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Chapter 3-1-15
Chapter 3-1-15
Chapter 3-1-15
Behaviorism
At any one time, a science is simply what its researches yield, and the
researches are nothing more than those problems for which effective
methods have been found and for which the times are ready. Each step
in scientific progress depends on the previous one, and the process iS
not much hurried by wishing. (Boring, 1950)
32
Chapter 3 Behaviorism 33
Pavlov's Experiment
Pavlov, also a physiologist, was researching digestive processes in dogs. His
experiments involved the presentation of meat powder to dogs to measure
salivation. However, Pavlov noticed that after a time the experimental
animal began salivating before seeing or smelling the meat powder.
■
tionship between a stimulus and a response was viewed as a major bre ak ..n
reactio
Postexperimental (Conditioned)
Preexperimental ("Natural") Relationship Experimental Trials Relationship
I
36 Part II Foundations of Contemporary Psychology
Watson also believed that the human personality developed thro ugh
the conditioning of various reflexes. He maintained that the hum an
infant at birth possesses only three emotional responses (Watson, 1928 ).
They are fear, rage, and love. The fear response, for example, begi ns
with the jumping or starting of the body and an interruption in breath..
ing. Then, depending on the infant's age, crying, falling, a n d crawling or i
running away follow. The fear response was observed i n the natural
i
environment after a loud noise or loss of support for the infant. Accord..
ing to Watson (1928), an adult's complex emotional life is the result of
the conditioning of the three basic responses to a variety of situations.
Conditioning Experiments with Infants. While at Johns Hopkins Uni -
versity', Watson and his graduate assistant, Rosalie Rayner, conducted a
controversial experiment with an 11-month-old child named Albert
(Watson & Rayner, 1920). This experiment, unethical by today's stan -
dards, conditioned Albert's fear reaction to several soft furry objects.
Albert was tested first to confirm that live animals and objects (such
as a human mask and cotton) did not elicit his fear response. Then, for
several trials a white rat was presented to Albert, and a laboratory assis -
tant behind Albert struck a steel bar with a hammer. On the first pairing
of the two stimuli, the infant jumped violently; on the second trial, he
began to cry. On the eighth trial, the white rat alone elicited crying and
crawling away (Watson & Rayner, 1920).
Five days later, the fear reaction also appeared in response to a white
rabbit. Nonfurry objects, such as the child's blocks, did not elicit the fear
response, but mild fear reactions occurred in response to a dog and a
sealskin fur coat. The child's emotional response had transferred to furry
animals and objects, and it persisted for longer than a month.
In recent years, questions have been raised about the experiment
because the classical conditioning model was not strictly followed. The
loud noise was not paired with the presentation of the rat; instead, the
noise occurred as Albert reached out his hand to touch the animal.
However, the experiment demonstrated that emotions could be studied
by controlled research methods, and it promoted research on condition ing
(Kratochwill & Bijou, 1987).
A related topic, the elimination or "unconditioning" of children's
fear reactions, was pioneered by Mary Cover Jones. She found that ef -
forts to talk the child out of the fear or relying on extinction to eliminate
the fear were ineffective (Jones, 1924). Instead, a planned program was
required. The two successful strategies were (a) the child's observation of
other children's acceptance of the feared object, and (b) the gradual
presentation of the feared object during a favorite activity, such as eating.
Watson's Predictions. Watson concluded from his experiment that be -
haviorism was the mechanism that could provide a foundation for living.
In his usual persuasive style, Watson (1925) made the followin claims
f o r c o n d i t i o n i n g : g
Chapter 3 Beha% vorism 37
same feelings originally associated with the person in the former rela..
tionship. Such emotional reactions often occur without the awareness of
the individual; thus, their origin may be difficult to identify.
Television commercials and magazine advertisements also make use
of paired association in efforts to elicit positive emotional reactions to a
product. One advertisement, for example, shows a soft teddy bear hu g..
ging a blanket (conditioned stimulus) and sitting beside the product, a
plastic bottle of fabric softener (unconditioned stimulus).
1
Difficult
mathematics
exercise
(b)
Activities such Feelings of Coloring or Feelings of
as coloring or pleasantness pleasantness
drawing activities
drawing and relaxation and relaxation
and procedures
for easing the
children into the
new situation
First day
of school
FIGURE 3.1
Applying classical conditioning in the classroom.
Experimental Procedure
Thorndike experimented with baby chicks, dogs, fish, cats, and monkeys.
Hots ever, while he was a student at Harvard, his landlady forbid him to
continue hatching chicks in his room. William James offered the base-
ment of his home for Thorndike's research, to the dismay of Mrs. James
and the excitement of the children.
The typical experimental procedure required each animal to escape
from a confined space in order to reach food. A puzzle box was used that
required the tripping of a latch or some other mechanism in order to
effect escape (Figure 3.2).
When confined, the animal often engaged in a variety of behaviors,
including scratching, biting, clawing, and rubbing against the sides of the
box. Sooner or later the animal tripped the latch and escaped to the food.
Repeated confinements were characterized by a decrease in the behav-
iors unrelated to escape and, of course, a shorter escape time. The most
dramatic change was observed with monkeys. In one experiment, a box
containing a banana was placed inside the cage. The monkey took 36
minutes to pull out the nail that held the wire fastener closed. On the
40 Part II Foundations of Contemporary Psychology
FIGURE 3.2
Puzzle cage used in some of Thorndike's experiments.
k, such as drawing lines blindfolded, does not enhance learning in the absence of a
tas
satisfying state of affairs (Thorndike, 1913b, p. 20).
The law of readiness describes the conditions that govern the states referred to as
"satisfying" or "annoying" (Thorndike, 1913a). Briefly summarized, the execution of an
action in response to a strong impulse is satisfying,
whereas the blocking of that action or forcing it under other conditions
isannoying.