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Use of Recycled and Secondary Aggregates in Concrete: An Overview

Conference Paper · March 2011

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4378.2166

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 USE OF RECYCLED AND SECONDARY AGGREGATES
IN CONCRETE: AN OVERVIEW
R K Dhir K A Paine J de Brito
University of Dundee University of Bath Technical University of Lisbon
United Kingdom United Kingdom Portugal
M Etxeberria N Y Ho C S Poon
Universitat Politècnica de Samwoh Corporation Hong Kong Polytechnic
Catalunya Singapore University
Spain Hong Kong
V W Y Tam
University of Western Sydney
Australia

ABSTRACT. This paper written by some of the world’s leading exponents on the use of
recycled and secondary aggregates provides a brief overview of the use of recycled and
secondary aggregates for new concrete construction. It is based on a substantial review,
dissection and repackaging of the current known knowledge in the field and is based on
authors’ own research, findings and experience. The paper, in particular, draws upon recent
knowledge that has been generated in the past five years as standards and specifications have
finally started to provide a route by which these materials can be more readily assimilated
into construction. The paper covers production and processing of recycled aggregates,
developments in international standards, the effect of recycled aggregates on strength,
deformation characteristics and durability of concrete, and concludes with three international
case studies in which recycled aggregates have been used in structural and high performing
concrete.

Keywords: Aggregates, Recycling Sustainability, Concrete, Asphalt, Standards.

Professor Ravindra K Dhir OBE, Dundee University, Director Applying Concrete

Knowledge Ltd.UK, has published extensively on the subject of sustainability and recycling
of materials. Dr Kevin A Paine is a Senior Lecturer in the BRE Centre for Innovative
Construction Materials at the University of Bath, UK. Professor Jorge M C L de Brito is a
full professor in the Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Instituto Superior
Tecnico, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal. Professor Miren Etxeberria is professor
of construction materials at the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain. Her research
deals with the recycling of waste building materials. Dr Nyok Yong Ho is Technical
Director of Samwoh Corporation, a leading integrated construction and sustainable recycling
company in Singapore. Professor C S Poon, Department of Civil and Structural
Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, has published widely on low waste building
technology and sustainable construction. Dr Vivian W Y Tam is a Senior Lecturer at the
University of Western Sydney, Australia and has published widely on environmental
management, sustainable construction and concrete recycling.
158 Dhir et al

INTRODUCTION

It is reported that the global demand for construction aggregates may exceed 26 billion tonnes
by 2011 [1]. Due to issues relating to sustainability and limited natural resources, it is clear
that this demand must be met, at least partially, by the use of recycled and secondary
aggregates (RSA), arising from waste streams such construction demolition, blast-furnace
slag, incineration of solid municipal waste and sewage sludge, glass cullet, used rubber tyres
and oil drill cuttings. However, currently, the use of RSA stands at only 750 million tonnes,
less than 3% of total aggregate use.

The largest single-source of RSA that could be used in construction is that arising from
construction, demolition and excavation waste (CDEW). In most countries, CDEW makes
up a significant proportion (approximately 55%) of the national total [2]. A significant
amount of research and development activities in recent years have focused on the
development of technologies for recycling these wastes as RSA. However, these activities
alone will not achieve wide-scale use for RSA without improvements in supply of RSA that
will in turn fuel potential increases in user demand and a more receptive market further down
the chain. Furthermore, it is necessary to overcome perceived perceptions with regard to the
quality of RSA, and other technical issues relating to their use in durable, structural concrete.
These issues are covered in this paper.

In addition to the technical issues relating to the use of recycled aggregates in concrete, there
is a practical problem of availability at the right time and in the right place. Thus, a concrete
supplier may not always have the materials at hand when a new project starts. The main
alternative to using recycled aggregates is, of course, natural aggregate (NA) and these are
still relatively low cost materials. However, in a purely economic balance, the cost of
processing to recycled aggregates is becoming less than that of disposing of the demolition
waste and purchasing new aggregates, due to increases in landfill taxes and the newly
introduced aggregate levies. If recycled aggregates have to be transported a significant
distance from production place to the place of use, then both the cost and environmental
benefits may become more questionable [3].

PRODUCTION OF RECYCLED AGGREGATES

Basic equipment used to process NA is similar to that used for crushing, sizing and
stockpiling recycled aggregate. A recycling plant usually comprises of crushers incorporating
sieves, sorting devices and screens. The main processes include crushing, removal of ferrous
metals and foreign materials such as bricks, wood and plastics as well as screening into
different particle sizes [4-6].

Although the current concrete recycling method is used in many countries to produce
recycled aggregate, the quality of the produced recycled aggregate is low, which limits their
applications for low-grade activities such as road work, pavement and drainage [7-8]. Some
advanced technologies are now available to improve the quality of recycled aggregate, so that
it can be used for high-grade concrete applications [9-11].
 Recycled Aggregates Overview 159

Heating and Grinding Method

The heating and grinding method makes the hardened cement paste which adheres to
concrete waste soft by heating concrete waste to about 300ºC [12]. Following this process,
parts of the hardened cement paste still adhered to original aggregate in the concrete mass can
then be separated by the grinding process. The two processes working together produce
clean original aggregate from the concrete waste.

Screw Grinding Method

The screw grinding method (Figure 1) uses a shaft screw consisting of an intermediate part
and an exhaust part with a warping cone to remove mortar adhered to the aggregate’s surface
[13].

Figure 1 Screw grinding equipment and grinded aggregates [13]

Mechanical Grinding Method

The mechanical grinding method (Figure 2) uses a drum body which finely separates
partition boards with same-sized holes. The steel balls can move horizontally and vertically
by rolling the drum. The quality of aggregate can then be improved in narrowing the inside
space by using the partition boards [14].
160 Dhir et al

Figure 2 Outline of the Mechanical Grinding Equipment [13]

Gravity Concentration Method

After processing with a jaw crusher, an impact crusher and an improvement rod mill,
aggregate of over 8mm are divided into recycled coarse aggregate and mortar particles.
Aggregate with sizes under 8mm are divided into two types: recycled fine aggregate of sizes
5mm and 5-8mm [15]. The wet gravity concentration machine is used to move: (i)
lightweight constituents such as mortar particle and wood waste upward; and (ii)
heavyweight constituents such as aggregate grain downward.

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS

This section examines how the production of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) has been
anticipated by the existing provisions in different countries, and how they can answer the
needs of sustainable development.

This very brief analysis is based on existing standards and recommendations, and describes
the use of recycled aggregates in the production of recycled aggregate concrete, details all the
parameters involved, such as the requirements of recycled aggregates and their conditions for
use in concrete. Parameters such as density, water absorption or the presence of impurities of
recycled aggregates, as well as maximum limit of incorporation of recycled aggregates and
maximum strength class of recycled aggregate concrete, are also compared.
Recommendations are suggested for the use of recycled aggregates in concrete, not only in
accordance with the documents studied but also with an original approach.

Existing Specifications

Specifications and standards with requirements concerning recycled aggregates and their
quality control, together with their application and conditions of use, in use in several
countries have been extensively reviewed by Gonçalves and de Brito [16-17]. In general,
most specifications classify recycled aggregates in terms of their composition, each with its
own designation. As a consequence, a standard nomenclature has been proposed for the
purpose of comparing all the specifications, as: RCA (recycled concrete aggregates); MRA
(mixed concrete and masonry recycled aggregates); RMA (recycled masonry aggregates).
Table 1 makes a comparison of the different classes’ composition of the normative references
studied.
 Recycled Aggregates Overview 161

Table 1 Overview of recycled aggregate composition [17]

COMPOSITION, % maximum content

SPECIFICATION CLASSFICATION Organic Lightweight
Concrete Masonry Contaminants Filler
material material
RCA > 90 - 2 3c n.a 7
Brazil [18]
MRA < 90 - 2 3c n.a 10
RCA > 90 < 10 n.a 1b n.a n.a
RCA > 70 < 30 n.a 1b n.a n.a
Germany [19]
RMA < 20 > 80 n.a 1b n.a n.a
MRA > 80 n.a n.a n.a n.a
Hong-Kong [20] RCA < 100 - n.a 1 0.5 4
Japan JIS A 1
5021 [21] MRA - n.a 3e n.a coarse;
7 fine
RMA - < 100 1 5 1 3
RILEM [22] RCA < 100 - 0.5 1 0.5 2
RCA + APa < 20 < 10 0.5 1 0.5 2
United Kingdom MRA n.a 1b 1 n.a
[23] RCA > 95 <5 1b 0.5 n.a
The Netherlands RCA > 95 <5 0.1 1b 0.1 n.a
[24] RMA - > 65 1 1b n.a n.a
RCA > 90 < 10 0.2 1 n.a
Portugal [25] RCA > 70 < 30 0.5 1 n.a
MRA > 90 2 1 n.a
RCA > 90 < 10 0.5 0.5b n.a n.a
Belgium [26] MRA > 40 > 10 0.5 1b n.a n.a
RMA < 40 > 60 0.5 1b n.a n.a
RCA > 94 <5 0.1 1d 0.1 n.a
Norway
MRA > 90 0,5 2.5d 0.1 n.a
RCA < 100 - n.a 1d n.a n.a
Switzerland [27]
MRA < 100 - n.a 1 n.a n.a
RCA with testing > 95 - n.a n.a n.a n.a
RCA without
Denmark > 95 - n.a n.a n.a n.a
testing
MRA > 95 n.a n.a n.a n.a
a
primary or natural resources; b asphalt is not included; c organic material content
included; d asphalt and lightweight material are not included; e bricks, ceramics, glass,
plaster, plastics, wood; n.a - not available.

Besides the composition requirements, there are others that can change some of the concrete
properties. Table 2 compares four requirements, where the first two influence the mechanical
behaviour and the last two mainly the durability of concrete.
162 Dhir et al

Table 2 Overview of recycled aggregate requirements [17]

MAXIMUM MAXIMUM MAXIMUM

MINIMUM
WATER CHLORIDE SULFATE
SPECIFICATIONS CLASSIFICATION DENSITY,
3 ABSORPTION, CONTENT, CONTENT,
kg/m
% % %
RCA n.a 7 1a 1a
Brazil [18]
MRA n.a 12 1a 1a
RCA 2000 10 0.04 0.8
RCA 2000 15 0.04 0.8
Germany [19]
RMA 1800 20 0.04 0.8
MRA 1500 n.a 0.15 n.a
Hong-Kong [20] RCA 2000 10 0.05 1
Japan JIS A 5021 MRA 2500 3 coarse; 3.5 0.04 n.a
[21] coarse and fine
fine
Japan JIS A 5022 MRA 2300 5 coarse; 7 n.a n.a
[28] coarse; fine
2200 fine
Japan JIS A 5023 MRA n.a. 7 coarse; 13 n.a n.a
[29] fine
RCA + AP 2400 3 a.i. 1a
RILEM [22] RCA 2000 10 a.i. 1a
RMA 1500 20 a.i. 1a
United Kingdom RCA n.a n.a n.a 1
[23] MRA n.a n.a n.a n.a
The Netherlands RCA 2000 n.a 0.05b 1
[24] RMA 2000 n.a 0.05b 1
RCA 2200 7 a.i. 0.8
Portugal [25] RCA 2200 7 a.i. 0.8
MRA 2000 7 a.i. 0.8
RCA 2000 10 n.a n.a
Norway
MRA 1500 20 n.a n.a
RCA n.a n.a 0.03 1
Switzerland [27]
MRA n.a n.a n.a 1
RCA with testing 2200 n.a n.a n.a
RCA without
Denmark 2200 n.a n.a n.a
testing
MRA 1800 n.a n.a n.a
a
water-soluble; b for reinforced concrete, there are different values for plain and
prestressed concrete; a.i. - additional information provided by the prescribing entity; n.a -
not available.

Taken individually the aggregate requirements do not reveal the specification’s approach. It
can only be stated that a regulation is conservative or liberal after aggregate’s requirements
and proposed use of concrete are examined together. Table 3 compares the use proposed by
the documents analyzed.
 Recycled Aggregates Overview 163

APPROACHES TO RECYCLED AGGREGATE USE IN CONCRETE

A concern with the current standards is that they tend to ignore the effect of recycled
aggregate characteristics on the performance of concrete, and they also tend to ignore that
concrete itself requires different levels of performance depending upon its use. Recently, two
distinctly different new approaches to the use of recycled aggregate in concrete have been
proposed and are described below. A method proposed by Gonçalves [16] has similarities to
the current standards in that it is based on the composition of the recycled aggregates, whilst
a method proposed by Paine and Dhir [30] is based on the premise that the performance of a
given recycled aggregate is not necessarily dependant on the composition, and therefore
performance based or performance related properties should be used.

Composition Based Approach

Gonçalves [16] has made recommendations for an alternative method for classifying recycled
aggregates based on their composition, and then establishing the requirements for their use in
concrete. Knowing the variability of their characteristics and the effect they could cause on
concrete properties, there is a wide range of solutions in which recycled aggregates may be
used. The use of recycled aggregates in non-structural concrete is not barred, nor is the use of
the fine fraction: different types of aggregate are therefore suitable for different demands.

In order to be able to better identify the aggregates, they are differentiated according to their
composition: RCA - the content of concrete, mortar and natural aggregates from washed fresh
concrete is more than 90%; RMA - the content of masonry, such as natural stone, bricks and
aerated concrete blocks is more than 90%; MRA - a mixture of the previous aggregate types.
Table 3 presents the composition requirements for recycled aggregates as well as the
maximum content of deleterious substances. Recycled aggregates should therefore meet the
requirements given in Table 4 Three different approaches are defined in these
recommendations for the use of recycled aggregates: without corrective coefficients; with
fixed corrective coefficients; and with variable corrective coefficients, as described in
references [17] and [31].

Table 3 Composition of recycled aggregates [16]

MAXIMUM CONTENT, %
CONSTITUENTS
RMA MRA RCA
Concrete < 10 > 90
> 90
Masonry > 90 < 10
Impuritiesa 3 1 1
Organic material 2 0.5 0.5
Lightweight
1 0.5 0.5
materialb
Filler 5 3 2
a
glass, plaster, gypsum, plastic, paper, cloths and asphalt;
b
density less than 1000 kg/m3.
164 Dhir et al

Table 4 Requirements for recycled aggregates [16]

REQUIREMENTS RMA MRA RCA

Minimum dry density (kg/m3) 1800 2000 2200

Maximum water absorption (%) 20 10 7

Maximum chloride content (%) 0.15 0.04 0.04

Maximum sulphate content (%) 1 0.8 0.8

Performance Related Approach

However, the effect of a given recycled aggregate on the performance of concrete is not
necessarily dependant on the composition. An alternative approach has therefore been
advocated by Paine and Dhir [30] which relates limits to allowable recycled aggregate on
performance-based properties (i.e. strength), or for practicality, on performance-related
characteristics (e.g. Los Angeles value). The justification for this is that in the UK, in
particular, MRA usually contains significant proportions of natural stone and often is a better
quality aggregate than RCA. Restrictions to its use in concrete, based on composition, are
therefore unjustifiable.

As a result of the proposed performance related approach, recycled aggregate quality is

related to concrete performance across the whole range of recycled aggregates, independent
of composition and source. The concept being that good quality recycled aggregate
(conforming to, say, class A) will be suitable for high performance applications, meeting the
relevant standards and specifications, whilst lower classes will be more appropriate for lower
value applications.

Given this approach, material that would currently be classified as RA under BS 8500-2 [23]
(and therefore not specified for use) can be classified and considered for relevant
applications. This should lead to greater confidence in specifying and using recycled
aggregates and helps to remove the main barrier that is preventing the uptake of recycled
aggregates in concrete.

A major research project was carried out at the University of Dundee to investigate the effect
of the individual characteristics of MRA on the performance of concrete using various
proportions of Ru, Rc and Rb [30]. The research produced general guidance supporting the
wider use of recycled aggregates in concrete as well as grouping recycled aggregates into
three classes suitable for different applications (Table 5).
 Recycled Aggregates Overview 165

Table 5 Performance related aggregate requirements for the three proposed classes of coarse
RA and permissible forms of concrete based on exposure conditions [30]

Minimum LA Class LA 25
Minimum density, SSD, kg/m3 2500
CLASS A
Maximum water absorption, % 3
Max. drying shrinkage value, % 0.075

No risk of corrosion XO
Corrosion induced by carbonation XC-1 XC-2 XC-3 XC-4
Corrosion induced by chlorides XD-1 XD-2
Corrosion induced by chlorides (seawater) XS-1 XS-2
Freeze/thaw attack XF-1 XF-2 XF-3 XF-4
Sulfate attack DC-1 DC-2

Minimum LA Class LA 40
Minimum density, SSD, kg/m3 2375
CLASS B
Maximum water absorption, % 4.5
Max. drying shrinkage value, % 0.075

No risk of corrosion XO
Corrosion induced by carbonation XC-1 XC-2 XC-3 XC-4
Freeze/thaw attack XF-1 XF-2
Sulfate attack DC-1 DC-2

Minimum LA Class LA 55
Minimum density, SSD, kg/m3 2150
CLASS C
Maximum water absorption, % No limit
Max. drying shrinkage value, % 0.075

No risk of corrosion XO
Corrosion induced by carbonation XC-1 XC-2
Sulfate attack DC-1
166 Dhir et al

STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF RAC

An overview of the effect of recycled aggregate on the strength and engineering properties
has been provided by Dhir and Paine [1]. When recycled aggregates are used as a direct
replacement of natural aggregate at the same w/c ratio the strength of the resulting concrete is
usually reduced. However, Dhir et al [32] showed that a certain proportion (20-30% by mass
of coarse aggregate) could be added without any effect on performance. For higher recycled
aggregate contents, strength can be easily compensated for by a reduction in the water/cement
ratio and a mix design method based on this concept has been developed [32], which has
been also been shown to be applicable up to strengths greater than 80 N/mm2 [33].

The lower strength of RCA concrete is usually associated with: (i) the weaker interfacial
transition zone between aggregate and mortar, due to the aggregate having a coat of weak
mortar already attached [34-36], and (ii) this attached mortar raising the porosity of the
concrete [37-38]. Furthermore, RMA concrete often has a even lower strength due to the
inclusion of weak and porous aggregate particles, for example low strength bricks and
plaster. However, MRAs with large stone contents have shown superior performance to
RCA [30].

In general, the flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of RAC has been reported to be
proportional to compressive strength as shown in Figure 3 [1]. As a result, typical
relationships between static modulus of elasticity and compressive strength, and flexural
strength and compressive strength as derived from design codes [39] are compatible with the
use of RAC. Notwithstanding the above, there have been some recent concerns that the
elastic modulus of RAC is not proportional to strength [40], and a study undertaken by Xiao
et al has shown that for a given cube strength, elastic modulus of RAC may vary by as much
as 15 kN/mm2 [41]. This is perhaps an area for further research.

45 9

40 8
FLEXURAL STRENGTH, N/mm 2
ELASTIC MODULUS, kN/mm 2

35 7
E = 22 (f /10)0.3
30 cm c 6

25 5 f = 0.35 f 2/3
ct,fl c

20 4
0.7 E
15 cm 3 Natural gravel
10 2 Limestone
Ecm = mean elastic modulus
5 fc = mean cube strength 1
RA1 (25% to 100%)
fct,fl = mean flexural strength RA2 (25% to 100%)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
2 2
CUBE STRENGTH, N/mm CUBE STRENGTH, N/mm

Figure 3 Relationship between cube strength and

elastic modulus and flexural strength of NAC and RAC [1]
 Recycled Aggregates Overview 167

RAC tends to have higher levels of drying shrinkage than natural aggregate for the same
compressive strength. This is mainly because recycled aggregates provide less restraint to
movement (lower elastic modulus), and because of the higher cement contents that are often
used in these concretes to achieve the required strength. However, up about 20% by mass of
aggregate, the shrinkage of RAC and the equivalent natural aggregate concrete (NAC) can
assumed to be essentially comparable [30].

DURABILITY OF RAC

The durability performance of RAC is most often associated with cracks and fissures, which
were formed in recycled aggregate during processing, thereby rendering the aggregate having
weaker and more susceptible to permeation, diffusion and absorption of fluids [42]. This
may also be due to the presence of old ITZ and adhesive mortar in the MRA, which makes
RAC more permeable than NAC [35].

Negative effects of recycled aggregate on concrete quality, limit the use of this material in
structural concrete. However, it has been suggested that the shortcomings of using recycled
aggregate can be mitigated by using the double mixing approach in concrete manufacturing,
particularly for concrete prepared with high water-binder ratio as it has been demonstrated
that improvements in strength, chloride penetration, and carbonation resistances of concrete
made with recycled aggregates can be achieved [8,35]. Abbas et al also have demonstrated
that by using an equivalent mortar volume (EMV) method, RAC has higher resistance to
freeze–thaw action, chloride penetration and carbonation than those designed with the
conventional method can be prepared [43].

It has also been shown that the negative effects of RCA can be mitigated by incorporating a
certain amount of mineral admixtures [44-46]. Recently Kou et al [47-48] found that when
Class F fly ash was used as an addition or cement replacement, it can improve the mechanical
and durability properties of RAC.

Research suggests that the resistance to chloride ion penetration of concrete decreases as the
recycled aggregate content increases (Figure 4). However, at the same recycled aggregate
replacement level, the use of fly ash as a partial replacement and addition of cement increases
the resistance to chloride ion penetration. According to Leng et al [49] the reasons for the
enhanced resistance to chloride ion penetration were: (i) the use of fly ash refined the
distribution of pore size and pore shape of the concrete, (ii) more calcium silicate hydrate
products were formed as fly ash hydrated, which absorbed more chloride ions and blocked
the ingress path, and (iii) fly ash was used as addition of cement leading to reduced w/c ratios
of the concrete mixtures.

Furthermore, it is shown that a reduction in the w/c ratio increased the resistance to chloride
ion penetration. Since the volume of pores within a concrete reduced as the w/c ratio
decreased, the concrete became more impermeable and the resistance to chloride ion
penetration increased accordingly. These results also agree with those reported by Leng et al
[49]. Moreover, it was found that the resistance increased as the curing age increased from
28 to 90 days. It was due to the increase in the volumes of hydration products [50], thus
forming impermeable regions and increasing the resistance to chloride ion penetration.
168 Dhir et al

Figure 4 Chloride-ion penetration of concrete

Because RAC has a higher permeability than NAC, research often shows that carbonation
also occurs more quickly in RAC than NAC. However, research on RAC and NAC designed
for the same strength have shown that the carbonation depth (after a given length of exposure
decreases as the recycled aggregate content of concrete increases, i.e. RAC has better
resistance to carbonation than NAC [51]. This is because to achieve the design strength,
RAC has a higher cement content and the additional alkaline reserve acts to protect the
concrete surface against carbonation mechanisms. In addition, RCA is partly constituted with
old mortar that increases the alkaline reserve further.

Research has shown that provided RAC is air-entrained, resistance to freeze-thaw can be
assumed [52]. However, for non-air entrained concrete, RAC may be somewhat more prone
to freezing and thawing degradation than NAC [53].

A number of research projects have attempted to identify whether recycled aggregate

concrete is more susceptible to chemical attack than natural aggregates. A comprehensive
study of damaging alkali-silica reactions (ASR) using expansion tests in accordance with BS
812-123 at 60ºC by Dhir et al. [54] has established that the use of recycled aggregates is
likely to be low risk with respect to damaging alkali-silica reaction (ASR).

No research has reported any deleterious effect of recycled aggregates on the long-term
resistance to sulfate attack of concrete.

There have been few investigations into the fire resistance of RAC, but it is known that the
higher the water content, the higher the potential of the concrete spalling in fire conditions.
Eguchi et al [55] have investigated RAC (0% to 100% of RCA) cylindrical specimens heated
to the conditions specified in JIS A 1304 ‘‘Method of Fire Resistance Test for Structural
Parts of Building’. The water content of recycled concrete was higher as the replacement
ratio increased. However, spalling did not take place in any of the samples. Thus, the fire-
resistant property of the RAC may be considered not to be significantly different from that of
NAC.
 Recycled Aggregates Overview 169

PERFORMANCE OF STRUCTURAL CONCRETE

MADE WITH RECYCLED AGGREGATES

The analysis of the structural behaviour (flexural, shear or seismic behaviour) of concrete
made with recycled aggregates (RAC) has been made by comparing its results with concrete
made with normal aggregates (NAC) and according them different code requirements.

Flexural Properties of RAC Beams

The flexural behaviour of RAC beams has been evaluated by extensively by Sato et al. [56]
and Ajdukiewicz [57], whilst Xuping Li [58] summarises the research work carried out
during the last few years in China. Taking into account all research works the following
general guidelines can be summarised:

• The bearing capacity of RAC beams is less than that of NAC when 100% RCA is used.
However the presence of reinforcement decreases the influence of RCA. The stronger the
reinforcement the greater the bearing capacity.
• Deflection of beams tends to increase as the RCA increases. The presence of
reinforcement also moderates this influence. Differences in the deflections of RAC and
NAC beams are much smaller than in the difference of their modulus of elasticity.

• RAC beams (irrespective of RCA content) showed a very similar pattern of cracks and
shape of failure to NAC. However when a higher amount of RCA is used wider cracks
and smaller space between them are produced. The first cracks of RAC were observed at
lower load than those of the NAC beams. The use of expansive additive in concrete
production [59] or the application of oil type on RCA surface [60], can contribute to
decreasing the crack widths.

In general, the general flexural theory and current code provisions for flexural design of
conventional reinforced concrete beams are applicable to reinforced RCA concrete beams.
However, the use of RAC in beams should be more careful when limitation of deflection is
important or long- term load would be supported [57].

Shear Behaviour of RAC Beams

Aggregates have a strong influence on the shear behaviour of reinforced concrete beams.
However, the response of RAC to shear load can be considered to be similar to the response
of NAC and lightweight aggregate concrete behaviour [58]. Several investigations were
carried out in China [58], Japan [61], Spain [62-64] and Canada [65] on the shear
performance of RAC beams have concluded that:

• Concrete beams with or without transverse reinforcement and made with a RCA less than
25% by mass obtained similar shear strength to those of NAC beams. In which case, the
current code provisions for shear design are adequate for RAC.
• In beams without stirrups, a decrease in the shear strength happens when a high amount
of RCA is used. The use of 50% of RCA can produce a reduction of 10-15% and beams
with 100% of RCA can reach a loss of 30% with respect to NAC. Also the cracking load
is reduced, even maintaining the same compressive strength of NAC.
170 Dhir et al

• In beams with transversal reinforcement, the influence of RCA content on the ultimate
shear is very small when those concretes are produced with the same compressive
strength as NAC. The shear strength is reduced to lower than 10% when 100% of RCA is
used. The RAC beams have the same cracking patterns and failure modes as those of
NAC beams.

With regard to the shear behaviour of RAC, EC2 [39], the Canadian Standard CSA A23.3-04
[66] and the Cladera and Mari method [67-68] overestimate the shear strength of beams made
with high amounts (more than 50%) of RCA [62]. In addition, the formulas in ACI318, and
the Chinese code GB50010 for calculating shear capacity of normal concrete beams are
unconservative for RAC beams [58].

In the Chinese technical code for RAC [69] the following equation, without taking into
account of the RCA content, was adopted to predict the shear capacity of RAC beams (Vu),

In which, f t is the tensile strength of RAC (N/mm2); and f yv , A sv , s are the yield strength
(N/mm2), the area (mm2) and the spacing of the shear reinforcement (mm).

Bond Properties of RAC and Steel Reinforcement

The preliminary research works [70-71] carried out in this field concluded that the bond
behaviour between RAC and steel bars seems to be comparatively limited in the qualitative
stage. Eguchi et al. [55], after testing beams made with 0% to 100% of RCA and submitted
to monotonous loading, concluded that when the lateral reinforcement ratio is high, the
maximum bond stress tended to decrease slightly as the RAC ratio increases. However, in all
cases the test values exceed the calculated values (According to Japanese specification [72])
as shown in Figure 5.
EXPERIMENTAL BOND STRENGTH, N/mm²

THEORETICAL AIJ BOND STRENGTH, N/mm²

Figure 5 Evaluation of maximum bond strength according to AIJ formula [72]

 Recycled Aggregates Overview 171

In general, results show that for equivalent mix proportions, the bond strength between the
RAC and the plain bar is lower than that on NAC, when the replacement of 50% and 100% of
RCA is used. While the bond strength, between the RAC and the deformed bars, is similar to
NAC, irrespective of the RCA replacement. However, for the same compressive strength, the
bond strength between the RAC (with 100% of replacement) and steel bars is higher than the
one between NAC and steel bars and, the anchorage length of steel bars in the RAC can be
slightly shorter than those for NAC.

Seismic behaviour of RAC

According to Xuping Li [58], the seismic behaviour of column-beam joints made with 50%
or 100% of RAC is slightly lower than the joints of NAC. However the ductility of RAC
joints can meet the corresponding requirement for earthquake-resistance design, regardless of
the RCA content. Furthermore, Corinaldesi et al [73] has concluded that structures made
with RAC can be adequately designed to permit them to deform inelastically while ensuring
adequate ductility and energy dissipation capacity.

In addition, Xiao et al. [74] studied the seismic behaviour of RAC (made with 0, 30, 50 and
100% of RCA) frame structures tested under low-frequency cyclic lateral load with constant
vertical actions. The research work concluded that all the frames behaved similarly in the
aspects of the failure pattern, regardless of the RCA content. The general seismic behaviour
of a frame specimen decreases with an increase of the RCA, but the frame with a high content
of RCA still behaves well enough to resist an earthquake.

SECONDARY AGGREGATES

The use of some other recycled materials and industrial by-products as manufactured
aggregates is more contentious than the use of recycled aggregates generated from
construction and demolition waste – probably because less is known about these materials.
However, used appropriately in, for example, general grade concrete, foundations and low
quality pavements which make up over 75% of all concrete use, there is scope for using
enormous quantities of crushed glass, municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash, oil drill
cuttings, used/shredded tyres, plastic waste, ceramic wastes and other materials.

Recycled glass aggregate (RGA), for example, has significant potential for use as a fine
aggregate in concrete, including high performance concrete. Research has shown that
concrete made with RGA as fine aggregate will develop similar or slightly better strength and
modulus of elasticity than concrete made with natural sand of the same grading (Table 6) and
that flexural strength, creep and shrinkage are essentially unaffected. Much recent research
has focused on concerns with potential alkali-silica reaction and means of minimizing this
reaction [75-76].
Incineration is an increasingly common method for reducing the bulk mass and volume of
municipal wastes. Incinerator bottom ash aggregate (IBAA) may be used as a coarse
aggregate in concrete construction, although it should be restricted to low strength concrete
and must not be used in reinforced or prestressed concrete due to potentially high chloride
contents [77]. As a material, it is perhaps best restricted to precast blocks or to cement-bound
road and sub-bases. Sewage sludge ash (SSA) is a potential alternative to natural fine
aggregate, and research has concentrated on this outlet. Incinerator fly ash (IFA) may have
some potential as filler aggregate.
172 Dhir et al

Oil drill cuttings are a sand-like material, produced through offshore oil extraction. While
they are composed of natural granular materials consisting of stable minerals with relatively
good mechanical properties, they do suffer from contamination by oil.

A feasibility study by Dhir et al [78] has shown that they may be used at up to 20% by mass
of sand in concrete without affecting main engineering properties of concrete or water-
tightness of the product. Concerns with contamination and the presence of dangerous
substances have been investigated. The current state of this research is now directed towards
developing the technology to a level of marketable products, and practical application.

Table 6 Properties of RGA concrete formed from a variety of glass types [75]

CUBE STRENGTH, N/mm2 E, ISA-10

MIX
3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days kN/mm2 ml/m2/s
Control 28 36.5 49 55 30 0.47
(a) Container Glass
Amber 28.5 36 50 58.5 32 0.43
Green 28 36 50.5 57 31 0.36
Flint 28.5 34 46 55 30 0.41
(b) Flat Glass
Building 29 38 50 54 30 0.37
Automobile 28 36 49 54.5 30 0.49
(c) Borosilicate 29.5 34.5 44 55 29 0.45
(d)Combinations 26.0/29.5 33.0/36.5 44.5/48.5 50.0/56.5 30.0/36.0 0.34/0.47

The use of granulated rubber from waste tyres is an example of how recycled materials can
improve the performance of concrete [79], as research has shown that concrete incorporating
tyres can be used as an alternative to air-entrained concrete to improve freeze/thaw resisting
performance and for enhancing thermal insulation through reductions in the thermal
conductivity of concrete.

Similar findings have been found with the use of plastic and ceramic waste aggregates [80] in
which the negative aspects of lower strength and greater shrinkage may be offset by
improved performance in other aspects (Tables 7 and 8).
 Recycled Aggregates Overview 173

Table 7 Changes in concrete’s properties due to the use of plastic waste aggregates [80]

Table 8 Changes in concrete’s properties due to the use of ceramic waste aggregates [80]

CASE STUDIES

Whilst there has been significant research into the behaviour and performance of RAC that
has demonstrated its applicability for use in structural concrete and in a range of exposure
conditions, the use of RAC in practice still tends to be restricted to low value applications in
which it is used as blinding courses and fill concrete. This section highlights three case
studies in which RAC has been used in higher value concrete applications.

Hong Kong Wetland Park

Hong Kong Wetland Park is located at the north western part of Hong Kong and is close to
the border between Hong Kong and Shenzhen, China [81]. The project was completed in
2006. It has a 10,000 m2 visitor centre comprising exhibition galleries, AV theatres, souvenir
shops, cafes, children play areas, classrooms and a resources centre. In the construction of
the Hong Kong Wetland Park Project, recycled aggregate was employed to replace part of the
virgin aggregate used in the majority of structural concrete. The highest concrete grade using
recycled aggregate was Grade C35 (Table 9). The target slump was 100 mm but in some
cases, 75 mm slump concrete was also used. The project started in April 2003 and a total
174 Dhir et al

volume of around 13,000 m3 of concrete using recycled aggregate was used. The applications
of RAC included pile caps, ground slabs, beams, walls and mass concrete in addition to the
more usual minor concrete works and concrete blinding.

Based on the specification, the replacement levels of recycled coarse aggregate were 100 %
and 20 % for concrete grades C20 (or below) and C25 (or above up to C35), respectively.
Because the experience in the use of recycled aggregate in concrete was immature at the
beginning of the project, cement contents for concrete mixes incorporating recycled
aggregate were deliberately increased by around 4% to compensate for the high water content
required by the recycled aggregate so as to maintain a similar water/cement ratio as shown in
Table 9. The statistical results listed in Table 9 show that the average 28-day cube strength
and the standard deviation of recycled aggregate concrete used in the project were about the
same as those of ordinary concrete. The similar standard deviations show that the quality of
concrete using recycled aggregates can also be controlled to a similar stability as that of
ordinary concrete. Feedback from contractors of this project was that concrete containing
20% recycled aggregates was little different from normal concrete. No crack that could be
attributed to shrinkage was observed and carbonation test revealed no traceable carbonation
depth over the first two years period.

Table 9 Statistical results of recycled and natural aggregate concretes [81]

GRADE SLUMP, MRA AGGREGATE CEMENT, w/c 28 DAY CUBE S. D. FOR

mm % TYPE kg/m3 STRENGTH, RUNNING 40
N/mm2 SAMPLES
20 MRA 395 0.466 47.3 2.8
100
0 NA 380 0.473 48.2 4.1
C35
20 MRA 380 0.468 47.1 4.8
75
0 NA 365 0.479 45.8 4.5
20 MRA 360 0.486 44.7 4.4
C30 75
0 NA 345 0.507 42.1 4.7
100 MRA 300 0.607 31.4 5.0
C20 75
0 NA 290 0.603 32.8 4.4

Samwoh Eco-Green Building, Singapore

In respond to a Government call, Samwoh Corporation Pte Ltd, a leading integrated

construction company and green products supplier embarked on an ambitious and forward-
thinking demonstration project to build the first building structure in the region using
concrete with up to 100% RCA derived from construction and demolition waste [82]. The
building is the Samwoh Eco-Green Building which houses Samwoh R&D Centre.

The building has marked a significant milestone in sustainable development in Singapore. It

is part of the Samwoh Eco-Green Park that was officially opened on 22 March 2010 by Ms.
Grace Fu, Senior Minister of State for National Development and Education. The Building
was constructed as part of a research project which is partially funded by the MND (Ministry
of National Development of Singapore) research grant. The project was undertaken by
Samwoh, Building and Construction Authority (BCA) and Nanyang Technological
University (NTU).
 Recycled Aggregates Overview 175

The objective of this project is to evaluate the feasibility of using recycled concrete aggregate
(RCA), produced from construction and demolition waste, in structural concrete. The study
involved two stages:

• Stage 1: Extensive laboratory evaluation of the performance of concrete with RCA

• Stage 2: Construction and structural monitoring of a three-storey building constructed
using concrete containing RCA

Based on the laboratory study, Grade 40 concrete with up to 100% RCA was used to
construct the building in Stage 2 of the project. The building comprised three storeys (Figure
6). The RCA concrete was used for the construction of all the structural members of the
building which included the beams, columns, slabs and walls. To provide an analysis of the
in-situ performance of the RCA concrete, fibre-optic sensors were embedded in the columns
to provide real time monitoring of the building. The sensors measured the deformation of the
columns which can be used to analyse the structural behaviour of the building. The data
gathered from this maiden research will help BCA to update the building code requirements
to allow the use of RCA in all buildings. Recently, the building has been awarded with BCA
Green Mark at “Platinum” category – the highest award given to building with exemplary
Green and sustainable features.

Figure 6 Samwoh Eco-Green Building

The Samwoh Eco-Green Building has demonstrated the feasibility of using concrete with
RCA in structural concrete. It is a technological breakthrough and the results obtained from
the study can be used to expand the existing building codes to include the use of RCA in
buildings. With this showcase, it is hopeful that RCA can be used in future structural
buildings which will reduce our dependence on natural aggregate and thereby, contribute
towards our nation's goal to achieve sustainable development.
176 Dhir et al

Biotechnology Park Dundee, Scotland

This project constituted Dundee City Council’s proposals for a second phase of development of a
biotechnology park, comprising of a new access road, treatment of boundary walls and ground
preparation on the site of what was formerly the largest Jute Mill in Dundee [83]. This required
removal of the existing factory floors and the underground foundations containing a large volume
of concrete. These were excavated, sorted and crushed to produce RCA and MRA (consisting
mainly of brick). Both materials were used in the construction of a 95m length access road,
consisting of 19 panels (5m x 6.1m), and a turning circle (radius of 13m) consisting of 6 larger
panels. This was specified for the most aggressive freeze-thaw environment in BS 8500 (XF4)
with a minimum air content of 3.5% (20mm aggregates), and consisted of a 150mm deep RCA
concrete laid on top of a 300mm deep unbound MRA sub-base. In addition, pigmentation and
imprinting were required since the client requested that the finished surface resemble an existing
road from the first phase of development where red coloured block paving had been used. To
provide additional protection, polypropylene fibres were added to the concrete mix to assist in
preventing cracking due to drying shrinkage. Mix proportions are given in Table 10.

Table 10 RAC mix proportions used at the biotechnology park, Dundee

w/c WATER PORTLAND PIGMENT SAND RCA FIBRES*

CEMENT
0/4 4/10 10/20
0.42 160 385 12 590 395 795 0.9
Air-entraining agent used at dosage of 30mℓ/50kg cement * polypropylene fibres

Construction joints were formed between each 5m panel and expansion joints at every third
panel, i.e. every 15m (Figure 7). Joints were formed by use of 400mm long stainless steel bars
(in an attempt to minimise corrosion problems from the relatively high chloride content of the
RCA). No other reinforcement was used in the pavement. A number of panels were constructed
using NA (both gravel aggregate and basalt) for comparison. Specimens were taken from
selective mixes for investigation in the laboratories of the Concrete Technology Unit at the
University of Dundee, and overall results showed more than satisfactory performance. The client
was happy with the surface finish achieved, particularly on the RCA sections and the colour of
the pavement has weathered to match the initial phase of development constructed using block
paving.

Figure 7 RCA concrete access road to the biotechnology park, Dundee

 Recycled Aggregates Overview 177

CONCLUDING REMARKS

This paper has shown that:

• There is significant potential for the growth of recycled and secondary aggregates
(RSA) as an appropriate and “green” solution to the anticipated increased world-wide
in the concrete construction activity.

• Many advanced technologies are now available to improve the quality of recycled
aggregates, so that they can also be used for high-grade concrete applications, as
shown possible under laboratory conditions.

• Many countries have developed standards for the use of recycled concrete aggregates
(RCA) and mixed concrete and masonry aggregates (MRA) in concrete. However,
methodologies to route concrete towards the most appropriate form of concrete are
still required. Two proposed methodologies have been proposed – one based on
composition as proposed by Gonçalves [16] and another based on performance related
characteristics as proposed by Paine ad Dhir [30]. However, both of them remain to
be tested rigorously and refined as required.

• Major research world-wide has shown that recycled aggregates can be used in
structural concrete designed for some of the most severe environmental exposure
conditions, in terms of aggressive chemical attack, fire and seismic activity, but this
remains to be demonstrated in real applications.

• Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) made with recycled concrete aggregate (RCA)
has been used in a number of high-value applications, three of which have been
described in this paper. Nonetheless, these practices have been limited to only a few
countries and the message still has to travel worldwide if there is to be a meaningful
difference in the sustainable use of all recycled and secondary aggregates in concrete.

• Notwithstanding the above, it can be argued that the current knowledge on the subject
has not been sufficiently packaged in a form that will enable its easy use by all those
involved with the construction industry – property developers, architects, engineers,
contractors, precast concrete manufactures and ready-mixed concrete suppliers, as
well as certifying authorities.

• Whilst this overview has attempted to draw together the available information, a more
robust, sound and comprehensive – in the form of a definitive state of the art review -
gathering, analysis, interpretation of all data pertaining to recycled and secondary
aggregates (RSA) and concrete made with such aggregates (RAC) is still required to
ensure that full confidence can be gained in adopting the knowledge that exists.

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