Leergedeelte 1.

2
Study Section 1.2
{ Ortogonale versamelings}
{Orthogonal sets}
 Uitkomste / Outcomes
 Begrippe: Ortogonale versameling, ortogonale basis, ortonormale
basis, ortogonale projeksie van een vektor op 'n ander, ortogonale
komponent van 'n vektor op 'n ander en op deelruimte en
ortogonale matriks
Concepts: Orthogonal set, orthogonal basis, orthonormal basis,
orthogonal projection of one vector on another, orthogonal component of
a vector on another and on a subspace and orthogonal matrix.
 Stelling: 'n Ortogonale versameling is lineêr onafhanklik (Stelling
4, {356}(366)[338]). (Bewys ingesluit.)
Theorem: An orthogonal set is linearly independent (Theorem 4,
{356}(366){338]). (Proof included)
 Stelling: Formule vir gewigte van afhanklikheidsrelasie in terme
van ortogonale basis (Stelling 5, bl. {357}(367)[339]). (Bewys
ingesluit.)
Theorem: Formula for weights in dependence relation in terms of
orthogonal basis (Theorem 5, p. {357}(367)[339]). (Proof included.)
Uitkomste (vervolg) / Outcomes (continued)

 Stelling: Karakterisering van ʼn matriks met ortogonale

kolomme (Stelling 6, bl. {361}(371)[343]). (Bewys ingesluit.)
Theorem: Characterization of matrix with orthogonal columns
(Theorem 6, p. {361}(371)[343]). (Proof included.)
 Stelling: Eienskappe van matriks met ortonormale
kolomme (Stelling 7, bl. {361}(371)[343]). (Bewys ingesluit.)
 Theorem: Properties of a matrix with orthonormal columns
(Theorem 7, p. {361}(371)[343]). (Proof included.)
 Berekeninge en bewyse wat verband hou met bogenoemde
definisies en stellings.
 Calculations and proofs related to the above definitions and
theorems.
 Definisie / Definition
 'n Versameling van vektore {u1,…,up} in ℝ𝑛𝑛 word
'n ortogonale versameling genoem as elke paar
verskillende vektore uit die versameling ortogonaal
is, dit wil sê, as 𝐮𝐮𝒊𝒊 � 𝐮𝐮𝒋𝒋 = 0 vir alle 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗.

A set of vectors {u1,…,up} in ℝ𝑛𝑛 is said to be an

orthogonal set if each pair of distinct vectors from the
set is orthogonal, that is, if 𝐮𝐮𝒊𝒊 � 𝐮𝐮𝒋𝒋 = 0 whenever 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗.
Stelling 4 / Theorem 4

 As 𝑆𝑆 ={u1,…,up} 'n ortogonale versameling van

nie-nul vektore in ℝ𝑛𝑛 is, dan is 𝑆𝑆 lineêr
onafhanklik en is gevolglik 'n basis vir die
deelruimte onderspan deur 𝑆𝑆.

If 𝑆𝑆 ={u1,…,up} is an orthogonal set of nonzero vectors

in ℝ𝑛𝑛 , then S is linearly independent and hence is a
basis for the subspace spanned by S.
Definisie / Definition

 Definisie: 'n Ortogonale basis vir 'n deelruimte

𝑊𝑊 van ℝ𝑛𝑛 is 'n basis vir 𝑊𝑊 wat ook 'n
ortogonale versameling is.

 Definition: An orthogonal basis for a subspace W

of ℝ𝑛𝑛 is a basis for W that is also an orthogonal set.
 Stelling 5 / Theorem 5
 Laat {u1,…,up} 'n ortogonale basis vir 'n deelruimte
𝑊𝑊 van ℝ𝑛𝑛 wees. Vir elke 𝒚𝒚 in 𝑊𝑊 word die
gewigte in die lineêre kombinasie
Let {u1,…,up} be an orthogonal basis for a subspace
W of ℝ𝑛𝑛 . For each y in W, the weights in the linear
combination
𝒚𝒚 = 𝑐𝑐1 𝒖𝒖𝟏𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝒖𝒖𝒑𝒑
gegee deur / are given by

𝒚𝒚 � 𝒖𝒖𝑗𝑗
𝑐𝑐𝑗𝑗 = ∀ 𝑗𝑗 = 1, … , 𝑝𝑝.
𝒖𝒖𝑗𝑗 � 𝒖𝒖𝑗𝑗
Ortogonale projeksie op 'n vektor
Orthogonal projection onto a vector

Gegee twee vektore 𝒖𝒖 en 𝒚𝒚 in ℝ𝑛𝑛 . Die ortogonale

projeksie 𝒚𝒚
� van 𝒚𝒚 op 𝒖𝒖 word gegee deur

Given two vectors 𝒖𝒖 and 𝒚𝒚 in ℝ𝑛𝑛 . The orthogonal projection

� of 𝒚𝒚 onto 𝒖𝒖 is given by
𝒚𝒚
𝒚𝒚�𝒖𝒖
�=
𝒚𝒚 𝒖𝒖
𝒖𝒖�𝒖𝒖
In hierdie geval kan ons 𝒚𝒚 skryf as 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒚𝒚 � + 𝒛𝒛 en ons noem 𝒛𝒛
die komponent van y ortogonaal op 𝒖𝒖.
In this case we may write 𝒚𝒚 as 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒚𝒚
� + 𝒛𝒛 and we call 𝒛𝒛 the
component of y orthogonal to 𝒖𝒖.
Ortogonale projeksie op 'n span van een vektor
Orthogonal projection onto the span of one vector

Gegee twee vektore 𝒖𝒖 en 𝒚𝒚 in ℝ𝑛𝑛 . Die ortogonale

projeksie van 𝒚𝒚 op 𝐿𝐿 = span(𝒖𝒖) word gegee deur

Given two vectors 𝒖𝒖 and 𝒚𝒚 in ℝ𝑛𝑛 . The orthogonal projection

of 𝒚𝒚 onto 𝐿𝐿 = span(𝒖𝒖) is given by

𝒚𝒚�𝒖𝒖
�=
𝒚𝒚 proj𝐿𝐿 𝒚𝒚 = 𝒖𝒖
𝒖𝒖�𝒖𝒖
(dit wil sê, dit is dieselfde as die projeksie van 𝒚𝒚 op 𝒖𝒖.)
(i.e. it is the same as the projection of 𝒚𝒚 onto 𝒖𝒖.)
Meetkundige interpretasie / Geometrical interpretation

Gegee / Given: ℝ2 = span{𝒖𝒖1 , 𝒖𝒖2 }.

Enige 𝒚𝒚𝝐𝝐 ℝ2 kan geskryf word as / Any 𝒚𝒚𝝐𝝐 ℝ2 can be written
as
𝒚𝒚 � 𝒖𝒖1 𝒚𝒚 � 𝒖𝒖2
𝒚𝒚 = 𝒖𝒖1 + �𝟏𝟏 + 𝒚𝒚
𝒖𝒖2 = 𝒚𝒚 �𝟐𝟐
𝒖𝒖1 � 𝒖𝒖1 𝒖𝒖2 � 𝒖𝒖2

(Kyk skets op bl. 359)

(See figure 4 on p. 359)
Definisie: Ortonormale versameling
Definition: Orthonormal set
'n Versameling van vektore {u1,…,up} in ℝ𝑛𝑛 word 'n
ortonormale versameling genoem as
1. die versameling ortogonaal is, dit wil sê, as 𝐮𝐮𝒊𝒊 � 𝐮𝐮𝒋𝒋 = 0
vir alle 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗.
2. Elke vektor 𝐮𝐮𝒊𝒊 'n eenheidsvektor is.

A set of vectors {u1,…,up} in ℝ𝑛𝑛 is said to be an orthonormal

set if
1. the set is orthogonal, that is, if 𝐮𝐮𝒊𝒊 � 𝐮𝐮𝒋𝒋 = 0 whenever 𝑖𝑖 ≠ 𝑗𝑗.
2. Each vector 𝐮𝐮𝒊𝒊 is a unit vector.
 Ortonormale basisse / Orthonormal bases

As 𝑊𝑊 die deelruimte is wat onderspan word deur

'n ortonormale versameling {u1,…,up}, dan is
{u1,…,up} 'n ortonormale basis vir 𝑊𝑊, omdat die
versameling outomaties lineêr onafhanklik is,
volgens Stelling 4.

If W is the subspace spanned by such an orthonormal set

{u1,…,up}, then {u1,…,up} is an orthonormal basis for
W, since the set is automatically linearly independent, by
Theorem 4.
Voorbeeld: Ortonormale basisse
Examples: Orthonormal bases

 Die eenvoudigste voorbeeld van 'n ortonormale

versameling is die standaard basis {e1,…,en} vir ℝ𝑛𝑛
The simplest example of an orthonormal set is the
standard basis {e1,…,en} for ℝ𝑛𝑛 .

 Enige nie-leë deelversameling van {e1,…,en} is ook

ortonormaal.
Any nonempty subset of {e1,…,en} is orthonormal, too.
Ortonormale basisse / Orthonormal bases
 As die vektore in 'n ortogonale versameling van nie-nul
vektore genormaliseer word tot lengte 1, sal die nuwe
vektore steeds ortogonaal wees, en gevolglik sal die nuwe
versameling 'n ortonormale versameling wees.
When the vectors in an orthogonal set of nonzero vectors are
normalized to have unit length, the new vectors will still be
orthogonal, and hence the new set will be an orthonormal set.
Stelling 6 / Theorem 6

'n 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 matriks U het ortonormale

kolomme as en slegs as 𝑈𝑈 𝑇𝑇 𝑈𝑈 = 𝐼𝐼.

An 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 matrix U has orthonormal columns if

and only if 𝑈𝑈 𝑇𝑇 𝑈𝑈 = 𝐼𝐼.
Stelling 7 / Theorem 7
Laat U 'n 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛 matriks wees met ortonormale
kolomme, en laat x en y in ℝ𝑛𝑛 wees. / Let U be an 𝑚𝑚 × 𝑛𝑛
matrix with orthonormal columns, and let x and y be in ℝ𝑛𝑛 .
Dan is / Then
a. 𝑈𝑈𝐱𝐱 = 𝐱𝐱
b. 𝑈𝑈𝐱𝐱 � 𝑈𝑈𝐲𝐲 = 𝐱𝐱 � 𝐲𝐲
c. 𝑈𝑈𝐱𝐱 � 𝑈𝑈𝐲𝐲 = 0 as en slegs as / if and only if 𝐱𝐱 � 𝐲𝐲 =
0.

Eienskappe (a) en (c) sê dat die lineêre afbeelding 𝐱𝐱 ↦ 𝑈𝑈𝐱𝐱

lengtes en ortogonaliteit behou.
Properties (a) and (c) say that the linear mapping 𝐱𝐱 ↦ 𝑈𝑈𝐱𝐱
preserves lengths and orthogonality.
Ortogonale matrikse / Orthogonal matrices

'n Matriks word ortogonaal genoem as sy kolomme

ortonormaal is.

A matrix is called orthogonal if its columns are orthonormal.

Volgens Stellings 6 en 7 is 'n vierkantige ortogonale

matriks 'n vierkantige omkeerbare matriks só dat

By Theorems 6 and 7 is a square orthogonal matrix a square

invertible matrix such that

𝑈𝑈 −1 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑇𝑇