CIE AS Biology (9700) 2019 2021 CIE AS Biology (9700) 2019 2021 2.2.1 Biological Molecules Key Terms SaveMyExams

CIE AS Biology (9700) 2019-2021 Revision Notes savemyexams.co.
uk
YOUR NOTES
2.2 Carbohydrates & Lipids ⬇
CONTENTS
2.2.1 Biological Molecules: Key Terms
2.2.2 The Glycosidic Bond
2.2.3 Starch & Glycogen
2.2.4 Cellulose
2.2.5 Triglycerides
2.2.6 Phospholipids
2.2.1 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES: KEY TERMS

Biological Molecules: Key Terms
The key molecules that are required to build structures that enable organisms to function
are:
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic Acids
Water
© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

CIE AS Biology (9700) 2019-2021 Resources Page 1
REVISION NOTES TOPIC QUESTIONS PAST PAPERS
CIE AS Biology (9700) 2019-2021 Revision Notes savemyexams.co.uk
YOUR NOTES
The key biological molecules for living organisms

YOUR NOTES
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids contain the elements carbon (C) and
hydrogen (H) making them organic compounds
Carbon atoms are key to the organic compounds because:

Each carbon atom can form four covalent bonds – this makes the compounds very
stable (as covalent bonds are so strong they require a large input of energy to break
them)
Carbon atoms can form covalent bonds with oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur
Carbon atoms can bond to form straight chains, branched chains or rings
Carbon compounds can form small single subunits (monomers) that bond with many
repeating subunits to form large molecules (polymers) by a process called polymerisation
Macromolecules are very large molecules

That contain 1000 or more atoms therefore having a high molecular mass
Polymers can be macromolecules, however not all macromolecules are polymers as

the subunits of polymers have to be the same repeating units
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are one of the main carbon-based compounds in living organisms
All molecules in this group contain C, H and O
As H and O atoms are always present in the ratio of 2:1 (eg. water H2O, which is where
‘hydrate’ comes from) they can be represented by the formula Cx (H2O)y
The three types of carbohydrates are monosaccharides, disaccharides and

polysaccharides

YOUR NOTES
Types of carbohydrate table
Exam Tip
When discussing monomers and polymers, give the definition but also name specific
examples eg. nucleic acids – the monomer is a nucleotide.

YOUR NOTES
The Two Forms of Glucose
The most well-known carbohydrate monomer is glucose
Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6
Glucose is the most common monosaccharide and is of central importance to most forms of
life
There are different types of monosaccharide formed from molecules with varying numbers of
carbon atom, for example:
Trioses (3C) eg. glyceraldehyde
Pentoses (5C) eg. ribose
Hexoses (6C) eg. glucose
Glucose exists in two structurally different forms – alpha (α) glucose and beta (β) glucose
and is therefore known as an isomer
This structural variety results in different functions between carbohydrates

YOUR NOTES
Straight chain and ring structural formula of alpha & beta glucose

YOUR NOTES
Different polysaccharides are formed from the two isomers of glucose
Structure of polysaccharides table
Exam Tip
You must be able to recognise and draw the isomers of α and β glucose.

YOUR NOTES
2.2.2 THE GLYCOSIDIC BOND

Forming the Glycosidic Bond
To make monosaccharides more suitable for transport, storage and to have less influence on
a cell’s osmolarity, they are bonded together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides
Disaccharides and polysaccharides are formed when two hydroxyl (-OH) groups (on
different saccharides) interact to form a strong covalent bond called the glycosidic bond
(the oxygen link that holds the two molecules together)
Every glycosidic bond results in one water molecule being removed, thus glycosidic bonds
are formed by condensation
The formation of a glycosidic bond by condensation between two monosaccharides

(glucose) to form a disaccharide (maltose)

YOUR NOTES
Each glycosidic bond is catalysed by enzymes specific to which OH groups are interacting
As there are many different monosaccharides this results in different types of glycosidic
bonds forming (e.g maltose has a α-1,4 glycosidic bond and sucrose has a α-1,2 glycosidic
bond)
The formation of a glycosidic bond by condensation between α-glucose and β-fructose to

form a disaccharide (sucrose)

YOUR NOTES
The formation of glycosidic bonds to create a polysaccharide (amylopectin)
Types of Glycosidic Bonds Table

YOUR NOTES
Exam Tip
Make sure you can identify where the glycosidic bond is in a carbohydrate.
Breaking the Glycosidic Bond
The glycosidic bond is broken when water is added in a hydrolysis (meaning ‘hydro’ –
with water and ‘lyse’ – to break) reaction
Disaccharides and polysaccharides are broken down in hydrolysis reactions
Hydrolytic reactions are catalysed by enzymes, these are different to those present in
condensation reactions
Examples of hydrolytic reactions include the digestion of food in the alimentary tract and the
breakdown of stored carbohydrates in muscle and liver cells for use in cellular respiration
Glycosidic bonds are broken by the addition of water in a hydrolysis reaction

YOUR NOTES
Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar which gives a negative result in a Benedict’s test.

When sucrose is heated with hydrochloric acid this provides the water that hydrolyses the
glycosidic bond resulting in two monosaccharides that will produce a positive Benedict’s
test
A molecule of glucose and a molecule of fructose are formed when one molecule of
sucrose is hydrolysed; the addition of water to the glycosidic bond breaks it
Exam Tip
Remember that disaccharides hydrolyse to two monosaccharides whereas

polysaccharides must undergo many hydrolytic reactions until they form monosaccharides.

YOUR NOTES
2.2.3 STARCH & GLYCOGEN

Starch & Glycogen: Structures & Functions
Starch and glycogen are polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are macromolecules that are polymers formed by many monosaccharides

joined by glycosidic bonds in a condensation reaction to form chains. These chains may
be:
Branched or unbranched
Folded (making the molecule compact which is ideal for storage eg. starch and
glycogen)
Straight (making the molecules suitable to construct cellular structures e.g. cellulose)
or coiled
Starch and glycogen are storage polysaccharides because they are:

Compact (so large quantities can be stored)
Insoluble (so will have no osmotic effect, unlike glucose which would lower the
water potential of a cell causing water to move into cells, cells would then have to
have thicker cell walls – plants or burst if they were animal cells)
Starch
Starch is the storage polysaccharide of plants. It is stored as granules in plastids (e.g.
chloroplasts)
Due to the many monomers in a starch molecule, it takes longer to digest than glucose
Starch is constructed from two different polysaccharides:

Amylose (10 – 30% of starch)
Unbranched helix-shaped chain with 1,4 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose
molecules
The helix shape enables it to be more compact and thus it is more resistant to
digestion

YOUR NOTES
Amylose – one of the two polysaccharides that is used to form starch (the storage
polysaccharide in plants)
Amylopectin (70 – 90% of starch)

1,4 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules but also 1,6 glycosidic
bonds form between glucose molecules creating a branched molecule
The branches result in many terminal glucose molecules that can be easily
hydrolysed for use during cellular respiration or added to for storage

YOUR NOTES
Amylopectin – one of the two polysaccharides that is used to form starch (the storage
polysaccharide in plants)
Glycogen
Glycogen is the storage polysaccharide of animals and fungi, it is highly branched and not
coiled
Liver and muscles cells have a high concentration of glycogen, present as visible granules,
as the cellular respiration rate is high in these cells (due to animals being mobile)
Glycogen is more branched than amylopectin making it more compact which helps
animals store more
The branching enables more free ends where glucose molecules can either be added or
removed allowing for condensation and hydrolysis reactions to occur more rapidly – thus the
storage or release of glucose can suit the demands of the cell

YOUR NOTES
Glycogen, the highly branched molecule used as a storage polysaccharide in animals and
fungi

YOUR NOTES
Summary of Storage Polysaccharides Table
Exam Tip
Be clear about the differences between starch (amylose and amylopectin) and glycogen.

YOUR NOTES
2.2.4 CELLULOSE
Cellulose: Structure & Function
Cellulose is a polysaccharide
Polysaccharides are macromolecules that are polymers formed by many monosaccharides

joined by glycosidic bonds in a condensation reaction to form chains. These chains may
be:
Branched or unbranched
Folded (making the molecule compact which is ideal for storage, eg. starch and
glycogen)
Straight (making the molecules suitable to construct cellular structures, eg. cellulose)
or coiled
Polysaccharides are insoluble in water
Cellulose – structure
Is a polymer consisting of long chains of β-glucose joined together by 1,4 glycosidic bonds
As β-glucose is an isomer of α-glucose to form the 1,4 glycosidic bonds consecutive β-glucose
molecules must be rotated 180° to each other
To form the 1,4 glycosidic bond between two β-glucose molecules, the glucose molecules
must be rotated to 180° to each other
Due to the inversion of the β-glucose molecules many hydrogen bonds form between the
long chains giving cellulose it’s strength

YOUR NOTES
Cellulose is used as a structural component due to the strength it has from the many
hydrogen bonds that form between the long chains of β-glucose molecules
Cellulose – function
Cellulose is the main structural component of cell walls due to its strength which is a
result of the many hydrogen bonds found between the parallel chains of microfibrils
The high tensile strength of cellulose allows it to be stretched without breaking which makes
it possible for cell walls to withstand turgor pressure
The cellulose fibres and other molecules (eg. lignin) found in the cell wall form a matrix which
increases the strength of the cell walls
The strengthened cell walls provides support to the plant
Cellulose fibres are freely permeable which allows water and solutes to leave or reach the
cell surface membrane
As few organisms have the enzyme (cellulase) to hydrolyse cellulose it is a source of fibre

YOUR NOTES
The strength and insolubility of cellulose fibres means it is a suitable molecule to

construct cell walls

YOUR NOTES
Exam Tip
Learn the monomer for cellulose, the arrangement of the glycosidic bond (which is
dependent on the position of the OH group on carbon 1 and 4) and that cellulose exists in
parallel chains bonded by many hydrogen bonds giving it high mechanical strength.

YOUR NOTES
2.2.5 TRIGLYCERIDES
Triglycerides: Basics
Lipids
Macromolecules which contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. However, unlike
carbohydrates lipids contain a lower proportion of oxygen
Non-polar and hydrophobic (insoluble in water)
Different types:
Fats and Oils (composed mainly of triglycerides)
Phospholipids
Steroids and waxes (considered lipids as they are hydrophobic thus insoluble in water)
Triglycerides
Are non-polar, hydrophobic molecules
The monomers are glycerol and fatty acids
Glycerol is an alcohol (an organic molecule that contains a hydroxyl group bonded to a
carbon atom)
Fatty acids contain a methyl group at one end of a hydrocarbon chain (chains of hydrogens
bonded to carbon atoms, typically 4 to 24 carbons long) and at the other is a carboxyl group
Fatty acids can vary in two ways:

Length of the hydrocarbon chain
The fatty acid may be saturated (mainly in animal fat) or unsaturated (mainly
vegetable oils, although there are exceptions e.g. coconut and palm oil)
Unsaturated fatty acids can be mono or poly-unsaturated

If H atoms are on the same side of the double bond they are cis-fatty acids and are
metabolised by enzymes
If H atoms are on opposite sides of the double bond they are trans-fatty acids and
cannot form enzyme-substrate complexes, therefore, are not metabolised. They are
linked with coronary heart disease

YOUR NOTES

YOUR NOTES
Examples of different types of fatty acids with the functional groups and presence of
double bonds highlighted
Triglycerides are formed by esterification
An ester bond forms when the hydroxyl group of the glycerol bonds with the carboxyl group
of the fatty acid
For each ester bond formed a water molecule is released
Therefore, for one triglyceride to form three water molecules are released

YOUR NOTES
Formation of a triglyceride from a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules by
the process of esterification
Exam Tip
Ensure that you are familiar with the structure of a triglyceride and that you can recognise
whether the fatty acids are saturated or unsaturated.

YOUR NOTES
Triglycerides: Structure & Function

Energy storage
The long hydrocarbon chains contain many carbon-hydrogen bonds with little oxygen
(triglycerides are highly reduced)
So when triglycerides are oxidised during cellular respiration this causes these bonds
to break releasing energy used to produce ATP
Triglycerides therefore store more energy per gram than carbohydrates and proteins (37kJ
compared to 17kJ)
As triglycerides are hydrophobic they do not cause osmotic water uptake in cells so more
can be stored
Plants store triglycerides, in the form of oils, in their seeds and fruits. If extracted from
seeds and fruits these are generally liquid at room temperature due to the presence
of double bonds which add kinks to the fatty acid chains altering their properties
Mammals store triglycerides as oil droplets in adipose tissue to help them survive
when food is scarce (e.g. hibernating bears)
The oxidation of the carbon-hydrogen bonds releases large numbers of water molecules
(metabolic water) during cellular respiration
Desert animals retain this water if there is no liquid water to drink
Bird and reptile embryos in their shells also use this water
Insulation
Triglycerides are part of the composition of the myelin sheath that surrounds nerve fibres
This provides insulation which increases the speed of transmission of nerve impulses
Triglycerides compose part of the adipose tissue layer below the skin which acts as insulation
against heat loss (eg. blubber of whales)
Buoyancy
The low density of fat tissue increases the ability of animals to float more easily
Protection
The adipose tissue in mammals contains stored triglycerides and this tissue helps protect
organs from the risk of damage

YOUR NOTES
Exam Tip
It is common to be asked why triglycerides are energy reserves (they store more energy per
gram due to their hydrocarbon chains).

YOUR NOTES
2.2.6 PHOSPHOLIPIDS
The Vital Role of Phospholipids
Structure
Phospholipids are a type of lipid, therefore they are formed from the monomer glycerol and
fatty acids
Unlike triglycerides, there are only two fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule in a
phospholipid as one has been replaced by a phosphate ion (PO43-)
As the phosphate is polar it is soluble in water (hydrophilic)
The fatty acid ‘tails’ are non-polar and therefore insoluble in water (hydrophobic)
Phospholipids are the major components of cell surface membranes. They have fatty acid
tails that are hydrophobic and a phosphate head, that is hydrophilic, attached to a
glycerol molecule.
Phospholipids are amphipathic (they have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts)
As a result of having hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts phospholipid molecules form

monolayers or bilayers in water

YOUR NOTES
In the presence of water due to the hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts phospholipids will
form monolayers or bilayers.
Role
The main component (building block) of cell membranes
Due to the presence of hydrophobic fatty acid tails, a hydrophobic core is created when a
phospholipid bilayer forms
This acts as a barrier to water-soluble molecules
The hydrophilic phosphate heads form H-bonds with water allowing the cell membrane to
be used to compartmentalise
This enables the cells to organise specific roles into organelles helping with efficiency
Composition of phospholipids contributes to the fluidity of the cell membrane

If there are mainly saturated fatty acid tails then the membrane will be less fluid
If there are mainly unsaturated fatty acid tails then the membrane will be more fluid
Phospholipids control membrane protein orientation

Weak hydrophobic interactions between the phospholipids and membrane proteins
hold the proteins within the membrane but still allow movement within the layer

YOUR NOTES
Phospholipids v Triglycerides Table
Exam Tip
Ensure you know the difference between phospholipids and triglycerides!
Exam Question: Easy

YOUR NOTES
Exam Question: Medium

YOUR NOTES
Exam Question: Hard
> CHECK YOUR ANSWERS AT SAVEMYEXAMS.CO.UK


CIE AS Biology (9700) 2019 2021 CIE AS Biology (9700) 2019 2021 2.2.1 Biological Molecules Key Terms SaveMyExams

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CIE AS Biology (9700) 2019 2021 CIE AS Biology (9700) 2019 2021 2.2.1 Biological Molecules Key Terms SaveMyExams

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CIE AS Biology (9700) 2019-2021 Revision Notes savemyexams.co.

2.2.2 The Glycosidic Bond

2.2.3 Starch & Glycogen

2.2.1 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES: KEY TERMS

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

The key biological molecules for living organisms

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Carbon atoms are key to the organic compounds because:

Macromolecules are very large molecules

Polymers can be macromolecules, however not all macromolecules are polymers as

All molecules in this group contain C, H and O

The three types of carbohydrates are monosaccharides, disaccharides and

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Types of carbohydrate table

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

The Two Forms of Glucose

The most well-known carbohydrate monomer is glucose

Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6

Pentoses (5C) eg. ribose

Hexoses (6C) eg. glucose

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Diﬀerent polysaccharides are formed from the two isomers of glucose

Structure of polysaccharides table

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

2.2.2 THE GLYCOSIDIC BOND

The formation of a glycosidic bond by condensation between two monosaccharides

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

The formation of a glycosidic bond by condensation between α-glucose and β-fructose to

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

The formation of glycosidic bonds to create a polysaccharide (amylopectin)

Types of Glycosidic Bonds Table

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Breaking the Glycosidic Bond

Disaccharides and polysaccharides are broken down in hydrolysis reactions

Glycosidic bonds are broken by the addition of water in a hydrolysis reaction

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar which gives a negative result in a Benedict’s test.

Remember that disaccharides hydrolyse to two monosaccharides whereas

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

2.2.3 STARCH & GLYCOGEN

Starch and glycogen are polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are macromolecules that are polymers formed by many monosaccharides

Starch and glycogen are storage polysaccharides because they are:

Starch is constructed from two diﬀerent polysaccharides:

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Amylopectin (70 – 90% of starch)

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Summary of Storage Polysaccharides Table

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Polysaccharides are macromolecules that are polymers formed by many monosaccharides

Polysaccharides are insoluble in water

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

The strengthened cell walls provides support to the plant

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

The strength and insolubility of cellulose ﬁbres means it is a suitable molecule to

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

© 2015-2021 Save My Exams Ltd

Non-polar and hydrophobic (insoluble in water)

The monomers are glycerol and fatty acids

Fatty acids can vary in two ways: