Chapter 1 Natural Resources

Chapter 1.
Ecosystem Structures
Learning Objectives:
After completing this module, you will be able to:
 Define ecology and the areas of interest in ecology

 Explain the concept of ecosystem
 Recognize the components of an ecosystem
 Enumerate different types of ecosystems
 Explain ecosystem structure and energy flow
What are the things that you can see in this picture? What do
you think are the roles they play and their effect on each other?
Source: aquascapeinc.com
Natural Resources and Environmental Management

Chapter 1: Ecosystem Structure 1 Lynn J. Talkasen
Go to any of the following: a) pond, river or creek, b)
forest, c) garden and identify at least five (5) of the things
that you will see there and fill up the table below:
Object Is it living or non-living? What roles does it play?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Lesson 1. Ecology and Ecosystems
Concern for the environment has grown all over the world, more
so now that we are experiencing various calamities such as typhoons.
Ecology, which is often equated with the environment, has also grown popularity.
Ecology is the branch of biological science concerned with the distribution,
abundance, and productivity of living organisms and their physical environment.
Ecology has been given various definitions, to include:
Scientific natural history – Elton, 1927
The study of the structure and function of nature – Odum, 1921
The scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and
abundance of organisms – Krebs, 1978
The choice of definition is not critical as long as one remembers that the focus of
ecology is on the interrelationships between living organisms and their
environment.

The term organism includes man as a biological species. Relationships include all
interactions, be it positive or negative, with the physical environment and the
members of other species and individuals of the same species. The environment
includes all the physical factors and biological conditions under which an organism
lives. Physical factors include temperature, moisture, soil and soil acidity, wind
speed, and others. Biological conditions, on the other hand, are any influences on
an organism that are exerted by other organism such as competition, predation,
parasitism, and cooperation.
The relationship of organisms with their environment is interactive. Looking at the

diagram below, we can see that the organism get their needs from the
environment, so, the environment is the life support system of the organism.
Organisms release the products of their activities to their environment which could
alter it while the environment determines the organism that will live on it.
Organisms get their survival needs from the

environment
Environment is the life support system of organisms
Organisms release the product of their activities to the

environment
Environment shapes the organisms
“By ecology we mean the body of knowledge The word ecology was first
concerning the economy of nature – the used by Ernst Heckel in 1866,
investigation of the total relations of the animal which was coined from the
both to its inorganic and to its organic environment; Greek word “oikos”
including the above, its friendly and inimical relations meaning house and the Latin
with those animals and plants with which it comes word “logus” meaning
directly or directly in contact” “study of”. It literally means
- Ernst Haeckel, 1969 “study of nature’s
household”.

There are different levels or spheres of interest in ecology. Individuals of the same
kind make up a species. The same
species living together in the same area
at a given time comprise a population.
Populations of all plants, animals, and
microorganism living and interacting
together in one area at a particular time
make up a community. The various
communities interacting with each other
and with the physical environment and
exchanging matter and energy make up
the ecosystem. Source: funecology.weebly.com
Ecosystems are either terrestrial (land-based) or aquatic (water as the community’s

habitat). Terrestrial ecosystems present in large geographical area having similar
vegetation types make up the biome. Biomes together with the aquatic
ecosystems comprise the biosphere. The biosphere consists of the outer layer of
the earth’s crust, the bodies of water, and the layer of the atmosphere where the
elements of weather and climate are – the layers where life exists of where factors
that influence life happen.
The term ecosystem was suggested by Tansley, an English ecologist in 1935. He

defined it as “not only the organism-complex, but the whole complex of physical
factors forming what we call the environment.”
Other definitions are the following:
“An ecosystem is any system composed of physical, chemical and biological

processes active within any space-time unit” – Lindeman, 1942
“Any unit that includes all of the organisms in a given community (i.e. the
community) in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a
flow of energy leads to a clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and
material cycles (i.e. exchange of materials between living and non-living parts
within the system) in an ecological systems or ecosystem” – Odum, 1971
“An ecosystem is a functional system that includes an assemblage of interacting

organisms (plants, animals and saprobes) and their environment, which acts on
them and on which they act” – Whittaker, 1975
Based on the definitions above, ecosystem have five major attributes. These are:
1. Structure
Ecosystems are made up of biotic and abiotic components. This attribute
will be discussed further in the next lesson.
2. Function
This is about the constant exchange of matter and energy between the
physical environment and the living community.
3. Complexity
An ecosystem is complex due to the high level of inherent biological
integration.
4. Interaction and interdependence

Due to the complete interconnectedness of the various living and nonliving
components of an ecosystem, a change in one will result to a subsequent
change in almost all the other components.
5. Temporal change
Ecosystems are not static or unchanging systems, thus the structure and
function of an ecosystem changes over time.
ALTERNATE RESPONSE. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if

otherwise.
1. Ecology is concerned with the distribution, abundance, and

productivity of living organisms and their physical
environment.
2. Environment, in the definition of ecology, pertains only on
the physical environment where an organism lives.
3. A population is a group of organisms of the same species
living together in one area at a particular time.
4. Various communities interacting with each other and with
the physical environment and exchanging matter and energy
make up an ecosystem.
5. In an ecosystem, a change in one does not necessarily cause
change in all other components.

Lesson 2. Ecosystem Structure
Based on the definition in the previous lesson, we can glean that an ecosystem has
two components:
1. Biotic components consisting of living things
2. Abiotic components consisting of elements that are not alive
Ecosystem
Biotic Community Abiotic Environment
Plant Community Atmosphere
Animal Community Soil or geological

substrate
Microbial
Community
Structural components of an ecosystem
Living organisms (biotic components) in an ecosystem are classified as either

producers or consumers, depending on how they get their food. Producers
(autotrophs, i.e. self-feeders) can make the organic nutrients they need using
simple inorganic compounds in their environment. Green plants, seaweeds,
freshwater algae, lichens, floating microscopic photosynthetic organisms are
specifically called photo autotrophs. On the other hand, a small group of non-
chlorophyll bearing bacteria that is capable of deriving energy from the oxidation
of chemical compounds to synthesize sugar from CO2, and hydrogen sulfide or
nitrate through the process of chemosynthesis are called chemo autotrophs.

Consumers (heterotrophs, i.e. other-feeders) are those organisms, which directly
or indirectly depend on food provided by producers. Consumers, depending on
their food habits, can be further classified into four types:
 Herbivores - e.g.
deer, rabbits, cattle,
etc., are plant
eaters and they
feed directly on
producers. In a food
chain, they are
referred to as the
primary
consumers.
 Carnivores are
meat eaters and
they feed on
herbivores (primary
consumers). They Source: www.pinterest.ph/pin/802414858580466591/
are thus known as

secondary consumers. They are animal eaters, e.g. lions, tigers.
 Omnivores eat both plants and animals, e.g. pigs, rats, cockroaches and
humans.
 Decomposers digest the complex organic molecules in dead organic matter
(detritus) into simpler inorganic compounds. They absorb the soluble
nutrients as their food. Some examples are bacteria, fungi, and mites.
What is important to note is that each ecosystem will have certain representative
organisms playing each of the above mentioned roles.
Nonliving (or abiotic) Physical Factors Chemical Factors

components of an - Sunlight - Percentage of air
- Temperature and water in the soil
ecosystem include all the
- Precipitation - Salinity of water
physical and chemical - Nature of soil - Oxygen dissolved in
factors that influence - Fire water
living organisms, like air, - Water currents - Soil pH
- Wind - Nutrient present in
water, soil, rocks etc.
the soil
Thus, it is an assemblage - Cation Exchange
of organic and inorganic substances present in an Capacity
ecosystem. The various climatic factors that affect
the ecosystem functioning are also a part of this.

The abiotic factors may be also classified based on their function as either a
resource or a condition. Resources are those factors that can be consumed or
directly utilized by organisms. Examples of which are mineral elements like
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and CO2 that are directly utilized by plants and
converted into organic compounds.
On the other hand, environmental conditions are factors that are indirectly utilized
but affect the growth and survival of the organisms. These factors can also be
changed or affected by the organisms. Some examples of environmental
conditions are temperature and salinity.
Structure refers to the way the parts or components are organized and fit together
or relate to each other to make a whole. Ecosystem structure, therefore, could be
viewed in terms of spatial and temporal arrangements of the biotic communities.
 Spatial Structure
This refers to the intense biotic interactions of the different populations in
the ecosystem.
Examples:
- Different species of plants
and animals are located at
specific areas or layers
within the ecosystem.
- Competition for light and
space in a multi-layered
plant community. Plants
grow at various heights
according to their light
needs.
- Different groups of
animals find food and Source: http://sweetgum.nybg.org/
habitat at different layers
of the plant community such as branches of tall trees, shrub layer, and
the undergrowth. They may also feed on different parts of the plants
such as leaves, bark, roots, flower, etc.
 Temporal Structure
This refers to the time of the day, season of the year, or different stages
(ecological succession) when a species is active or present in the particular
ecosystem. Organisms could be classified based on the time of the day that
they are active:
- Diurnal – animals that are active during daytime
- Nocturnal - animals that are active during night time

- Neutral – animals that are active during night and day
In terms of season of the year, this is experienced in temperate countries. Some

animals hibernate and deciduous plants become dormant during the winter season.
Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an

ecological community over time. The time scale could be in decades, or even
centuries.
In addition, ecosystem structure may be seen in the way organisms relate to each
other in terms of feeding relationship of the species in the community, which is
referred to as trophic structure. This will further be discussed in our next lesson.
IDENTIFICATION. Provide what is asked for:
1. What are the two components of an ecosystem:

a. ____________________
b. ____________________
2. Producers such as plants and bacteria that can make the organic nutrients
they need using simple inorganic compounds in their environment are
also called ____________________.
3. Consumers are classified into:

a. ____________________
b. ____________________
c. ____________________
d. ____________________
4. Classify the following environmental factors as resource or condition and

give examples. There are some factors that may be classified both as a
resource and condition.
Factor Resource or Condition Example
a. Light
b. Oxygen
c. Water in
aquatic habitat
d. Humidity
e. pH

Lesson 3. Relationships in Ecosystems
Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Energy enters ecosystems in the form of sunlight or chemical compounds. Some

organisms, like producers (autotrophs) use this energy to make food. Other
organisms (consumers, heterotrophs) get energy by eating the producers. They
pass some of the energy on to other consumers when they are eaten. In this way,
energy flows from one organism to another.
All living things need energy to power the processes of life. It takes energy to grow,
produce offspring, and stay alive.
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed,
it can only change form. Energy changes form as it moves through ecosystems.
As discussed in the previous lesson, producers (autotrophs) are organisms that

produce food for themselves and other organisms. They use energy and simple
inorganic molecules to make organic compounds. The energy of the sun is captured
by producers (photo autotrophs) to make their own food through the process of
photosynthesis. The "food" the
producers make is glucose. Since
energy is not recycled, energy
must be captured consistently by
producers which is then passed
on to the organisms that eat the
producers, and then to the
organisms that eat those
organisms, and so on.
Source: https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/
The survival of every ecosystem is

dependent on the producers. Without producers capturing the energy from the sun
and turning it into glucose, an ecosystem could not exist. On land, plants are the
dominant producers; while in oceans and lakes, phytoplanktons are the most
common producers.
There are also bacteria that use chemical processes (chemosynthesis) to produce
food. This is common in ecosystems without sunlight, such as certain marine
ecosystems.

Consumers (heterotrophs) are organisms that
depend on other organisms for food. They take
in organic molecules by essentially ‘‘eating”
other living things. They include all animals and
fungi. They also include many bacteria and even
a few plants, such as the pitcher plant.
As discussed in the previous lesson,

heterotrophs are classified as either herbivores,
carnivores, omnivores or decomposers.
Carnivores that are unable to digest plants and

must eat only animals are called obligate
carnivores. When organisms die, they leave Pitcher plant
behind energy and matter in their remains. Source: https://dbshaw.files.wordpress.com
Decomposers break down the remains and other wastes and release simple
inorganic molecules back to the environment. Producers can then use the
molecules to make new organic compounds. Decomposers are classified by the
type of organic matter they break down:
• Scavengers consume the soft tissues of dead animals. Examples of
scavengers include vultures, raccoons, and blowflies.
• Detritivores consume detritus—the dead leaves, animal feces, and other
organic debris that collects on the soil or at the bottom of a body of water.
Examples of detritivores on land are earthworms, millipedes, and dung
beetles while in water are ‘‘bottom feeders” such as sea cucumbers and
catfish.
• Saprotrophs are the final step in decomposition. They feed on any
remaining organic matter that is left after other decomposers do their work.
Saprotrophs include fungi and single-celled protozoa. Fungi are the only
organisms that can decompose wood.
Decomposers get nutrients and energy by breaking down dead organisms and
animal wastes. Through this process, decomposers release nutrients, such as
carbon and nitrogen, back into the environment. These nutrients are recycled back
into the ecosystem so that
the producers can use them.
The stability of an
ecosystem, therefore,
depends on the actions of
Source: https://res.cloudinary.com/
the decomposers.

Food Chains and Food Webs
Food chains and food webs are diagrams that represent the feeding relationships
from producers to consumers to decomposers. They show who eats whom. In this
way, they model how energy and matter move through ecosystems.
A food chain represents a single pathway

through which energy and matter flow
through an ecosystem. Food chains are
generally simpler than what really happens in
nature. Most organisms consume – and are
consumed by – more than one species.
Producers form the base of all food chains.
The consumers that eat producers are called
primary consumers. The consumers that eat
primary consumers are secondary
Source: https://i.pinimg.com/
consumers. This chain can continue to
multiple levels.
At each level of a food chain, a lot of energy is lost. Only about ten percent of the
energy passes to the next level. Energy that is not passed on to the next level are
given off as heat, goes into animal wastes or into growing things that another
consumer cannot eat, like fur.
A food web, on the other hand, represents multiple pathways through which
energy and matter flow through an ecosystem. It includes many intersecting food
chains. It demonstrates that most organisms eat, and are eaten, by more than one
species.
The feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic levels. All food
chains and webs have at least two or three trophic levels. Using the picture above
as example we can see the trophic levels presented in the following table:
Trophic Level Source of Food Example

1st trophic level – producer Makes its own food Grass
2nd trophic level – primary consumer Consumes producers Grasshopper
3rd trophic level – secondary consumer Consumes primary Mice
consumer
4th trophic level – tertiary consumer Consumes the secondary Snake
consumer
5th trophic level – tertiary consumer Consumes other tertiary Eagle
consumer

Many consumers feed at more than one trophic level. Humans, for example, are
primary consumers when they eat plants such as vegetables. They are secondary
consumers when they eat cows. They are tertiary consumers when they eat
salmon.
Energy flows through an ecosystem in only one direction. Energy is passed from
organisms at one trophic level or energy level to organisms in the next trophic level.
Most of the energy at a trophic level – about 90% – is used at that particular trophic
level. Organisms use it for locomotion, heating themselves, and reproduction. So
animals at the second trophic level have only about 10% as much energy available
to them as do organisms at the first trophic level. Animals at the third level have
only 10% as much available to them as those at the second level.
With less energy at higher trophic levels, there are usually fewer organisms as well.
Organisms tend to be larger in size at higher trophic levels, but their smaller
numbers result in less biomass. Biomass is the total mass of organisms at a trophic
level. The decrease in biomass from lower to higher levels is also represented by a
pyramid.
To learn more about food chains, food webs and food

pyramids, watch the video at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-oVavgmveyY
Interactions in an Ecosystem
A community is the biotic part of an ecosystem. It consists of all the populations of

all the species in the same area. Interactions in communities are important factors
in natural selection. They help shape the evolution of the interacting species.
Many living things interact with other organisms in their environment. In fact, they
may need other organisms in order to survive. This is known as interdependence.
For example, living things that cannot make their own food must eat other
organisms for food. Other interactions between living things include predation,
competition, and symbiosis.
 Predation is a relationship in which members of one species (the predator)

consume members of another species (the prey). The lions and buffalo in
are classic examples of predators and prey.

A predator-prey relationship tends to
keep the populations of both species in
balance. As the prey population
increases, there is more food for
predators. So, after a slight lag, the
predator population increases as well.
As the number of predators increases,
Source: https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/ more prey are captured. As a result, the
prey population starts to decrease.
What do you think will happen to the predator population?
Some predator species are known as keystone species. A keystone species

is one that plays an important role in its community. Major changes in the
numbers of a keystone species affect the populations of many other species
in the community. For example, in coral
reef communities, some sea star species
are keystone species. The sea stars prey
on mussels and sea urchins, which have
no other natural predators. If sea stars
were removed from a coral reef
community, mussel and sea urchin
populations would have explosive
Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/
growth. This, in turn, would drive out
most other species. In the end, the
coral reef community would be destroyed.
 Competition is a relationship between organisms that strive for the same

resources in the same place and at the same time. The resources might be
food, water, or space. The two organisms are likely to come into conflict,
and the organism with better adaptations may win out over the other
organism.
There are two different types of competition:

Intraspecific competition occurs between members of the same species.
This type of competition is a basic factor in natural selection. It leads to the
evolution of better adaptations within a species.
E.g.
- Two male birds of the same species might compete for mates in the
same area.

- A tree species in a dense forest grows taller
than surrounding tree species, it is able to
absorb more of the incoming sunlight. Less
sunlight, however, is then available for the
trees that are shaded by the taller tree.
Interspecific competition occurs between members

of different species.
E.g.
- Predators of different species compete for the
same prey. Source: https://o.quizlet.com/
 Symbiosis – the term comes from a Greek word that means “living
together”. Symbiosis can be used to describe various types of close
relationships between organisms of different species, such as mutualism,
commensalism, amensalism and parasitism.
- Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit.

E.g. goby fish and shrimp.
The nearly blind shrimp and the fish
spend most of their time together.
The shrimp maintains a burrow in the
sand in which both the fish and shrimp
live. When a predator comes near,
Source: https://www.leisurepro.com/
the fish touches the shrimp with its
tail as a warning. Then, both fish
and shrimp retreat to the burrow until the predator is gone. From
their relationship, the shrimp gets a warning of approaching danger.
The fish gets a safe retreat and a place to lay its eggs.
- Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits

while the other species is not affected.
One species typically uses the other for a
purpose other than food.
E.g.
Clown fish live with sea anemones for
protection from predators and the sea
anemone is neither helped nor
Source: http://futuretechreport.com/
harmed.

- Amensalism – one species reduces or adversely affects another
individual but in itself unaffected. Cases of amensalism when one
organism produces a harmful substance that is released to the external
environment and inhibit the growth of another species
Types of amensalism
Antibiosis – involves the production of
various antimicrobial compounds by
the biocontrol agents that suppress or
reduce the growth and/or
proliferation of the phytopathogens.
E.g. Penicillium secretes penicillin
which kills various bacteria Source: https://www.scientificamerican.com/
Allelopathy – toxic chemicals are

released on the soil and inhibit growth of other plants
E.g. Roots of black walnut release juglone, a toxic material that destroys
other herbaceous plants within its range.
- Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species (the parasite)

benefits while the other species (the host) is harmed. Many species of
animals are parasites, at least during some stage of their life. Most
species are also hosts to one or more parasites. Some parasites live on
the surface of their host. Others live
inside their host. They may enter the
host through a break in the skin or in
food or water.
E.g.
Roundworms which are parasites of
mammals, including humans, cats,
Source: https://wagwalking.com/
and dogs
To learn more about the interactions in an ecosystem,

watch the video at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rNjPI84sApQ

MATCHING TYPE TEST. Match the description in column A to the terms in column
B.
A B Answer
1. These are organisms that produce food for a. Amensalism
themselves and other organisms
2. These are organisms that produce their own b. Commensalism
food through the process of photosynthesis
3. These are organisms that depend on other c. Competition
organisms for food.
4. These are organisms that feed on dead d. Consumers
leaves, animal feces, and other organic
debris.
5. These are organisms that consume soft e. Detritivores
tissues of dead animals.
6. This is the feeding position of an organism f. Food chain
in the food web or food chain.
7. This is a representation of a single pathway g. Food web
through which energy and matter flow
through an ecosystem.
8. This is a representation of multiple h. Mutualism
pathways through which energy and matter
flow through an ecosystem.
9. These are consumers that eat producers. i. Parasitism
10. These are consumers that eat primary j. Photo
consumers. autotrophs
11. This is a symbiotic relationship wherein one k. Predation
species benefits while the other is not
affected.
12. This is a relationship between organisms l. Primary
that use the same resources in the same consumers
place and time.
13. This is a symbiotic relationship wherein m. Producers
both species benefit from the interaction.
14. This is a symbiotic relationship wherein one n. Scavengers
species benefits while the other species is
harmed.
15. is a relationship in which members of one o. Secondary
species consume members of another consumers
species. p. Trophic levels

Lesson 4. Types of Ecosystems
There are many types of ecosystems, they could be grouped into these three
classes of ecosystems (biomes): freshwater ecosystems, marine ecosystems, and
terrestrial ecosystems.
Freshwater Ecosystems
Freshwater ecosystems are those that are contained in freshwater environments.

These are the smallest of the three major classes accounting to about 1.8% of the
Earth’ surface.
Freshwater ecosystems are further classified into pond and river ecosystems.
 Pond ecosystem – this ecosystem is

relatively small and are contained. It
includes various types of plants,
amphibians, insects and sometimes
fish.
 River ecosystem – this ecosystem Source: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/
consists of fishes along with plants,

amphibians and insects. There could also be birds that hunt in and around
the water for food such as small fishes and insects.
Marine Ecosystems
The different areas of the ocean could be classified as different types of marine
ecosystems. They have distinct organisms and characteristics that result from the
unique combination of physical factors that create them. Marine ecosystems
include: the abyssal plain (areas like deep sea coral, whale falls, and brine pools),
polar regions such as the Antarctic and Arctic, coral reefs, the deep sea (such as the
community found in the abyssal water column), hydrothermal vents, kelp forests,
mangroves, the open ocean, rocky shores, salt marshes and mudflats, and sandy
shores.
These ecosystems are relatively contained, although they also include certain birds
that hunt for fish and insects close to the ocean’s surface. They are amongst some

of the most interesting in the world, especially in warm waters such as those of the
Pacific Ocean.
Types of Marine Ecosystems
 Estuary –a coastal
zone where oceans
meets rivers. Here,
nutrients and salts
from the ocean mix
with those from
Source: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/oceans/estuaries.htm
the river in
regions sheltered from extreme weather. Estuaries are among the most
productive places on Earth and support many types of life. In addition,
because they are located where rivers join the ocean, estuaries have
traditionally supported many human communities and activities like fishing,
shipping, and transportation.
 Salt marshes occur

where oceans meet
land. These places
are rich in nutrients
from sediment
brought in by
the ocean. Source: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/oceans/images/Marshes_Banner.jpg
Marshes are
regularly flooded by high tides, making the surrounding ground wet and
salty. The soil in this ecosystem is low in oxygen and filled with decomposing
matter. These ecosystems are dominated by low-growing shrubs and
grasses.
 Mangrove forests
– this ecosystem is
found in tropical
areas. These
ecosystems
frequently flood
Source: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/oceans/mangroves.htm
with ocean
water, submerging the roots of mangrove trees. The root systems of
mangroves filter out salt and sit above ground to access oxygen. These trees
provide a home for a variety of species. Animals, such as fish, crabs, shrimp,

reptiles, and amphibians, live among the mangrove’s roots while its canopy
provides a nesting site for birds.
 Coral reefs – are

built from the
exoskeleton
secreted by coral
polyps. These
exoskeletons
Source: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/oceans/coral-reefs.htm
form complex
structures that shelter many different organisms. Coral reefs host sponges,
crustaceans, mollusks, fish, turtles, sharks, dolphins, and many more
creatures. It is said that coral reefs can account for a quarter of all ocean
species.
 Open ocean
ecosystems vary
widely as the depth
of the ocean
changes. At the
surface of the
Source: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/oceans/open-ocean.htm
ocean (euphotic
zone) that receives plenty of light and oxygen, it is fairly warm, and supports
many photosynthetic organisms. Many of the organisms that we associate
with marine ecosystems, such as whales, dolphins, octopi, and sharks, live
in the open ocean.
 Deep-sea ocean – As the depth

of the ocean increases, it gets darker,
colder, and with less available
oxygen. Organisms living in deep-sea
ecosystems (dysphotic and aphotic
zones) have unusual adaptations
that help them survive in these
challenging environments. Some
organisms have extremely large
Source: https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea- mouths that allow them to catch
life-disappear/
whatever nutrients fall from
shallower ocean depths. Others have adapted to get their energy via
chemosynthesis of chemicals from hydrothermal vents.

Terrestrial Ecosystems
A terrestrial ecosystem is a land-based community of organisms and the

interactions of biotic and abiotic components in a given area. The type of terrestrial
ecosystem found in a particular place is dependent on the temperature range, the
average amount of precipitation received, the soil type, and amount of light it
receives.
The five major terrestrial ecosystems are:
 Desert Ecosystems - The amount of rainfall is the primary abiotic

determining factor of a desert ecosystem. Deserts receive less than 25
centimeters of rain per year. Large fluctuations between day and night
temperature characterize a desert's terrestrial environment. The soils
contain high mineral content with little organic matter.
The vegetation ranges

from nonexistent to
including large
numbers of highly
adapted plants. The
Source: https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/
Sonora Desert
ecosystem contains
a variety of succulents or cactus as well as trees and shrubs. They have
adapted their leaf structures to prevent water loss.
One of the most famous desert ecosystems is the Sahara Desert, which
takes up the entire top area of the African continent. The size is comparable
to that of the entire United States and is known as the largest hot desert in
the world with temperatures reaching over 122 degrees Fahrenheit.
 Forest Ecosystems - About one third of the Earth's land is covered in forest.
The primary plant in this ecosystem are trees. Forest ecosystems are
subdivided by the type of tree they contain and the amount of precipitation
they receive. Some examples of forests are temperate deciduous, temperate
rainforest, tropical rainforest, tropical dry forest and northern coniferous
forests.
In the Philippines, there are 12 forest formations based on the classification

developed by Dr. Edwin S. Fernando (2008).

 Taiga Ecosystems – (also
known as northern coniferous
forest or boreal forest) It covers
a large range of land stretching
around the northern
hemisphere. It is lacking in
biodiversity, having only a few
species. Taiga ecosystems are
characterized by short
Source: https://www.activewild.com/what-is-the-taiga/
growing seasons, cold
temperatures, and poor soil.
This terrestrial environment has long summer days and very short winter
days. Animals found in the taiga include lynx, moose, wolves, bears and
burrowing rodents.
 Grassland Ecosystems - Temperate grasslands include prairies and steppes.

They have seasonal changes,
but don't get enough rainfall to
support large forests.
Savannas are tropical

grasslands. Savannas have
seasonal precipitation
differences, but temperatures
remain constant. Grasslands
around the world have been Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/tropical-wet-
dry-climate
converted to farms,
decreasing the amount of biodiversity in these areas. The prominent animals
in grassland ecosystems are grazers such as gazelle and antelope.
 Tundra – There are two types of

tundra: arctic and alpine. The
Arctic tundra is located in the
Arctic Circle, north of the boreal
forests. Alpine tundras occur on
mountain tops. Both types
experience cold temperatures
throughout the year.
Source: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/
Because the temperatures tundra-biome/
are so cold, only the top layer

of soil in this terrestrial environment thaws during the summer; the rest of
it remains frozen year round, a condition known as permafrost. Plants in the
tundra are primarily lichens, shrubs, and brush. Tundras do not have trees.
Most animals that live in the tundra migrate south or down the mountain
for the winter.
IDENTIFICATION. Provide what is asked for:
1. What are the three main groups of ecosystems?

a. ____________________
b. ____________________
c. ____________________
2. What are the common organism in a freshwater ecosystem?

a. ____________________
b. ____________________
c. ____________________
3. Give major characteristics of the different marine ecosystems

Marine Ecosystem Characteristics
a. Estuary
b. Mangrove Forests
c. Coral reefs
d. Open Ocean
e. Deep-sea Ocean
4. Give major characteristics of the different marine ecosystems

Marine Ecosystem Characteristics
a. Desert
Ecosystems
b. Forest Ecosystems
c. Taiga Ecosystems
d. Grassland
Ecosystems
e. Tundra

REFERENCES:
Kimmins J.P. 2004. Forest Ecology: A Foundation for Sustainable Forest

Management and Environmental Ethics in Forestry. 3rd Edition, Pearson
Education, Inc., New Jersey, USA
Mackenzie A, Ball AS, and Virdee SR. 1998. Instant Notes in Ecology.
Medina CP. et al. and UP Open University. ______. ENS 201 – Ecosystems
Structure and Dynamics. A course material in Master in Environment and
Natural Resources Management. UPOU. Office of Academic support
Services, 3/F National Computer Center Building, C.P. Garcia Avenue,
1101Diliman, Quezon City.
National Geographic. _____. Marine Ecosystems. Accessed from
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/marine-ecosystem-
illustrations-grades-3-5/ on January 20, 2021.
Smith, B. 2019. What are the major types of terrestrial ecosystems? Accessed
from https://sciencing.com/major-types-terrestrial-ecosystems-
8248888.html on January 20, 2021.
_________. Chapter 9. Ecology – Lesson 9.3 Relationships and Interactions in
an Ecosystem. Accessed from https://www.boyertownasd.org/cms/lib/
PA01916192/Centricity/Domain/743/C.%20Chapter%209%20Lesson%209.3-
Interactions%20and%20Relationships%20in%20an%20Ecosystem.pdf on
January 18, 2021.


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Chapter 1 Natural Resources

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Chapter 1.

After completing this module, you will be able to:

 Define ecology and the areas of interest in ecology

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Object Is it living or non-living? What roles does it play?

Lesson 1. Ecology and Ecosystems

Scientific natural history – Elton, 1927

The study of the structure and function of nature – Odum, 1921

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The relationship of organisms with their environment is interactive. Looking at the

Organisms get their survival needs from the

Organisms release the product of their activities to the

Natural Resources and Environmental Management

Ecosystems are either terrestrial (land-based) or aquatic (water as the community’s

The term ecosystem was suggested by Tansley, an English ecologist in 1935. He

Other definitions are the following:

“An ecosystem is any system composed of physical, chemical and biological

“An ecosystem is a functional system that includes an assemblage of interacting

4. Interaction and interdependence

ALTERNATE RESPONSE. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if

1. Ecology is concerned with the distribution, abundance, and

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Biotic Community Abiotic Environment

Plant Community Atmosphere

Animal Community Soil or geological

Structural components of an ecosystem

Living organisms (biotic components) in an ecosystem are classified as either

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are thus known as

Nonliving (or abiotic) Physical Factors Chemical Factors

Natural Resources and Environmental Management

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In terms of season of the year, this is experienced in temperate countries. Some

Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an

IDENTIFICATION. Provide what is asked for:

1. What are the two components of an ecosystem:

3. Consumers are classified into:

4. Classify the following environmental factors as resource or condition and

Natural Resources and Environmental Management

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Energy enters ecosystems in the form of sunlight or chemical compounds. Some

As discussed in the previous lesson, producers (autotrophs) are organisms that

The survival of every ecosystem is

Natural Resources and Environmental Management

As discussed in the previous lesson,

Carnivores that are unable to digest plants and

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A food chain represents a single pathway

Trophic Level Source of Food Example

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To learn more about food chains, food webs and food

A community is the biotic part of an ecosystem. It consists of all the populations of

 Predation is a relationship in which members of one species (the predator)

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Some predator species are known as keystone species. A keystone species

 Competition is a relationship between organisms that strive for the same

There are two different types of competition:

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Interspecific competition occurs between members

- Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit.

- Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits

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Allelopathy – toxic chemicals are

- Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which one species (the parasite)