Introduction:

This study aims to conduct a systematic literature review of research articles in the Pythagoras journal
(Journal of the Association for Mathematics Education of South Africa) that are related to or concerning
language and communication in the teaching and learning of mathematics. I focused on two themes
when identifying articles to include in this review which were: language issues in the teaching and
learning of mathematics in different contexts; and the nature of language used in mathematics
classrooms. An additional consideration in this review from which I begin my analysis includes some
aspects of language policy. My initial intention was to include research over a twenty-year period from
the year 2000 to the year 2020. However, I have included articles published in the 2008 special edition
of the journal focusing on multilingual contexts as there is a serious lack of research on the topic in other
issues of the journal.

The areas of interest that are included in this review are firstly that competence in English has an impact
on learner’s access to tertiary education. Secondly, the importance of developing mathematical register
in indigenous languages. Thirdly, the relationship between English language proficiency and
mathematical performance. This is then followed by considerations of code-switching, as well as the
benefits of exploratory talk and using language as a resource. The final area of interest is collaborative
learning in multilingual mathematics classrooms.

Research Question:

What can be done to support learners in the acquisition of mathematical knowledge within a context of
superdiversity (Barwell, 2016) and multilingualism?

The context of multilingual classrooms in South Africa:

Barwell (2016) explains the idea of superdiversity as individuals speaking a variety of languages or a
mixture of languages as well as identifying with more than one racial group or nationality due to the
effects of globalization. My own classroom reflects exactly this scenario with a variety of learners from
different cultures, socio-economic backgrounds, nationalities and language backgrounds. It is important
to note that there is no common home language in my classroom amongst learners, and that I am not
proficient in any of the various home languages that are present.

Theoretical background:

My exploration of the theme of language issues in the teaching and learning of mathematics in different
contexts is foregrounded by the following assumption. Language issues that come about in the context
of superdiversity are characterized by the complexities of the mathematical register as well as the
complexities of the linguistic context of the classroom. The first consideration here is that of
international contexts where there are high numbers of immigrant learners. The two notable scenarios
are where teachers and immigrant learners share the same main language like the context of the USA
where English and Spanish are languages that both the teachers and learners speak (Moschkovich 1999);
and where the teachers and immigrant learners do not share the same main language and thus do not
speak, read or write in the same language such as the context in Catalonia where immigrant learners are
expected to learn Catalan irrespective of what their home language is (Gorgorio and Planas, 2001). The
second consideration is for contexts where the indigenous languages are not the language of teaching
and learning. The two scenarios here are countries where the indigenous language is spoken by a
minority in the population of the country such as the Maori speakers in New Zealand (Barton, Fairhall
and Trinick, 1998) and the scenario where indigenous languages are spoken by the majority of the
population such as the South African context (see for example Setati, 2003; Sapire and Essien, 2021).

For the theme of the nature of language used in mathematics classrooms I look at the different ways
that teachers and learners communicate in mathematically. The assumption here is that mathematical
language is both embedded in the language of teaching and learning such as English, and that the
mathematical register has its own structure and grammar. The result is that learners have to learn the
language of teaching and learning and the language of mathematics. The main focus here is how
mathematics is used in the multilingual mathematics classroom to build knowledge and control access
to mathematical knowledge.

Barwell (2016) argues successfully that the ideas presented in his paper fundamentally reframe the way
teachers, learners and policy makers face the challenges present in the multilingual classroom. Some of
these ideas in addition to superdiversity are the unitary perspective and heteroglossia. In the unitary
language perspective language is seen as fixed and pure, while the idea of heteroglossia refers to the
diverse ways in which language is used, as well as the dynamic interactions between languages as they
are used (Barwell, 2016). Seeing language from the perspective of heteroglossia as opposed to a unitary
perspective is fundamental to the position I take in this review where languages interact and grow
together. A prime example of this is the development of the mathematical register in indigenous
languages that of the Tanzanian context (Kajoro, 2016) where a full mathematical register has been
developed in Kiswahili. Kazima (2008) also looks at the different ways that development of the
mathematical register has taken place in Nigeria, Tanzania and Malawi as discussed below. These are all
examples of indigenous languages developing from the perspective of heteroglossia.

In chapter six of her book Adler (2001) talks about language as a resource in the teaching and learning of
mathematics. This idea is then put into practice in Setati et al (2008) as discussed below. Adler (2001)
also talks about three dilemmas in the multilingual mathematics classroom, these dilemmas are the
dilemmas of transparency, mediation and code switching. In line with the focus of this review and the
themes identified I address the dilemmas of transparency and code switching here. The dilemma of
transparency is about whether or not to make the mathematical register terminology and concepts
transparent to learners. In other words, as the teacher in a multilingual classroom, to what extent does
one explicitly elaborate on these aspects. The risk here is that the cognitive demand of the exercises,
tasks and assessments being administered could be reduced. One strategy to mitigate the detrimental
impact of over simplification and prescription of mathematical concepts in teaching is to take a learner
centred approach and encourage collaborative learning as discussed in Brijlall (2008). The dilemma of
code switching is dealt with by Vorster (2008) and Webb and Webb (2008) later in this review. This
dilemma as explained by Adler (2001) as being about whether reliance on code switching for
explanations in the classroom may limit learners access to English. Furthermore, if code switching is
limited it may result in learners not having access to conceptual development and not being able to
understand explanations.

In her paper Zevenbergen (2000) talks about the political nature of language usage in the mathematics
classroom and highlights the following communicative strategies: Working with the type of language
found in mathematical texts. This is about learners developing the mathematical register and
communicative norms needed to communicate effectively in the classroom. The nature of classroom
talk, which is about the rules and norms of classroom communication which are implicitly expected of
learners. And the use of context in mathematics teaching. Zevenbergen (2000) argues that these
communicative strategies may, in some cases, leave learners who are not aware or well versed in them
out of the learning process and limit their access to mathematical concepts. The author also refers to
the concept of linguistic capital that learners may or may not enter the classroom with as either
enhancing or limiting the learners access to mathematics. These ideas a central to the arguments
purported in the articles that are elaborated in this review. I now move to the articles identified as
relevant to the themes mentioned in the introduction and selected for review.

Analysis of articles form the Pythagoras academic journal:

In order to support learners in this context of superdiversity teachers should be well informed about the
research that has taken place in the field (Barwell, 2016). I begin this review with a look at the
discriminatory nature of some language policies. Dlamini (2008) states that some language policies in
European societies discriminate against immigrant populations (for example see Gorgorio and Planas,
2001) whilst in Africa many policies discriminate against indigenous groups of people despite the fact
that they are in the majority (Bamgbose, 1999 and Bokamba, 1995).

Dlamini (2008) on access to Tertiary education:

As indicated above the first area of interest is concerned with learners access to tertiary education being
denied due to a lack of competence in English. In Dlamini (2008) a transitional bilingualism language
policy is problematized and the findings of this study suggest that there is an insignificant relationship
between English proficiency and mathematics attainment in the school leaving examinations in the
context of Swaziland. The argument here is that the policy of requiring a pass in English to gain entry
into tertiary education is a barrier to accessing tertiary education for many mathematically proficient
learners in Swaziland (Dlamini, 2008). It was found in this study that up to 60% of mathematically
capable learners were not given the chance to continue with tertiary education due to their poor
performance in English. It is also likely that the results in this study could be generalized to include other
African countries. Here there is also a suggestion that the policy of failing learners because of poor
performance in a second language could be contributing to discrimination against indigenous learners.
The result is that the majority of indigenous learners in Swaziland are excluded through the education
system from taking part in the building of their nation, and from making progress in terms of getting
good jobs, and the economic benefits related to this. It remains the case that many tertiary institutions
in African countries require a good pass in English as an entrance requirement, and this is due to an
assumed correlation between the two disciplines (Dlamini, 2008). This study shows that this is not
always the case in African countries. A weakness of this study is the generalization of findings beyond
the scope of the data sample size, which should also have been limited due to the Swaziland context.

Kazima (2008) and the development of mathematical register:

The second area of interest is the development of mathematical register in indigenous languages.
Kazima (2008) discusses the policy of using mother tongue for instruction in the early years of schooling
with a specific focus on the mathematical terminology used. Here it is shown that there are two major
approaches, borrowing words from the English language, and developing the mathematics register in
indigenous languages. An assertion in this article is that teaching in the mother tongue in early years
does not have to be in the place of teaching in English, but that both languages can be used. Kazima
(2008) uses the examples of Nigeria and Tanzania as countries where the mathematical register has
been developed in indigenous languages and the example of Malawi as a country that has borrowed
terminology from English and spelled the words in their national language Chichewa. In the Nigerian
case the mathematical register has been developed in six indigenous languages. And in the Tanzanian
case there has been a particular focus on expressing the mathematical concept rather than using literal
translations from English. Here both approaches are examined and it is found that developing the
mathematical register in the indigenous language may cause confusion with the mathematical meaning
and the everyday meaning. In addition, borrowing from English may also bring about difficulty in that
teachers and learners alike may struggle to remember the borrowed terminology as it is not rooted in
any context.

Bohlmann (2008) on proficiency in English and the relationship to mathematical performance:

The third area of interest is that the relationship between English language proficiency and
mathematical performance is one that is assumed in many instances. However, the study by Bohlmann
(2008) separated the proficiency in English language from reading ability. The major finding in this study
was that the ability to read effectively was more closely linked to mathematical performance than
English language proficiency. This study focused on two township schools west of Pretoria in Gauteng
South Africa. One of the schools was a public school with large classes and the other a private school
with relatively smaller classes of less than 30 learners. It was found that learners in the private school
were exposed to a longer and more challenging mathematics examination than their counterparts in the
public school, but still outperformed them in terms of results. The next finding was that there was a
large gap between the low performance of learners in the public school in the reading activity, language
assessment and mathematical achievement in comparison with their peers in the private school. Lastly it
was also found that there was a strong relationship between reading proficiency in English and that of
Northern Sotho (Bohlmann, 2008). Showing that learners who could read well in English could also read
well in Northern Sotho. The two schools in question were also very different in terms of teaching
practice, resources, socio-economic status and language policy (where the private school taught
exclusively in English and the government school taught in Northern Sotho until the end of grade three).
In both schools the quality of teaching and learning was the biggest determining factor to influence the
performance in reading and mathematics.

Vorster (2008) on Code Switching:

The next area of interest that I examine is code switching and the development of the mathematical
register. Vorster (2008) and Webb and Webb (2008) both report on studies related to code switching in
issue 67 of 2008 of the Pythagoras Journal. Vorster (2008) suggests that code switching is an appropriate
strategy to support learners in multilingual classrooms. In this study the distinguishing factor was the
use of a glossary, notes and tests in both languages English and Setswana to be used as scaffolds for the
purpose of teaching and learning of a geometry module, and the use of the glossary was also allowed
during assessment. Two schools took part in the study, one in a rural area, and one in a township. The
reaction of one of the teachers in the township school who declined to participate showed a negative
attitude towards code switching with the support of written work in both languages. It may be that
certain teachers are not ready to implement this strategy. The study reported that the majority of
learners had a positive reaction to the use of both languages and the scaffolding provided (Vorster,
2008). It was also noted that teachers did not share this optimism initially and that after the study was
completed some teachers still had reservations in particular about the use of the Setswana
mathematical terminology and thus the researchers conclude that the issue of Setswana terminology
should not be prescribed to teachers (Vorster, 2008). Further concluding remarks included that it seems
that supporting documentation should focus on explanations in the indigenous languages with the
mathematical terminology remaining in English. And that the scaffolding of code switching in the
manner that it was done in this article could have the effect of developing mathematical register in
indigenous languages that may be useful when it is needed in the future.

Webb and Webb (2008) regarding code switching and exploratory talk:

I now continue to explore the benefits of exploratory talk as the next area of interest. An observation
was made by Webb and Webb (2008) in their research study that little discussion is observed in
multilingual mathematics classrooms. In an effort to stimulate discussion code switching with a focus on
exploratory talk was proposed. The findings of this report included that there was increased discussion
and some success in the implementation of exploratory talk when code switching was used between
English and IsiXhosa. It was noted in this research that teachers preferred using their main language
when discussing problem solving questions. The teachers in this study also found that conversation in
the classroom came about more freely when learners were allowed to respond and interact in their
indigenous languages. One of the major results in this paper is that when teachers do not enforce an
English only language policy the teacher to learner and learner to learner interactions increase (Webb
and Webb, 2008). One of the teachers in the study had tried to make language more transparent in her
classroom so that learners could focus on the mathematical logic and reasoning. This teacher had
successfully implemented a culture of argumentation with an orientation towards exploratory talk, and
the intended result of such a strategy would be that informal talk in IsiXhosa would result in formal
mathematical discourse in English (Webb and Webb, 2008). The article concludes by noting that all
discussions in a classroom cannot be regarded as exploratory talk and that, in the same way that seating
learners in groups cannot be assumed to result in collaborative learning. The research therefore points
to a need for socio-cultural mathematics language interventions that implement the use of code
switching and exploratory talk in order to ensure that learners are not marginalized due to their limited
language acquisition.

Setati et al (2008) on using language as a resource:

In their study of the use of learners’ home language as a resource in the teaching and learning of
mathematics Setati et al (2008) drew from research done by a teacher and coauthor in a grade 11 class
of 36 learners in SOWETO in Gauteng South Africa. There were was a diverse language group in the
classroom with four indigenous languages represented as learner home languages in the class. Each of
the learners spoke a minimum of four languages and the experienced teacher was in the privileged
position of speaking eight languages with all oof the learners home languages in his repertoire. Data was
collected in the form of video taped recordings and learner interviews. In the lesson in question learners
were grouped into homogenous language groups. The finding reported in this research include that
language is a resource that can be used to improve the quality of teaching and learning in the
mathematics classroom, but also that it may become a barrier to learning in certain instances. The major
challenge then in South African classrooms is that the power of English language is unavoidable but
many learners lack the proficiency in English to engage in mathematical tasks set exclusively in English.
The paper in question proposes a strategy for using language as a transparent resource. This entails two
strategies, namely the deliberate and proactive use of the learners’ main language and the use of high
cognitive demand relevant and interesting real-world problems. Effective use of this strategy allows for
language to become both visible and invisible in the sense that learners are able to draw on any
language that they choose to at will, and that language is not a disturbance to the mathematical
concepts being taught. A central argument is that the political nature of language is taken into account
here and that learners home languages are seen as working with English instead of being in opposition
to English. The study reveals that the challenge of translating exercises into various languages is an
important consideration. It is noted that much can be lost in translation but also that the formation and
renegotiation of meaning is an important part of the process and that is why pedagogical usage of the
home language as described above is so important.

Brijlall (2008) on collaborative learning in multilingual mathematics classrooms:

Brijlall (2008) focused on collaborative learning in multilingual mathematics classrooms. Two sets of
grade 8 learners from a high school in Pietermaritzburg South Africa formed the sample for the study
with one set of learners working independently and the other collaboratively on an activity about
fractions. Data collected included learner worksheets, questionnaires and interviews. In this study the
author draws on the tenants of Realistic Mathematics Education to develop the teaching strategy being
implemented (Brijlall, 2008). One of the main findings of this research is that learners who worked
collaboratively in groups were more successful at solving word problems than those who worked
individually. Furthermore, it is discovered that learners working collaboratively were less reliant on the
teacher and more reliant on one another supporting the claim that collaborative learning is a more
learner centered approach (Brijlall, 2008). In their small groups learners were encouraged to speak in
the language they felt most comfortable in and this resulted in the use of indigenous languages for
discussion purposes. Some implications for further research were that research should be conducted to:
determine if group dynamics can be improved by placing learners in the same groups for a longer period
of time; determine if problem solving skills are improved by group dynamics; to ascertain learner
challenges with regards to fractions; and to explore whether collaborative learning supports both the
high achievers and low attainers at the same time (Brijlall, 2008).

Findings:

The first and perhaps most important finding of this systematic literature review is that there is a limited
body of research in the Pythagoras journal relating to teaching and learning in the context of a
multilingual classroom. This is shown by the fact that the journal does not have any other relevant
articles to the topic except in its special addition in 2008. The remainder of the findings in this review
are summarized in the table below with a focus on answering the research question; what can be done
to support learners in the acquisition of mathematical knowledge within a context of superdiversity
(Barwell, 2016) and multilingualism and what methods are proposed in research in multilingual
classrooms to achieve this:

Author and Title Theme 1: Language issues in the
teaching and learning of
mathematics in different contexts
Dlamini (2008) Policies Multilingual learners can be
for enhancing success or supported in the acquisition of
failure? A glimpse into mathematical knowledge at a
Theme 2: The nature of language
used in mathematics classrooms:
With the findings of this article in
mind it seems prudent to suggest
that the type of language used in
the language policy
dilemma of one African
state.
Kazima (2008) Mother
tongue policies and
mathematical
terminology in the
teaching of mathematics.
Bohlmann (2008)
Relationships between
mathematics and
literacy. Exploring some
underlying factors.
Vorster (2008)
Investigating a scaffold to
code-switching as
strategy in multilingual
classrooms.
tertiary level by removing the
requirement for a good pass in
English at the completion of high
school. The assumed relationship
between proficiency in
mathematics and English language
proficiency is not always correct. As
a result, the method for improving
the access to mathematical
knowledge from this research
article is changing this policy.
The methods for supporting
learners that can be drawn from
this article are that mother tongue
instruction policies do not have to
decide to teach in either English or
the mother tongue in early years. It
then follows that code-switching
and free movement between
languages can be used in the early
stages of mathematical instruction.
That this will not confuse learners
and that this will support
conceptual understanding.
This research proposes that one
thing that can be done to support
learners is to develop their reading
ability in both English and their
home language. It follows from
their findings that a focus on
improving reading ability amongst
learners could be a method for
improving mathematical
proficiency.
The method for supporting learners
that can be drawn from this article
is that scaffolding learners in a way
that provides written explanations
of mathematical concepts in the
home language may be what is
needed. This was found to be
beneficial in this context and may
translate to other contexts.
multilingual mathematics
classrooms need not be limited to
the language of learning and
teaching. This article suggests that
proficiency in English is not
necessary for mathematical
proficiency and thus it follows that
the language used in the classroom
should not be limited to the use of
English.
The nature of the language used in
the classroom can therefore also
be more fluid, and the best
approach may be to use a
combination of development of the
mathematical register in
indigenous languages and
borrowing from English or spelling
mathematical terminology in the
indigenous language. This may then
support learners in that the
drawbacks of either approach may
be mitigated by using a hybridized
approach.
This article suggests that English
language proficiency is not as
important as reading ability and
thus the nature of language used in
the classroom does not have to be
focused on English language. This
then supports the idea that a focus
on English language and grammar
in the mathematics classroom may
be inappropriate but rather that
reading for understanding may be
the best approach.
Here the difficulties experienced
with the use of the Setswana
terminology by both teachers and
learners suggests that terminology
may be left in English while the
explanations may be best done in
the home language. So, it can be
deduced that code-switching can
be taken a step further to allow for
written scaffolds not only verbal
explanations.
 Webb and Webb (2008) In this article the suggestion is that
Introducing discussion exploratory talk may be used as a
into multilingual method in conjunction with code-
classrooms: An issue of switching that enhances that
code-switching. teaching and learning of
mathematics. It follows then that
for some contexts it may beneficial
to support learners by getting them
to interact more freely in the
classroom.
Setati et al (2008) Using A suggestion in this article is that
language as a learners may be supported in the
transparent resource in acquisition of mathematical
the teaching and learning knowledge by working with
of mathematics in a learners’ home languages in
grade 11 classroom. conjunction with English. Here it is
important that the home language
is seen to be working with English
rather than it being in opposition to
English.
Brijlall (2008) In this context collaborative
Collaborative learning in learning was found to be an
a multilingual classroom. effective learner centered
approach to support the teaching
and learning of mathematics.
In this research article it is found
that allowing learners to
communicate in their mother
tongue increased all types of
interaction and discussions in the
classroom. This research then
supports the finding that code
switching and allowing learners to
speak in a language of their choice
in the classroom will positively
influence their interactions and
probably translate to better
performance in mathematics.
The free usage of whatever
language learners see fit is once
again supported by this article and
is a major finding of my review. In
this instance the deliberate use of
learner’s home language and
carefully structured real world
word problems was seen to be an
effective strategy in the support
acquisition of mathematical
knowledge.
Particular emphasis was placed on
allowing learners to communicate
in their home languages in their
small groups which was found to
be beneficial. This once again
supports the finding that allowing
learners to use the language that
they are most comfortable with
may be the best strategy to
implement in the mathematics
classroom.

Conclusion and recommendations:

In this systematic literature review I have provided an overview of the articles relevant to the themes of
language issues in the teaching and learning of mathematics in different contexts, and the nature of
language used in mathematics classrooms. Unfortunately, all of the relevant articles identified came
from the 2008 issue 67 of the Pythagoras journal. There was little evidence in the journal of other
articles that met the criteria from other years. This points to a need for further research in the area and
for publishing of articles on this topic in the Pythagoras journal. Another important finding in this review
is that it may be best to allow learners to communicate in the language that they are most comfortable
with in the mathematics classroom. Whether this communication happens in whole class discussions, or
small groups it seems that improving the level of interaction between learners and between learners
and the teacher is an effective strategy or method that can be used to support learners in the
acquisition of mathematical knowledge in the multilingual classroom.

From this review it can also be seen that an English only policy in the classroom may not be the best
approach. It seems code-switching and free usage of language may be more appropriate and that this
may be beneficial from the beginning of schooling. The findings of this review therefore also suggest
that a mother tongue only approach in the early years of schooling may position the mother tongue in
opposition to English instead of working together with English to improve access to mathematical
concepts.

4789 Words

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