CRITICAL THINKING

WEEK 1
I think, therefore I’m dangerous.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is all about asking questions that help you assess both the meaning and the
significance of claims and arguments. Critical thinking involves stepping back from a
situation to enable you to see all the angles before making judgements or making decisions.
It means identifying the key points, analyzing the source of information, weighing up different
types of evidence, just as a judge and jury would do in a court of law and putting it all
together into your own independent, thought-through point of view.

READING: Analyzing an argument.

a. What is the main idea of the article?

Results of a survey of employers; State school v private school representation in

graduate recruitment.

b. What is the argument reported in the article; who is making the argument?

State schools are underrepresented in graduate recruitment. Recruitment must be

more inclusive. Recruitment and selection processes must be changed to include
greater breadth

c. Find some evidence to support this argument.

91 of population = state schooled but only 57% of those hired by top graduate
schemes are from state school.

d. Look at the words and phrases in italics. What function do they have?

We must… This means… It is important to… We can’t expect…

= Language indicating an attempt to persuade, part of an argument.

State school students underrepresented in top UK graduate schemes, report finds
women, first generation graduates and disabled people also underrepresented

Eleanor Busby Education Correspondent

The Independent, Monday 24 September 2018.

Young people educated in state schools are underrepresented in Britain’s top

graduate schemes, according to a new report. Only 57 per cent of graduates hired
by companies had a state-school education – compared to 91 per cent across the
population, according to a survey from the Institute of Student Employers (ISE).
A poll of employers, including those from the law, banking, professional and
financial services, found that the leading graduate jobs in the country were still
dominated by the privately educated.
Businesses hired more graduates, apprentices and interns this year – but much
more still needs to be done to improve diversity, the ISE warned.
“People who attended state schools, women, first generation graduates and
disabled people are all underrepresented on graduate programmes,” the ISE
student recruitment survey says.
Improving diversity was a significant priority for nearly all of the 138 employers
surveyed, from 17 sectors. They had recruited 32,202 young people.
However, 58 per cent of employers focused their recruitment attentions on
institutions which their company has historic links with – and 17 per cent said they
focused on university rankings.
In total, 12 per cent focused on Russell Group universities for recruitment, making
it more likely that they will continue to recruit more advantaged students, the ISE
said.
“Many of the differences in career outcomes between different groups of students
can be explained by the overrepresentation of privately educated and other
advantaged students at high status institutions,” the report stated.
But most employers said they were improving their marketing activities (77 per
cent) and recruitment and selection processes (67 per cent) to address concerns
about diversity.
These included using name-blind or university-blind recruitment, changing the
universities they visit, and offering financial support for candidates to travel to
selection events.
Stephen Isherwood, chief executive of the ISE, said: “Employers are taking some
serious action to improve the diversity of their workforce and there is a high level of
concern, particularly as graduates from state schools are potentially being locked
out of some of the best career options.
“We must find the means to recruit the talent that exists within the breadth of the
student body. This means changing the nature of recruitment and selection
processes and putting less focus on Russell Group institutions or those that
companies have historic links with. It is important to look at the wider social
obstacles too. We can’t expect businesses to shoulder the full responsibility for an
unequal society.”

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 WEEK 2

A. Structure of an argument

1. Complete the passage by choosing a word from the box below for each gap.

An argument is an appeal to reason or logic. It aims to persuade or convince the audience

of a particular position or point of view. It does this by presenting reasons to support that
position.

Sometimes, positions and reasons in argument can be signalled using argument

indicators. Some common argument indicators for positions are for; so; hence; thus; must;
cannot; should. Some common argument indicators for reasons are: because; therefore;
since; as.

2. In the arguments below, underline the argument indicators. Use them to help you
identify which part of each sentence is the reason and which is the position.

a) The bus is running late so we should walk.

The bus it’s running late = position
We should walk =reason

b) That bird can’t be a robin because it doesn’t have a red breast.

That bird can’t be a robin = position
Because it doesn’t have a read breast = position

3. Insert an appropriate argument indicator between the following position and reason
to create one sentence:

P: You should try to appear confident in your job interview

R: the employers are looking for someone who can speak confidently in public.

Because, as,
The … therefore … you

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 B. Indicator Words
Indicator words can help you recognise arguments.
1. The two short texts* below both contain indicator words, but only one is an
argument. Decide which one and be prepared to explain why.
a) The house was destroyed because some faulty wiring ignited some rags in the
laundry room. - fact
b) You shouldn’t trust him because he has lied in the past and shown no remorse when
confronted with his lies. - argument

2. Both texts below contain few indicator words; only one of them is an argument.
Which one?
a) We must resist all effort to allow the government to censor entertainment. Freedom
of speech and expression is essential to a democratic form of government. As soon as we
allow some censorship, censorship will begin to be used to silence any opinions which are
critical of the government. In a short time, freedom of speech and democracy will
disappear.** - argument

b) Censorship in the USA took a new form in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries
with the banning of “inappropriate” books by public librarians, teachers, and other
citizen action groups in order to supposedly protect the innocence of children. Many books
were banned from U.S. public libraries in this time, for “questionable content”.*** - fact

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Analysing an argument.

1. Read the article below and note down the main points.

Prince Harry calls to bring back National Service

As he prepares to leave his military career next month, Prince Harry has called to bring back
National Service after revealing how his experience helped him
Nicola Harley, Daily Telegraph. 16 May 2015

As he prepares to leave his 10-year military career next month, he has revealed his life could
have been different if he had not served in the Army. “Bring back National Service – I’ve said
that before. But I put my hand up, as I said to the kids today, you can make bad choices,
some severe, some not so severe.

“Without a doubt, it does keep you out of trouble. You can make bad choices in life, but it’s
how you recover from those and which path you end up taking. I did it because since I was
a kid I enjoyed wearing the combats, I enjoyed running around with a rifle, jumping in a ditch
and living in the rain, and stuff. But then when I grew up, it became more than that, it
became an opportunity for me to escape the limelight."

Prince Harry trained at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in 2005 and served in
Afghanistan twice and praised the Army. “I’ve had an epic ten years, the Army giving me
great jobs. I can never thank them enough for that," he said. "The Army has done amazing
things for me. And more importantly to me, what I've seen the Army do to other young guys.
I was a troop commander in Windsor for three and a half years, but I had 11 guys under my
command. And some of those guys were - I mean naughty's not the word - they were on a
different level. And their backgrounds and the issues they had. Over those three years to
see the way that they changed is huge, absolutely huge" he said at the end of an eight-day
tour to New Zealand.

He also encouraged his nephew and niece, George and Charlotte, to one day join
themselves as "it's done no harm, just good, for me, and I know it's the same for William. As
an uncle, you know, I would say enjoy the role, because at first it's just pressure, pressure,
pressure," he added.

2. Identify:
a. Prince Harry’s position
b. How he supports his position

3. Should we bring back National Service?

 Do you agree or disagree?
 Give reasons for your answer.

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Identifying Evidence in Argument
1. What is evidence? What is it used for?
In order to support the statement, and persuade your audience, reasons and evidence are
required.

Consider the following kinds of evidence:

a. Statistical / numerical data Used as evidence to make information
clearer or easier to understand.

b. Examples Used as evidence because it is

characteristic of the same kinds of things or
can illustrate a principle.

Comment from relevant stakeholder / expert

c. Statement from a source or witness etc.

d. Estimate Educated guess of what the size, value,

amount, cost, etc. of something might be.

Observed by the writer.

e. Personal observation

2. Identify some of the evidence in the following two arguments. Choose one letter
(a-e) from the box above to match the numbers (1-9) below:

a) Children today have more than twice as much money than those of 30 years
ago [1]. They also have much more leisure time. There are many more
technological goods available today compared with then, for example mobile
phones, tablet computers and video games [2]. Today’s children would find it
very hard to live in those times.

[1] _____ c

[2] _____e

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 b) People who play violent computer games are negatively affected by what they
see on screen. Research has shown that children who play computer games are
approximately 20% more likely to show aggressive behaviour afterwards [3]. A
taxi driver was murdered in Thailand by a young man who claimed he was trying
to recreate a scene for Grand Theft Auto IV [4]. Thus, we should ask gaming
companies to reduce the violent content of the games they produce.

[3] _____a

[4] _____

c) More than 3.5 million people in Britain – 6% of the population – belong to

a gym or fitness club [5], presumably thinking that exercise improves their quality
of life. However, growing numbers of scientists accept that punishing workouts
are unnatural for the human body and may ultimately impair physical fitness, as
demonstrated when Jim Fixx, the American pioneer of jogging, collapsed and
died at the age of 53 [6]. In order to maintain good health, people should cancel
their fitness club subscriptions and adopt a healthier lifestyle.

[5] _____

[6] _____e

d) The increase in numbers of a wild bird in Scotland despite its declining

numbers in the rest of Europe has mystified experts. RSPB Scotland said it was
delighted but it was a mystery as to why red-throated divers had done so well [7].
Their numbers have risen from 935 to 1255 breeding pairs in twelve years [8]. Dr
Mark Eaton, an RSPB scientist, said: ‘We had feared the numbers of red-throated
divers might drop because of the warming of the North Sea seems to be reducing
stocks of fish they feed on’ [9]. Projections about the disastrous effects of global
warming on wildlife clearly need revising.

[7] _____c

[8] _____a

[9] _____e

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Evaluating Evidence in Argument

1. What questions should we be asking when evaluating evidence?

 Is the evidence relevant?

 Is it current?
 Is it corroborated?
 What is the source?

2. What do we need to consider when assessing the source of the evidence?

 RAVEN
 a. Reputation– for example, does this person/group have a history of being
honest/untruthful? Are they trustworthy?
 b. Ability to perceive – eyewitness/observation: could they see and hear clearly? Are
there any factors that would interfere with their ability to see/hear clearly? (Also,
memory, distortion, preconceptions.)
 c. Vested Interest– would they have anything to gain by lying, misleading,
maintaining a particular view point (an incentive)?*
 d. Expertise – are they in a position to have the relevant knowledge
(training/experience/knowledge)?
 e. Neutrality (bias) – are they neutral or may they be predisposed to a certain
position? *

*What do you think is the difference between vested interest and bias?
A vested interest is when an arguer (or someone paying the arguer) stands to benefit from
their point of view being accepted.  When vested interests are involved there's a very high
likelihood of illegitimate bias.
For example, when certain industries spend millions of dollars to pay lobbyists and "donate"
to politicians, we can be certain that their arguments for special treatment or exemption
contain illegitimate biases.

A bias is an "inclination or prejudice for or against" some fact or point of view.  In arguments,
what this means is that we are prone to giving undue favour or neglect to some fact or point
of view.  Everybody does this (except me); it's part of being a human being.

3. If it’s a factual claim, can it be checked?

Not always can be checked. Ex: Cancellation of a flight

4. If it is statistical data …
 Is it a representative sample?

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  What about sample size?
 How is it presented? (Bias?)

5. Identify and evaluate the evidence in the following short arguments by explaining
both weaknesses and strengths.

REMEMBER

Identify the evidence and the reason or conclusion it is supporting first. Consider the
following:
- Relevance: Is the evidence talking about precisiely the same thing as the
conclusion?
- Sufficiency: Is there enough evidence to support the conclusion? Has the evidence
been selected to omit evidence which would oppose the conclusion?

Passage A
Only four of the eleven driverless, robotic cars entered for the Urban Challenge (a
competition held in October 2007 in a simulated suburb outside Los Angeles) finished
the course without freezing up or crashing into each other or buildings. Evidence
This shows that driverless, robotic cars are not likely to be safer than humans soon.
Conclusion

Passage B
Many parents would prefer their children to stay in school for their year 12 & 13
education. Reason
However, evidence from 2004/5 shows that students at Lands End Sixth form College
thought that the education they received was of a very high quality, with 85% rating it as
good or better. Evidence With this in mind, Cornwall education authority should
continue to close school sixth forms, in favour of sixth form colleges.

Passage C
A recent poll suggests that 55% of the population (based on a sample of more than
10,000) supported the use of the death penalty for convicted murderers. Evidence
Previous votes in the Houses of Parliament have consistently opposed the use of the
death penalty. Members of Parliament should represent the views of the British people.
The current views of the people are clearly not being represented by our MPs so we
should lobby MPs to ensure that there is a new vote on this issue in the near future.
Reason

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Passage D
62% of cartoon movies watched by young children on video or DVD contain images of
injuries caused by violence and half of these are fatal injuries. Evidence
Children are easily frightened by these images and there is a relationship between time
spent watching television and sleep disturbances caused by nightmares. This shows
that watching television contributes to sleep problems in young children. Conclusion

WEEK 4
1.  What is home schooling?
Being educate at home.
2.  List some disadvantages of home schooling.
3. The reasons below (a-h) all support the position: “We should not allow children to be
home-schooled” but the reasons are jumbled up.  Grouping similar reasons together
helps to develop a stronger, more cohesive argument.  Organize the reasons into two or
three logical groups and think of a group heading for each.
Reasons:
a. Children need to able to learn a wide range of subjects.
b. Children need to get as many qualifications as possible.
c. Children benefit from learning in the company of others.
d. Most parents do not have the expertise to teach their children.
e. Children need access to a range of facilities, such as laboratories, sports equipment,
and IT, which is less likely to be available at home.
f. Part of a child’s education is to learn how to function and behave with other children.
g. Children benefit from interacting with many different adults, rather than just with
parents.
h. Untrained adults are not able to reproduce the range of in-depth subject knowledge
which schoolteachers can provide.
Group 1- c; g; f
Group 2- a; b; e;
Group 3- d; h

4.  POSSIBLE EXTENSION ACTIVITY:  Choose one of the groupings identified in 3.

and arrange the sentences into a paragraph. You may need to add/ change one or two
words to improve the writing. 
Group 1- There’s some subjects that sometimes only people with the same age as us
can teach us or make us understand more easily, and as a kid there’s many things that
we can learn from another kid plus the fact that kids can only know how to interact with
another kid interacting with them , it’s important as well to get used interacting with

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another adults because when we interact always with and just parents we tend to have
more problems to adapt ourselves out of the bubble.
Group 2- Children’s should be able to learn about as many subjects as possible and
there’s some experiences that you only can get that from school environment, some
qualifications, and the possibility for that you only can get being in a school, plus the
fact that some children’s doesn’t have the access to laboratories, sports equipment, and
IT, all of that it’s necessary to achieve more qualifications.
Group 3- Most of the parents can’t teach or to go deeply in a subject because they don’t
have the knowledge for that because they’re not qualified.

WEEK 6
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJ1a0ymGCKA
Bert & Ernie (from 40 secs onwards)
2. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MTbZoKEOkUg
Friends clip (1 min)
3. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbODqslc4Tg
Polio & ice cream  (1 min 30)
Watch the three video clips above and identify the arguments mentioned.  
What’s wrong with the thinking? 
Try to find a common link between them.

Logical flaws & Causal flaws

A flaw is a weakness in an argument, a fault in the pattern of reasoning.

The previous extracts each represent an example of a causal flaw.  If reasoning
assumes a causal connection without good reason to do so, or oversimplifies causal
relationships, or confuses cause and effect, it is a causal flaw.
Causal Flaws
Assuming a causal connection on the basis of an association (correlation) between two
things.
a. Confusing correlation and cause.
Assumption that because two things happen at the same time, one causes the other. 
 E.g. My alarm clock goes off as the sun rises, so the beeping of my alarm clock must
cause the sun to rise
This is a case of correlation, not cause.
E.g.  Every day the post gets delivered to our door and the dog barks.  When the dog
barks, the postal worker goes away. Therefore, the dog barking makes the postie leave.
The dog thinks that because the postal worker goes away after it barks, the postal
worker goes away because it has barked.  Only the dog believes this.  The dog is
confusing correlation and cause.
b. Oversimplification of cause & effect.

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Assumption that one thing causes another, when actually there may be other
unmentioned factors involved.
 E.g. Joan is scratched by a cat when visiting a friend.  The next day she comes down
with a fever.  Therefore, the cat’s scratch must be the cause of her illness.
Although there could be a relationship between the two events, it is likely that there is a
more complex reason for the fever.  She had already contracted a virus and would have
come down with a fever anyway.
People with low educational attainment often have ill health throughout their lives. So
we can see that a good education is necessary to ensure a healthy life.
A simple causal connection between A (education) and B (health) is inferred – poor
education causes poor health and good education causes good health. However, it is
less straightforward.  It may be that factor C (poverty) is at least a partial cause of poor
educational attainment and poor health.

Causal Flaws 2
Task 1:  What do you think the most likely explanation is for each of the
following? 
a. A caused B (the author is correct). 
b. B caused A (reverse causation). 
c. A third unmentioned factor is the cause. 
d. The correlation is sheer coincidence. 
1. I hit my foot with a hammer and then I felt a terrible pain in my foot. Therefore, hitting
my foot with a hammer caused the pain. - a
2. I went to a different newsagent to buy my lottery ticket and I won £1,000. I am
definitely going to buy my lottery tickets from that shop in future. - d
3. Cockerels crow in the morning just before the sun rises. Therefore, the crowing must
cause the sun to rise. - b
4. People read the last rites tend to die shortly afterwards. Therefore, priests are going
around killing people with magic words. - c
5. A football striker has poorly performed this season. Then he wears golden laces in
his boots one day and scores a hat-trick. Those laces must be good luck, so he carries
on wearing them. - d
6. Prison works! In the 1990s, Conservative Home Secretary Michael Howard started
sending many more people to prison and for longer. The crime rate then fell. The
Conservative Party claimed the credit for reducing the crime rate. - c

Causal Flaws 3
Task 2: Correlation does not prove causation.  In other words, just because two
things are related, it does not necessarily mean that one caused the other. 
Can you think of possible explanations for the following correlations?
1. When ice cream sales go up, shark attacks on swimmers increase. 

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2. Children with higher shoe sizes tend to have better handwriting. 
3. In the United States, neighborhoods with a high level of gun ownership tend to have
higher crime rates. 
4. A mass murderer was found to have had a fondness for watching violent movies.
Therefore, we should ban violent movies. 
5. Areas with higher divorce rates tend to have lower death rates. 
6. Countries that add fluoride to their water supplies have higher cancer rates,
compared to those that do not. 
7. On June 28, 2003, Reuters News Agency reported on a Hungarian medical study of
221 men who carried mobile phones. The study found that men who carry mobile
phones in the front pocket of their trousers rather than in a jacket or briefcase had a
30% lower sperm count than the average male population as previously measured in
1970. There were lawsuits against mobile phone companies for causing sterility in men,
and some consumer watchdogs called for warning labels on mobile phones. 
8. An American mayor observed that children who grow up in homes where there are
lots of books, end up doing better at school than those children who grow up in homes
in which there are few books. So he decided to use taxpayers’ money to send each
child in the city a free book every month.

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