r e d P r o - The Industry must adopt terms for each of these, and the authors should
f e s s i o n a l E n g i n e e r i n North Dakota s i n c e 1959, and Ohio be given the first change to coin those terms.
s i n c e 1972. Re h a s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a u t h o r i n g n o r e t h a n Regarding frequency bias settings, the recommendations for a minimum
t w o d o z e n t e c h n i c a l p a p e r s , m o s t l y r e l a t e d t o power setting, and also for larger settings are excellent ideas. The utilities may
systems engineering. indeed be reflecting their respective Natural Response Characteristic, but
have nuclear units and combustion turbines reduced that characteristic to a
D r . N a s s e r J a l e e l i e r a d u a t e d Erom + h e point where some minimum ought to be established? And have the size of
Collt,ge of E n g i n e e r i n g , I I T i v e r s i t y o f individual generators become sufficiently large, that coupled with large
Tehran i n 1967. He r e c r i v e d t h e Dh.9. energy transfers, additional emergency frequency bias support is now
d r g r e e i n D l e c t r i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g from warranted?
t h e Tmperial C o l l e g e of S c i e n c e a n d NERC’s Operating Guide No. 2 establishes a minimum frequency bias of
Technologv, U n i v e r s i t y of Londoq in 1 % of a control area’s estimated peak load. The actual daily time-error
1975. His academic c a r e e r s t a r t e d i? patterns seem to indicate a continuous insufficient sensitivity to frequency
1967, when he J o i n e d t h e t e i c h i q g s t a f f deviations. Today companies demonstrating good control are now provid-
o f 4rya-Nehr I J n i v e r s i t y of T e c h n o l o q j ing additional control in the form of time-error corrections. Wouldn’t the
(AMUT). While s e r v i n g AMLJT a s in system be served just as well, and good controllers not impacted much
a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r of E l e c t r i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g from 1 9 7 5 more, if the minimum frequency bias setting were increased to the proposed
t o 1979, he g a i n e d i n d u s t r i a l experience throrlgh emergency setting?
c o n s u l t i n g a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , as t h e head of E l ~ c t r i c a l Concerning unilateral implementation of the Decomposition theory,
S e r v i c e s D i v i s i o n o € Ronyan C o n s u l t i n g E n g i n e e r s . ~e theoretically there is no problem but how will the time-error accumulation
j o i n e d Ohio U n i v e r s i t y i n 1979 where he was promoted t o be practically handled? Time error may be catagorized in any of a number
t h e r a n k of a s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s o r i n 1983. While of ways (on-peak and off-peak; hourly) but since it is created in a continuum
c o n t i n u i n g some o f h i s a c a d e m i c a c t i v i t i e s .at Q h i o wont’s this cause problems in relating the ‘Real’ time with the ‘Catagorized’
I J n i v e r s i t y , he j o i n e d t h e AEP S e r v i c e C o r p o r a t i o n i n time? Creating two sets of books could serve the purpose, but the control
1983. 4 t AEP, he has been p r i n c i p a l o r c o - p r i n c i p a l area unilaterally implementing this approach would have no easy way to
investigator €or External Yodel i n ? , Statrls Char~gr cross check its value.
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and AGC Performance Assessment. Other Again, I would thank the authors for their work in the system control
a r e a s of i n t e r e s t have been: estimation theory, area.
synchronous machine modeling and t r a n q i e n t s t a h i l i t y . Manuscript received August 22, 1988.

Yr. W. R o b e r t K e l l e y i s Vice Presidt,nL

in c h a r g e of System O p e r a t i o n s a t
4merican E l e c t r i c Power S e r v i c e Corp. i n
Columbus, Ohio. I n t h i s p o s i t i o n , hc i s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s e c u r e and economic
o p e r a t i o n and c o n t r o l of t h e AEP g c n c r a -
t i o n and t r a n s m i s s i o n f a c i l i t i e s . Ye
joined Columbus and Southern Ohio
E l e c t r i c Company (CSOE) i n t h e i r Sub-
s t a t i o n Relay S e c t i o n i n 196? where he
became S d p e r v i s o r o € Lhe s e c t i o n i n 1968. He moved t o
t h e System O p e r a t i o n Department i n 1977 and W P S promotcd
t o Vice P r e s i d e n t of E l e c t r i c O p e r a t i o n s i n l 9 / 6 . Ye
t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e AEP S e r v i c e C o r p . i n 1980 where h r
had r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e new
C o n t r o l C e n t e r a n d moved t o h i s p r e s e n t p o s i t i o q i n
O c t o b e r 1984.
Yr. K e l l e y r e c e i v e d a B.S. d e g r e e i n E l e c t r i c a l F,ngL-
n e e r i n g from Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n l Q h 2 .
Discussion
A. M. Dicaprio (PJM, Norristown, PA): The authors have provided a
valuable service to the Industry in their addressing the practical implemen-
tation of Mr. N. Cohns’ Decomposition Theory. They provide a sound basis
for their recommendations on:
- Coupling Inadvertent Corrections with Time-Error Corrections
- Decomposition of Time-Error
- Decoupling Frequency Bias Setting from the Control Areas’ respective
average Natural Characteristic
Thomas Kennedy, Stephen M. Hoyt, and Charles F. Abell, (Union
Electric Company, St. Louis, MO): Messrs. Kennedy, Hoyt and Abell
appreciate Mr. VanSlyck’s invitation to submit comments on this paper.
The first paragraph on page 3 of your paper implies that variable, non-
linear frequency bias (&) makes a control area insensitive to external area
generation or load losses. While B,, does keep the automatic generation
control (AGC) from attempting to correct for external disturbances, B,, is
designed to allow the frequency deviation responses of a control area’s
generator governors and system load to fully react to external deficiencies
and surpluses, while at the same time minimizing unnecessary regulation.
Please see reference 5 of your paper for more details.
Your description of a possible system collapse due to improper bias
settings on page 3 is precisely why Bunhas a great advantage over a fixed
bias during a major frequency disturbance. We agree with the authors that
the use of a fixed linear frequency bias can actually cause controller action
in the opposite direction from that which would stabilize interconnected
systems frequency during a large frequency deviation. Because Bunwould
more closely approximate the system responw characteristic (SRC) it would
tend to allow a more uninhibited governor and load response for large
frequency deviations. In addition, this characteristic of B,, eliminates the
need to adopt a two segment bias characteristic mentioned later in the same
section of your paper. This subject is also covered in more detail in
reference 5 of your paper.
The first paragraph on page 5 of the paper states that time on the
interconnected systems runs slow on high load periods and is made up on
low load periods. Although this could be generally true, this assumption
may not always be correct.
In the second paragraph on page 6 the authors seem to say that
inadvertent correction and time error correction are performed indepen-
dently. While this is sometimes true, the NERC Operating Committee
Guides provide for a procedure to unilaterally correct inadvertent if it is in
the direction to correct time, thereby coordinating inadvertent and time
error correction. The interrelationship of these two components is recog-

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 720
nized in NERC Operating Committee Guide I.F. (Ref. 2). These relation-
ships are also covered in reference 1 which was developed as a result of
earlier tests on time error. frequency deviation and inadvertent tlow by the
Interconnected Systems Group.
The authors make a suggestion on page 5 , column 2, paragraph 4, that an
“official” bias value should be used for calculating regulating deficiency.
According to NERC Operating Committee Guide I.A. (Ref. 2). using a
frequency bias which matches the SRC, whether fixed or variable. is
“official”.
Since the SRC varies with time, and frequency bias ( B ) is a representa-
tion of the SRC, we feel that B should also vary in the same manner with
time. If Mr. Cohn’s equations (2)-(6) were modified to handle a variable,
non-linear frequency bias, they would probably become more complex but
the results would more accurately distinguish between internal and external
inadvertent. Can the authors explain why this approach would not be better’?
References
[I] L. A. Mollman, T . Kennedy, “Interrelationship of Time Error,
Frequency Deviation, and Inadvertent Flow on an Interconnected
System,” IEEE Paper 31 TP 67-136, January, 1967.
[2] North American Electric Reliability Council, “Operating Guide I-
Systems Control”, NERC Operating Manual, December 1, 1987.
Manuscript received August IO. 1988
Nathan Cohn, (Network Systems Development Associates, Jenkintown,
PA): Authors Van Slyck, Jalelli and Kelley are commended for their
interesting and instructive paper that includes perceptive discussion on
several aspects of power systems control. Operating and planning personnel
should find this a worth-while paper to review and consider.
This discusser, understandably, i s pleased that the paper includes
analyses and supportive views and suggestions about the new Decomposi-
tion technology and its auditing and corrective applications disclosed and
d.;cussed in paper references [ I ] , [2], [ 3 ] , and [SI. Reference 131 and
d. :cussions including one by the first author of the present paper. will
appear in the May 1988 PES Transactions, scheduled for August publica-
tion.
This discussion will address points of the paper related to Decomposition.
In addition it will include a response to a specific request from one of the
authors.
The equation for “regulating deficiencies”. which. for a 60 hertL system
is “area inadvertent minus one-sixth the product of area bias multiplied by
system time deviation”, has been warmly received and appraised in the
paper. That is appreciated. However. this discusser wishes to point out that,
as stated in the earlier mentioned references. the equation itself is not new.
It is quite old and well-known. It has. however, been identified in the past
with a different name, has had limited use. and a recognition or
understanding of its full implications of its broad and useful range of
possible applications has been lacking. It has for many years been, and
currently is, included in successive editions of the NERC Operating
Manual, [4] of the paper, and for some years before that had appeared in the
comparable manuals of NAPSIC. In those publications it is identified as
“area control error”, for use in regional and area surveys.
In earlier work, [ l ] of this discussion, there is developed an equation,
(16b), for system time deviation and its self-caused and remotely-caused
components, and another, (18c). for area inadvertent interchange and its
self-caused and remotely-caused components. Each was a function of the
summation of individual regulating deficiencies and offsets within each of
the areas of the system. These were interesting and instructive equations,
but without practical value since the terms in the regulating deficiency
equations contained unknown and unmeasurable parameters.
Later, in paper reference [2], an equation. (IS), was developed
establishing that the well-known NERC “area control error” was equal to
the summation of all the individual regulating deficiencies and offsets of the
area, namely, the integral of measured ACE plus the integrals of net
interchange measuring and schedule setting errors and corrective offsets,
plus the integrals of the area bias setting times frequency measurement and
schedule setting errors and corrective offsets.
This led to this discusser designating the expression. of which all terms
are known or measurable. as “area regulating deficiencies and offsets” or
for short, “area regulating deficiencies”. and putting it to new and novel
uses. For example, area regulating deficiencies are the common cause of
components of time deviation and inadvertent interchange. But what has
been wanted f<)rperformance auditing purposes, but had been lacking, is the
quantitative effects of these causes. This has been achieved with appropri-
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ate multipliers for the deficiencies expression, yielding: “area component
of system time deviation”, (16) of paper reference 121, as repeated in
equation (6) of the paper; “area component of primary inadvertent”, (22)
of [2]; and “remote area component of related secondary inadvertent”, (29)
of [2].
As the authors of this paper observe, an important consideration
established for all of these components equations, is that in the regulating
deficiencies term, the area inadvertent interchange accumulation and the
system time deviation must occur in the same time frame. Since it is
conventional practice for inadvertent accumulations to be accumulated
separately for on-peak and off-peak periods, the same must be true for time
deviation. For all individual hourly readings. and related computations, this
is automatically the case. Hourly primary and secondary inadvertents can
then be summated separately for on-peak and off-peak values without
actually tracking on-peak and off-peak time.
Actually. there are benefits to doing so. and this was done during the test
period month of paper reference [ 3 ] . An IEEE paper in preparation will
show these on-peak and off-peak system time deviations for both the
Eastern and Western interconnections, which. it was found, differ
markedly. It will also show on-peak and off-peak time deviation compo-
nents for participating control areas in both the Eastern and Western
systems.
One of the benefits of tracking on-peak and off-peak time is that when
there is a periodic system-wide or region-wide adjustment to accumulated
inadvertent of the type described by the authors, such data facilitates
adjustment of primary and related secondary components. The paper in
preparation will also evaluate the effects of current practices for both time
and inadvertent interchange correction. The on- and off-peak system and
area time deviation data is helpful in making these analyses.
Decomposition technology provides for single-step corrective control in
an individual area which will simultaneously act to correct the prevailing
components of area time deviation. area primary inadvertent, and the
related secondary components in each of the other areas. What is required is
a net interchange schedule offset that will introduce area regulating
deficiencies that produce components equal and opposite to those to be
corrected.
To do this. the primary accumulation, or a selected portion of it, which is
to be corrected is arithmetically divided by the negative of the same
multiplier that is used in the equation for the primary component
computation, This yields an offset equal and opposite to the requisite
regulating deficiencies which will provide the desired primary and related
time and secondary corrections. The same result can be achieved by
offsetting the frequency schedule by an amount equal to area time deviation,
or a selected portion of it, arithmetically divided by the negative of the
multiplier that is used in the equation for time component computation. This
yields a frequency schedule offset equal and opposite to requisite regulating
deficiencies divided by ten times the area bias, which is equivalent to
offsetting net interchange schedule by the negative of requisite regulating
deficiencies.
In each case, the correction may involve considerable accumulation of
primary or related area time deviation. To permit correction at a desired
rate and hence correspondingly set a related magnitude of schedule offset,
another divider is provided, namely the number of hours in which the
correction is to be achieved. Also, this changes the MWH dimensions of
regulating deficiences to the requisite MW dimensions for net interchange
offset. For frequency schedule offset, this divider changes Hertz-hours to
Hertz.
Defining the net interchange schedule corrective offset as a function of
primary accumulation, and the comparable frequency schedule corrective
offset as a function of area time deviation in the manner described
emphasizes that the offsets are to achieve correction of self-caused
components only, not total area inadvertent or total system times. The same
corrective effect is of course achieved by directly offsetting net interchange
schedule by an amount equal to the negative of accumulated regulating
deficiencies. without the described step of reverse computation from
primary, but with one proviso. That is that the area bias that will be
applicable during the correction period be identical to the area bias that
prevailed during the accumulation period. If, however, the bias is to be
different, then the described process of starting with the accumulated
primary is essential. It will provide the schedule offset that will produce the
desired equal and opposite primary and the related correction in area time
deviation. If there have been n o bias changes elsewhere in the system,
secondary component distribution will remain unchanged. Distribution will
be correspondingly altered if bias changes in other areas have occurred.
In their discussion on bias magnitudes. the authors make an interesting
suggestion. They propose that the bias used for the calculation of ACE for
normal control purposes differ from the bias used for Decomposition. This

could certainly he done. Have the authors considered, however, that thir
would impose an undesirable penalty on the area? This is because the
magnitude of area bias response to frequency change is, in effect, an
automatic shift in area net interchange schedule. Decomposition equations
provide that such a shift from 60 Hz schedule if fully executed is secondary
inadvertent, not primary. If the bias utilized for subsequent components
calculation differs from the bias used earlier for control, then. even if the
controls schedule were fully executed, part of the departure from the 60 Hz
schedule becomes a primary component for the area, to its disadvantage.
The amount would depend on the differences between the bias magnitudes.
It is primary because Decomposition would say that the area had not
fulfilled its frequency departure obligation.
Comments on the origin and on a limited use of NERC area control error
are contained in the discussion by N. C . Asher and author’s response in
reference [2] of the paper.
The conclusion of the paper suggests the implementation by NERC of
“concepts of decomposition”, and also suggesta substituting in NERC
guidelines “regulating deficiencies rather than inadvertent” for corrective
action. In addition, the first author of the paper has informed this discusser
of a related point in one of the received discussions concerning which he has
requested comments he included in this discussion.
The reported discussion, which doubtless appears in these Transactions,
includes, strong support of “payback of regulating deficiencies rather than
inadvertent” as a means of reducing payback, and recommends its serious
consideration by NERC. This parallels the paper’s conclusions, and
requires no comment from this discusser. The paper goes on to say,
however, that “this recommendation does not involve licensing under Mr.
Cohn’s components patent,” because “regulating deticiency (or regulating
error) has been computed hourly for many years to track the effectiveness of
control area regulation”. This view does require a response.
Comments on the long-time, well-known nature of the NERC “area
control error” equation. and the subsequent development of decomposition
technologies have been included in this discussion and are detailed in the
Cohn references of the paper. An IEEE technical meeting is an appropriate
place for technical discussions, technical clarifications and diverse
technical views. but it is not the proper forum for a debate on the legal
validity or lack of validity of a patent. Other arenas are provided for that
purpose.
Therefore it is appropriate only to say that claims of the patents of
reference 181 of the paper call for the use of regulating deticiencies to
compute area component of time deviation. and/or primary inadvertent.
and/or secondary inadvertent in each of the other areas. Also. some of the
claims call for the use of regulating deficiencies to achieve in an individual
area single-step, simultaneous corrective control of area time deviation,
area primary and related secondary in other areas. to replace current
separate practices of correction for total inadvertcnt and for system time
deviation.
Reference
[I] Nathan Cohn. “Techniques for Improving the Control of Bulk Power
Transfers on Interconnected Systems. ZEEE PA & S Transactions,
“
Vol. 90, No. 6. pp. 2409-2419.
Manuscript received August 22. 1988
Fred E, Duckett, (Power System Operations, Tennessee Valley Author-
ity): The authors have presented an excellent description of several aspects
of inadvertent interchange energy practices. It will serve as a useful
reference for those involved in the subject. Three recommendations are
offered which should he studied by NERC.
I . Use o f a larger bias than natural response f o r deviarions above .OS
Hertz. Both the views of Mr. Kennedy and the authors can be
partially accomodated and should he considered by NERC. For small
frequency deviations the objective should he that LFC neither adds to
nor counteracts the response of generators and loads, to avoid
overcorrections. For large frequency deviations the objective should
he to stabilize frequency at an acceptable level but not counteract
generator and load response. The maximum bias should he based on
the determinantion of an acceptable level of frequency deviation for
the largest credible bus contingency.
Step changes in bias must not he used. Bias should he a continuous
function to avoid introducing oscillations when the stabilized fre-
quency is near a step change of hias.
Clarification is needed in the third paragraph under the section titled
“Review of control and Decomposition”. The sentence “ I f such
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72 1
values could be determined and used in all areas, then each would
avoid thc following of external load o r generation loss.” is mislead-
ing. An interconnected area cannot avoid the initial awing of power to
the deficient area. It can reniove the inadvertent deviation by
operating on flat tieline control, counteracting its own load and
generator response to frequency. This remedy would he far worse
than the disease.
Sepuration of rime error corrections into onpeak and ofspeak
periods. Present practices for time error correction do, as noted. shift
inadvertent between onpeak and offpeak periods. While this is
undesirable. it should not he attacked on the basis of lost revenues. It
generally results in a reduction in onpeak costs, with associated loads
shifted to be served at offpeak costs. Unless time-of-day pricing
overconies the change in cost, utilities will have reduced costs. This
recommendation should he considcrcd by NERC to provide a
balanced accounting of onpeak and offpcak time error and perhaps
reduce some of the confusion that has plagued the industry over the
years.
Pay back of regulating deficiencies rather than inadverrent. This is
the hest recommendation in the paper. Its implementation would
reduce the amount of inadvertent introduced in the payback process,
and should be seriously considered by NERC. It should be noted that
this recommendation does not involve licensing under Mr. Cohn’s
components patent. Regulating deficiency (or regulating error) has
been computed hourly for many years to track the effectiveness of
control area regulation.
The impact of solid state metering should be included a discussion of
inadvertent interchange. One upcoming application of this will be a
modified version of the Scientific Columbus JEM-2 meter for use at
interchange points. In cooperation with the Tennessee valley Authority.
Scientific Columbus has developed an adaptation of the standard revenue
meter to provide for remote interrogation every two seconds to acquire
megawatt and megavar data. Megawatts will be used as primary quantities
for load frequency control. Meter registers will he read hourly to obtain
megawatthours for logglng purposes. Megawatt values will be numerically
consistcnt with the hourly megawatthour values. This application could
potentially eliminate almost all metering errors now associated with digital
and analog telemeterins for interchange operations.
Manuscript receivcd A u p t I I , I Y X X
I.. S. VanSlyck, ir.Jo/ee/i. and W. R.Kelley- We would like to thank the
discussers for the interestthey have shown in the subject of the paper. Some
of their questions were raised at the presentation and we appreciate the op-
portunity to now answer them, a s well a s some new ones, in writing.
In responding to the discussions, it seems best to consider them col-
lectively and respond to questions in an order that will keep the closure more
coherent and concise.
Mr. DiCaprio‘s comments about terminology are well taken. The same
terms have changed meaning through time in several cases, and the same
entity has been referred to with various names by different writers - even
by the same writer at different times. For example, Mr. Cohn points out that
what we now call “regulating deficiency“ has extensively been called “area
controlerror”in the past, notwithstanding thefact thattheformerisanenergy
value and (what is now called) “ACE“ is a power value. While the former
represents a “deficiency“of control, it is measured as the “excess”of energy
input from a control area.
Another example is the response of an area’s net tie flow to a sudden
frequency shift. It is referred to by Mr. DiCaprio a s “[a utility’s] Natural Re-
sponse Characteristic”,by Mr Cohn in his book (Ref. 9 of the paper) a s the
area‘s’Combined Governing Characteristic”,by Mr. Ducketi as ”the [area’s]
response of generators and loads“, in the paper and by Messrs. Kennedy,
Hoyt, and Abell a s the “System Response Characteristic” (SRC).The word
“area”would be a better choice than “system.“In the time scale germane to
this issue, a dozen seconds, more or less, it is determined by load and
generation sensitivity tofrequency. Well over half of this sensitivity is due to
governor action that is realized before response to either boiler loop controls
or LFC. Quantitatively, the SRC is fairly well defined only for sudden
frequency shift magnitudes between 0.03 and 0.06 hertz. Backlash, gover-
nor wind-up, and deadband effects make it uncertain at the lower end. In the
Eastem Interconnection, shifts much beyond 0.06 hertz require upsets ex-
ceeding about 3000 MW which (luckily) have not yet been experienced.
We agree with and support Mr. DiCaprio‘s suggestion that now is the
time for serious effort on standard definition of terms. Mr. Cohn has likewise
been a proponent of this for many years. However, this closure does not
 122

seem to be a proper vehicle and we only attempt to make our answers to the
discussers as unambiguous as possible.
All the discussers (and indeed most writers over the past decades)
seem to agree that there must be a deliberate correlation between the SRC
and B, the value of ACE frequency bias. What is wanted, we believe, is a
consensus on how to specify the details of that correlation. These specifics
must address issues of disturbance response, inadvertent avoidance and
payback, as well as normal operations control.
Messrs. Kennedy, et a/,believe in a variable non-linear bias (B,,") that
equals the SRC. Response to an "upset" (a loss of generation or load) in
another control area would then be limited to just that of one's own combined
governor and load sensitivity. Although considered as impossible or too dif-
ficult to realize, this equality had been traditionally considered as ideal for
several decades. It was considered ideal because it was thouqht appropri-
ate to leave the onus of upset conection (beyond governor and load
response) on the disturbed area.
We believe the benefits espoused by Messrs. Kennedy, Hoyt, and
Abell can be more simply realized by atwo straight-line segment bias as we
proposed in the paper. We now want to consider constant bias B (below
some break point, as in Fig. 4 of the paper) versus the non-linear'variable
values proposed by them. Since the B bias line must be entirely between
the SRC and the horizontal axis B 'must be somewhat larger (more
negative) than B at any point in this'region.
Suppose a ccenario that, when time error is zero, frequency is 60 Hz,
and ACE is zero in every control area, a block of generation, say 1200 MW.
is suddenly lost. After a dozen seconds or so, frequency will become nearly
constant throughout the interconnection at about 59.97 hertz. (This ignores
sustained oscillations which are the subject of other research.) Suppose
further, that ACE is then maintained at zero in all except the disturbed area
(d) for the next ten minutes, by which time it also is restored to zero in that
area. ACE can be zero in all areas simultaneously only if frequency equals
its scheduled value. Therefore, 60 hertz must have been reestablished by
the end of the ten minute interval.
At the end of the interval clocks are slow, and area d has received some
inadvertent energy from each of the other areas. The amount in each non-
disturbed area's inadvertent account depends on the value of B used (this
scenario is ideal in that they maintained zero ACE through the interval.) The
time error is determined by the ten minute integral of frequency deviation
from sixty hertz. We will assert later that this depends on the total system
bias,
In any non-disturbed area the ACE equation is:
ACE4 = 0 = A T , - 10B, Af
is sustained during the recovery period and consequently the ending time
error is larger.
Figure 6 shows the variation in various quantities in the disturbed and
in a non-disturbed area during the ten minuterecovery period. For this figure
the disturbed area was assumed to have about 12,000 MW of load, in an
interconnection of about 360,000 MW. Avoiding a small portion of inadver-
tent in any non-disturbed area by using variable instead of constant bias is
unimportant in our opinion. The fact that the more depressed frequency
increases the system vulnerablity to another upset seems to significantly
override the minor benefit.
Again, we offer the continuoustwo-segment bias line as shown in Fig.
4 of the paper. It is simpler than Bvn, and for large upsets where there is no
SRC experience, it would be safer. We say it would be simpler because we
think of B,,",as a multi-segmentbias line whose trajectofy must be computed
in real-time.
I1is a truism, of course, to point out that the value of Bdoes not matter
in LFC when frequency deviation is near zero (or in regulating deficiency
when time error is near zero.) Analysis of AEP data for several periods of
time indicates that the ratio of the frequency term to the tie-line term of ACE
is between M.45 for 63 percent of the LFC cycles. We would suggest,
therefore, in answer to (our perception of comments by) Mr. Cohn, and
Messrs. Kennedy, et a/,that inadvertent is more largely due to unrealized
matching of generation to area demand than to the value of Bused in ACE.
For upsets however, a value that is within a proper range (somewhat close
to the SRC, but between it and the horizontal axis) is crucially important.
We agree that, as approved by NERC, variable bias can be an "official"
If t

adding these for all non-disturbed areas gives:

ACE, = 0 = - Md- lo@, - B,)Af
For the disturbed area:
t
-
v
I--I
ACE, = AT, - IOB, Af -1000
and for the entire system: -1200
ACE, = ACE, = - lOB,Af I AT"
40
These equations apply at all instants during the ten minute interval re-
gardless of the values used for biases. Integrating the AT components of
these equations over the ten minutes gives the individual area inadvertents
t
which, of course, add to zero for the interconnection. Discussionof integrat-
ing the Afcomponents is not needed for the present subject. It would be
complicated if variable bias had been used. Integrating the last equation
shows that the ten minute regulating deficiency of the system is
D, = ACE8dt = - B , E / ~
In the latter equality Bsis an approximation if E; has not been constant
in all areas during the integration interval. D and the time error E are
incurred because it is impossible for the inte&onnection to immediately
recover from the loss of generation. When disturbances occur, belonging to
an interconnection is beneficial because B is larger than for an area alone,
and results in a quicker return to scheduled frequency and a smaller
resultant time error. Figure 6- Curves show frequency(f ), disturbed area
All the discussion so far has been independent of the bias values used. generation(Gd), load(Ld), tie-line component of ACE( ATd),
It is logical to further assume that generation recovery would be at the same and nondisturbed area tie-line component of ACE( AT"),
rate in the disturbed area, whichever bias values were in effect. Now,
bad( Ln), and generatione"). For all curves the horizontal
suppose all areas were able to use B = SRC, the traditionally ideal case.
Then, all inadvertent accounts woua numerically be a little bit smaller axis represents the pre-upsetvalue and the vertical axis
indeed - the advantage claimed by Messrs. Kennedy, et al. However, shows deviations from it. The solid curves are for variable
compared to using constant bias in all areas, a larger frequency deviation bias, and the dashed curves for constant bias.

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 723
value for computing the ACE signal. The variability is more or less a filter of Eitherway, to eventually returntime error to zero it is necessary for the long
the frequency deviation term. In regulatingdeficiency, however, Bdisburses term average frequency deviation to be zero. Whether the result is a creation
system time error to the control areas. This, in our opinion, should be
or a dissolution of revenue depends on the time phase relationship of
independent of the way any individual area processes ACE data for use in
frequency deviation to load. Our concern is not about revenue, it is about
their LFC. We suggest that constant Bvalues,annually agreed upon, should
understanding of the process.
be used for computing regulatingdeficiency. We have had a few JEM-2 meters installed for several years. Mr.
Mr. DiCaprio suggests that "daily time error patterns seem to indicate
Duckett mentions a new modified design. The output is to provide digitized
a continuous insufficient sensitivity to frequency deviations." He offers an
and compatible MW, Mvar, and hourly MWh data. We look foward to these
increase in the minimum bias settings as a possible solution. We agree that
meters which will gain the benefit of eliminating deviation behveenthe power
this suggestion ought to be considered.Some guidelinefor near zero control
and energy metering systems, but at the expense of some loss of redun-
of regulatingdeficiency over short intervals might also be considered.
dancy. A common source of error can be hidden when both metering
Mr. Duckett points to a reduction in on-peak costs if clocks lose time at
systems tell the same lie about the data, e.g., a shorted c l , or an instrument
high load periods. This effect was included in our analysis, but as we said,
device ratio error.
it is much more than offset by a coincident reduction in on-peak revenue
Mr. Cohn's decompositiontheory has three attributes. Foremost is that
because the latter is lost at consumer rates while the former is simply fuel
it helps provide a comprehensiveunderstandingof the timeerror and energy
burn avoidance at system lambda. When time error is made up in off-peak
deviation processes. Secondly, via Fig. 5of the paper, it indicates (withneed
periods there is a reverseeffect, but a smaller one because of smaller load,
for just local and current area data) when one should invoke a unilateralor
and thus a net loss over the whole load cycle. No real load is shifted from on-
bilateralinadvertent correction.Thirdly, after audited data is available, it can
peak to off-peak in this process - one can't use time error effects as an
be used to tell the effects of any area's past regulating deficiency on all the
energy storage bank. Whatever load exists at any time is smaller than it
other areas individually. We will not comment on the statements cf Mr.
would otherwise be if frequency were higher.
Duckett and Mr. Cohn in regard to patent coverage except that we believe
Messrs. Kennedy, eta/,are correct in pointing out that clocks may gain
they surely do not relate to the first mentioned attribute.
time in high load periods and in that case the whole process reverses sign.
We have observed that this scenario has not been typical in recent years. Manuscri7t r-ceiv?; (Jctober 7 , 1988.

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