Unit 4: Socialand Emotional

Development
Objectives:
At the end of thismodule, yoU must be able to:
a) discUSs the concepts and theories
related to the socio-emotional development
of children and adolescents:
b) make connections, Using knowledge on current research literature, between
socioemotional development theories and developmentally
appropriate
teachingapproaches suited to learners' gender, needs, strerngths,
interests and
experiences.

A. SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Social and emotional development means how
childrenstart to understand who
they are, what they are feeling and what to
expectwhen interacting with others.t is the
development being able to form and sustain positive
of
relationships, experience,
manage and express emotions, and explore and engage with the
environment.
Crying. smiling. andlaughing are early signs of emotion. Other
indices are facial
expressions, motor activity, body language, and physiological
changes. Brain
development is closely linked with emotional development. Self-conscious and self
evaluative emotions arise after the development of
self-awareness.
Personality the relatively consistent blend of emotions,
and behavior that makes aperson unique. From
temperament, thought
infancy on, personality development is
intertwined with social relationships.
Temperament -characteristic disposition or style of approaching and reacting
to situations.

Three main types of temperament:

1. Easy children - generally happy., rhythmic in biological
functioning and
accepting of new experiences.
2. Dificult children -more iritable and harder to
please, irregular in biological
rhythms, and more intense in expressing emotion.

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PAGE
 peopleand
children -mild but slow to adapt to new
3. Slow-to-warm-up
situations. biological
to be largely inborn and to have a
Temperamentalpatterns appear
experience. Goodness of fit
modified by
They are generally stable but can be
basis. adjustment.
temperament and environmental demands aids
between achild's practices.
may reflect child-raising
Cross-culturaldifferences in temperament

THE MOTHER'S ROLE

monkeys
Harlow and his colleagues. RhesUS
An experiment was made by Harry
hoUrs after birth. The infant monkeys were put
were separatedfrom their mothers 6 to 12
cylindrical wire-mesh form
one or 2 kinds of Surrogate mothers: a.) A plain
into cages with
were fed from bottles connected
and b.) Form coveredwith terry cloth. Some monkeys
mothers.
to the wire mothers, others were fed by the warm, cuddly cloth
either kind of mother, they all
When the monkeyswere allowwed to spend time with
if they were being fed only by
spent more timne clinging to the surrogate mothers, even
babies raised by cloth surrogates showed
the wire surrogates. In an unfamiliar room, the
more natural interest in exploring than those
raised by wire surrogates. Apparently, ihe
better.
monkeys also rememnbered the cloth surrogates
eagerly ran to enmbrace the
After a year's separation, the cloth-raised monkeys
interest in the wire forms.
terry-cloth forms, whereas the wire-raised monkeys showed no
were able to nurture
None of the monkeys in either group grew Up normally and none
their own offspring.
stimulation and
A dummy mother would not provide the same kinds of
opportunities for positive development as a live mother.. These experiments show that
feeding is not the only, or even the most important, thing babies get from their mothers.

Mothering includes the comfort of close bodily contact and, at least, in monkeys, the
satisfaction of an innate need to cling. Human infants need a mother who responds
Warmly and promptly to the infant.

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 THE FATHER'S ROLE
various Cultures. The
Fatherhood is a social construction. Fathering roles differ in
other than the biological father.
role may be taken or shared by someone
younger children's lives
In some societies, fathers are more involved in their
economically, emotionally and in time spent-than in others.

SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESCHOOLER

We hear alot of parents and teachers and preschool administrators say that
attending preschool is more for "socialization" than for formal acadenmic learning.
By the endof toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they
are a separate and distinct person. With their ability to make representations, they con
now think and reflect about themselves. Self-conceptrefers to the way one sees himself,
a general view about one's abilities, strengths and weaknesses. It is a sense of self and
evaluative mental picture of one's abilities and traits.
The preschooler's self-concept mainiy focuses on observable characteristics and
his/her uSUal beliefs, enmotions and attitudes. One will hear apreschocoler say, "Kaya ko
na!" (lcan do it) "Ako lang nagsuot ngshoes ko." (| wore my shoes all by myself).
An important aspect of self-concept is self-esteem, which specificaly refers to
one's judgments about one's worth. Preschoolers are naturally positive. Usually. they wil
tend to evaluate their skills high and underestimate the tasks. They are confident to try
again even if theydon't succeed with something. However, they may become negative
because of repeated frustration and disapproval. Preschoolers needa lot of patience
andencouragement from adults.

Most young children wildly overestimate their abilities. Their self-esteem is not
based on reality. One reason for this is that self-esteem is, in part, the result of feedback
received from other people, and adults tend to give positive and uncritical feedback.
Children believe they are either allgood or allbad (unidimensional). In middle childhood,
self-esteem will become more realistic.

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 demorolized when
whose soll o%tooms ConinQonlon sUCoss lollobe
Chilcdren
which lhey believe
they fol. Often these childre)
ollibule tolure lo ther deoliciencles,

they are ungble to chango. failure or

In conlrast, tnd to atlibule
Childrenwith noncontingent soll esteem,
the need lo try harder, If initially
disappOntment to facBors outside themselves ot to
strategies until they find one that
UnsUCcesstul o rejected, they persevere, lrying new
works.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND GENDER IYPING

As the preschooler's ability to create schemas develop, they become capable of

gender typing, the process of forming gender roles, gender-based preferences and
behaviors accepted by society. They come to form gender stereotypes. Preschoolers
begin toassociate things like toys, tools, games,clothes. jobs, colors or even or behaviors
as being "only for boys" or "only for girls." Consequerntly, they form their own gender
identity, the view of oneself as being masculine of feminine.
Gender typingand gender identity are influenced by environmental factorssuch
as the family, teachers, peers, and the mass media. Differences in parental expectation
and behavior towards daughters and sons affect gender typing and gender identity.
More often, boys are expected to show more emotional control and be more
competitive while girls are expected to bewarm and soft and demure. Parents also
expect their children to play with toys that are "right" for their gender. The expectations
of other people in the preschoolers' lives also influence their gender schema. This includes
their relatives, teachers, classmates, and other playmates. Preschool teachers should
think thoroughly on how to present notions of what boys and girls can do especially in
the discUssion about occupations or community helpers.

PARTEN'S STAGES OF PLAY

Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has asocial dimension. As

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 Mildred Porten, in
piaymates increases.
with play
develops, social inteaction Parten's stages of
which ied to
the preschooler play ehavior stages
study on chidren's framework. The
a SiageS as
fhe 19305 did using these
have followed interaction
then, numerous studies
gradUal increase of social
Since and the
play
development of chiidren important venue for
the child's
descrite the becomes an
these stages. Piay sharing,
as they go
through
joining a play situation, taking-turns,
entering or
developmentof social skills like
together.
and working
helping, saying sorry, not to be playing but
directs his
child appears
behavior - The
1. UnocCupied
interests him.
attention on anything that
may talk
Onlooker behavior- The child spends time watching others play. He
2.
with them.
to them but does notenter into play
not to
child starts to play on his own. He seems
3. Solitary Independent Play - The
notice other children playing nearby.\
similar to those near him, but only plays
4. Parallel Play-The child plays with toys
place.
beside and not with them. No interaction takes
them,
with others. There is interaction among
5. Associative Play -The child plays
organization are agreed upon.
buin task assignment, rules and
others bound by some agreed upon rules
6. Cooperative - The child plays with
something, play a game, or act out
and roles. The goal is maybe to make

something.

BAUMRIND'S MODEL OF PARENTING STYLES

QAuthoritarian parenting - emphasizes control and obedience.

OPermissive parenting - emphasizes self-expression and self-regulation.
OAuthoritative parenting blends respect for a child's individuality with an effort

to instill social values.

Eleanor Maccoby and John Martin added a4th parenting style:

ONeglectful or uninvolved - describes parents who, sometimes because of
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 he chld
theii needs rather th0nthoye of
foCUs on
stress ar depression, 00lhonttive )tertrna
pointed out that the benoits of
Baumrind's critics have seem to
provokOd Coitrovory bocOUSO it
supported. I1 has
have epeatedly been now whether the
way to raise chldreN. Msnposiblo lo
"right"
SUggest that there isone BaJroind did not
studied were, in fact, raised in a paticular slyle,
chidren Baumrind affectyd chilcdren's
consider innate factorS
(temperament) that mighl haVe
parents.
competence and exerted an influence on

LATE ADULTHOOD
At this period of socio-emotional development,childrern are spending less tirmne in
the home. The bulk of their time is spent outside the home, either alone or with other
children, rather than with adults. Older children have already familiarized themsetves with
other children. They are already used to interacting with different ages and gender. For
many of them, these social networks are not only sources of social support but aso
different forms of learning.
Another milestone in this stage is the development of the childrens eo"oe
inteligence (EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feelings of oneseif anc oiners 1o

quide and motivate behavior. Emotional Inteligence has four main areas:

Developing emotional self-awareness

Managing emotions (self-control)
Reading emotions (perspective taking)
Handling emotions (resolve problems)
For children, good peer relationships are very important. The aprovo and
belongingness they receive contributes to the stability and security of ther emotond
development. Peer size also increases and less supervision by adults is requred At this
stage, children prefer to belong to same-sex peer groups.
There are five types of peer status:
Popular -frequently nominated as the bestfriend and one who isE sihe
by peers.

FDUG 123: CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNE RS AND LEARNING I INCIIE

 average number of
positive and negative nominations
Average - receive an

from peers. disliked

nominated as besttriend but is not really
Neglected-very seldom'
is also disliked
a besttriend but one who
Reiected- inteqUently nominated as
by peeIS.
friend but at the same time is
Controversial - frequently nominated as abest
disiked by peers liked.

THE SEARCH FOR IDENTITY

James Marcia, in research based on rikson's theory, described four identity
statuses: identity achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity diffusion.
The four categories differ according to the presence or absence of crisis and
commitment.

Crisis is Marcia's term for period of conscious decision making related to identity
fomation while commitment is Marcia's term for personal investment in an occupation
or svstem of beliefs.

1. ldentity achievement Identity status, describbed by Marcia. that is

characterized by commitment to choices made following a crisis, a period

spent exploring alternatives.
2. Foreclosure - ldentity status, described by Marcia, in which a person who has
not spent time considering alternatives (that is, has not been in crisis) is
Committed to other people'splans for his or her life.
3. Moratorium -Identitystatus, described by Marcia, in which a person is cumently
considering alternatives (in crisis) and seems headed for commitment.
4. Identity diffusion - Identifty status, described by Marcia, that is characterized by
absence of commitment and lack of serious consideration of alternatives.
Sexual orientation appears to be influenced by an interaction of biological and
environmental factors and to be at least partly genetic.

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PRINCIPLES PAGE 7
 sexual, romantic, and
affectionateintorest.
Consistent
Sexual orientation - FoCUs of
homosexual, or bisexual.
heterosexUal, identity r d
either
acceptance, the COUrse of hamosexUal
Because of laCk of social
vary.
relationship development may transroitted
of pregnancy and sSexUally
Teengge sexual activity involves risks
those who begin sexual dctivity urt,
infections (STs). Adolescents af greatest risk are
contraceptives, and are ill-informed about sey
hove multiple partners, do not use
STIS are infections and diseases spread by sexual contact. Regular condorn use is
the bestsafeguard for sexually active teens. Condoms have been in use for at least 400
years. Comprehensive sex education programs delay sexual initiation and encourage
contraceptive use. Abstinence-only programs have not been as effective.
STIs are most likely to develop undetected in girls. Teenage pregnancy and
birthrates in the United States have declined. Teenage childbearing often has negafive
outcomes. Teenage mothers and their fanmilies tend to suffer ill health and financial
hardship, and the children often suffer from ineffective parenting.

RELATIONSHIPS VWITH FAMILY, PEERS, AND ADULT SOCIETY

Although relationships between adolescents and their parents are not awar
easy. ful-scale adolescent rebellion is unusual. For the majority of teens. adoiescece s
a fairly smooth transition. For the minority who seem more deeply troubled, it can predici
adifficult adulthood.

Adolescent rebellion - Pattern of emotional turmoil, characteristic of aminority of

adolescents, that may involve conflict with family, alienation from adult society, reckiess
behavior, and rejection of adult values.
Adolescents spend an increasing amount of time with peers, but relationships with
parents continue to be influential.

Individuation - Adolescents' struggle for autonomy and personal identity.

Conflict with parents tends to be greatest during early adolescence.
Authoritative
parenting is associated with the most positive outcomes.

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LEARNING PRINCIPLES PAGE 8
 adolescents'
maternal employment on
strUcture and the
Effects of family economic resources, the quality of
such factors as whereabouts
developmentmay depend on monitor adolescents'
parents
and how closely adolescence and
home environment, become more distant during
to
Relationships with siblings tend eaua The
younger siblings becomes more
and
power between older the peer
the balance of early adolescence. The structure of
is strongest in
influence of the peer group as friendships.
elaborate, involving cliques and crowds as well
group becomes more stable, and SUpportive in
become more intimate,
Friendships, especially among girls,
adolescence.
be used in positive ways to
Social media and electronic communication can
also lead to negative
establish social connections and increase intimacy, but they Can
meet a
effects, sUch as addiction-like behaviors or bullying. Romantic relationships
Variety of needs anddevelop with age and experience.

B. DEVELOPMENT OF SELF AND SOCIAL UNDERSTANDINGS

1. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY (FREUD)

conscioUsness, like an
Freud believed that most of the human mind lies beneath
run, talk, build,
iceberg. The children you observe do and say many things-cry, crawl,
iceberg is the smallest part of
play-but all this is the tip of the iceberg. And the tip of an
childhood experiences, are
the iceberg. Freud theorized that people, because of their
the greater depths of their
only vaguely aware of the ideas and impulses that occupy
minds.
Freud theorized three parts of the personality: the id, ego, andsuperego.
demands
The id is present at birth and is unconscious. It represents biological drives and
instant gratification, as SUggested by a baby's wailing. The ego, or the conscious sense
of self, begins to develop when children learn to obtain gratification for themselves,
without screaming or crying. The ego curbs the appetites of the id and makes plans that
are in keeping with social conventions so that a person can find gratification yet avoid

social disapproval.
The superego develops throughout infancy and early childhood and brings inward
the norms and morals of the child's caregivers and other members of the community. If
the child misbehaves, the superego will flood him or her with guilt and shame.
Psychosexual development is Freud's view that as children develop, they find
sexual gratification through stimulating different parts of their bodies.
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 psychosexual development: org,
According to Freud, childhood has five stages of
mUch aratificatior
phallic, latency, and genital. If achild receives foo litfle or tOo
anal, stage.
in thai stage. For example, in the first
during astage, the child can become fixated
long, the child may become fixated on oral
if the child is weaned early or breastfed too
"sharp fongue" or "biting wit."
activities such as nail biting or smoking, or even shOW a
control and
In the second stage, the anal stage, gratification is obtained through
elimination of waste products. Excessively strict or permissive toilet training can lead to
the development of so-called anal-retentive traits, such as perfectionism and neatness,
or anal-expulsive traits, sUch as sloppiness and carelessness.
In the third stage, the phallic stage, parent-child conflict may develop over
masturbation, which many parents treat with punishment and threats. It is normal for
childrern to develop strong sexualattachments to the parent of the other sex during the
phalic stage and to begin to view the parent of the sanme sex as a rival.
Freud believed that by age 5 or 6, children enter a latency stage
during which
sexual feelings remain unconscioUs; children turn to schoolwork and typically prefer
playmates of their own sex. The final stage of psychosexual development, the genital
stage, begins with the biological changes that usher in adolescence. Adolescents
generaly desire sexualgratification through intercourse with a member ofthe other sex.
Freud believed that oral or anal stimulation, masturbation, and male-male or female
female sexual activity are immature forms of sexual conduct that reflect fixations at eary
stages of development.

2. PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (ERIKSON)

Erik ErikSon (1902-1994) modified and expanded Freud's theory. Erikson's theory,
like Freud's, focUses on the development of the emotional life and psychological traits.
But Erikson also focuses on the development of self-identity and argues that social
relafionships are more important than sexual or aggressive instincts. Therefore, Erikson
speaks of psychosocial development rather than of psychosexual development.
Consequently, he places greater emphasis on the ego,or the sense of self.
Erikson (1963) extended Freud's five developmental stages to eight to include the
changing concerns throughout adulthood. Rather than labeling his stages after parts of
the body, Erikson labeled stages after the life crises that the child (and then the adult)
might encounter during that stage.

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 COMPARISON OF FREUD'S AND ERIKSON'S STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
AGE Freud's Stages of Psychosexual
Development Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Developrnent
Trust versus Mistrust. The
Oral Stage. Gratification derives from oral task is to come to trust thedevelopnenta!
key
Birth to 1 activities such as sucking. Fixation leads to primarily the mother, and the arezivers.
year development of oral traits such as It is desirable for the environmert.
infant to connect the
dependence, depression, and gullibility. environment with inner feelings of satisfactíon
and contentment.
Anal Stage. Gratification derives from anal
activities involving elimination. Fixation Autonomy versus Sharne and Doubt. The
About l to leads to development of anal- retentive developmental task is to gain the desire to
3years traits (e.g., excessive neatness) or anal make choices and the
expulsive self-control to regulate
one's behavior so that choices can be
traits (e.g.. sloppiness). actualized.
Phallic Stage.Gratification derives from
About 3 to Initiative versus Guilt. The
stimulation of the genital region. Fixation task is to add developmental
6 years leads to development of phallic
traits such attempting initiative-planning
to achieve that which oneand
as vanity. chosen. The preschooler is on the movehasand
becomes proactive.
Latency Stage. Sexual impulses are Industry versus
suppressed, allowing the child to focus on task is to becomeInferiority.
The
absorbed in thedevelopmental
About 6 to
12 yearS
development of social and and implementation of skills, to developrment
skills. technological master the
basics of technology, and to become
productive.
ldentity versus Role Diffusion. The
Genital Stage. Sexual impulses developmental task is to associate one's skills
reappear, with gratification sought
Adolescence through and social roles with the
sexual relations with an adult of development of career
the other sex. goals. More broadly. the development of
identity refers to a sense of who one is and
what one believes in.
Young Intimacy versus Isolation. The developmental
adulthood task is to commit oneself to another person
and to engage in a mature seXual love.
Generativity versus Stagnation. The
developmental task is to appreciate the
Middle opportunity to "give back." Not only are
adulthood generative people creative, but they also give
encouragement and guidance to the younger
generation, which may include their own
children.
Ego Integrity versus Despair. The
Late developmental task is to achieve wisdom and
adulthood dignity in the face of declining physical abilities.
Ego integrity also means accepting the time and
place of one's own life cycle.

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 3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (BANDURA)
developed many of the principles of
The American psychologist Albert Bandura
the environment as the chief impetus for
Sociallearning theory. Whereas behaviorists see
development is bidirectional.
development, Bandura suggests that the impetus for
acts on the world as
Bandurg called this concept reciprocal determinismthe person
the world acts on the person.

Classic social learning theory maintains that people leam appropriate social
behavior chiefly by observing and imitating models-that is, by watching other people.
Thisprocess is called observational learning, or modeling. People tend to choose models
who are prestigious, who control resources, or who are rewarded for what they do-in
other words, those whose behavior is perceived as valued in their culture. Observational
learning can OcCUr even if a person does not imitate the observed behavior. For
example,Clara sees her sister get disciplined for eating acookie cooling on the counter
and thus restrains herself from doing the same thing.

C. DEVELOPMENT OFMOTIVATION AND SELF-REGULATION

1. CONTENT THEORIES

O HIERARCHY OF NEEDS (MASLOw)

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a
five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within apyramid.
From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are: physiological (food and
clothing).safety (job security). love and belonging needs (friendship). esteem, and self
actualization. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can
attend to higher needs.
1. Physiological needs - are biological requirements for human survival, e.g.., air, food,
drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, and sleep.
2. Safety needs - security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of the
family, of health and of property.
3. Love and belongingness needs- friendship, family, and sexual intimacy.

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 by others.
Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the
5. Self-actualization needs - highest level in
personal growth, and peak
realization of a person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking
experiences.

W ERG THEORY (ALDERFER)

Clayton Paul Alderfer is an American psychologist who developed Maslow's
hierarchy of needs into atheory of his Own. Alderfer's ERG theory suggests that there are
three groups of core needs: existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G)hence the
acronym ERG. These groups align with Maslow's levels of physiological needs, social
needs, and self-actualization needs, respectively.
Existence needs concern our basic material reguirements for living. These include
what Maslow categorized as physiological needs (such as air, food, water, and shelter)
property).
andsafety-related needs (such as health, secure employment, and
maintaining interpersonal
Relatedness needs have to dowith the importance of
interactions with others and align with
relationships. These needs are based in social
sexUal
needs (such as friendship, family, and
Maslow's levels of love/belonging-related
(gaining the respect of others).
intimacy) and esteem-related needs
describe our intrinsic desire for personal development. These
Finally, growth needs
portion of Maslow's esteem-related needs (self-esteem, self
needs align with the other
creativity.
achievement) and self-actualization needs (such as morality,
confidence, and
problem-solving, and discovery).
certain category of needs isn't being met, people
Alderfer proposed that when a someone's
needs in a lower category. For example, if
fulfill
will redouble their efforts to effort in the relatedness
category of
she will invest more
self-esteem is suffering, he or
needs.

NEEDS (McClelland) theory of

O THEORY OF theory, is the best-known
need
Theory, alsoknown as
The Three Needs nature and develop tools to
measure
understand human
He sOught to
David MCClelland.
Three Needs outlines the three desires
choices. MCClelland's Theory of
how people make
PAGE 13

AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES

ADOLESCENT LEARNERS
AND
EDUC 123: CHILD
 by power, affiliation, or
that an individual could possibly have. Each person is motivated
achievement. One trait i uSUally more dominant, but the ofhers are present in an

individual as well.
MOIIVAION - THREE NEEDS THEORY:
Moderate risk
1. Need for Achievement: Personal responsibility, Feedback,
Typical behaviors:
High: MUst win at any cost, must be on top, and receive credit.

Low: Fears failure, avoids responsibility.

2. Need for Power: Influence, Competitive
Typical behaviors:
High: Demands blind loyalty and harmony, does not tolerate disagreement.
Low: Remains aloof, maintains social distance.
3. Need for Afliation: Acceptance and friendship, Cooperative
Typical behaviors:
High: Desires control of everyone and everything, exaggerates own posifion
and resources.

Low: Dependent/subordinate, minimizes own position and resources.

OTWO FACTORS THEORY (Herzberg)

Frederick Irving Herzberg's two-factor theory outlines that humans are motivated by
two things: motivators and hygiene factors. These two factors are both critical to

motivation: motivators encourage job satisfaction and hygiene factors prevent job
dissatisfaction.
Motivation factors: factors that are related to workplace satisfaction. They cover
intrinsic needs sUch as achievement, recognition, and advancement. Motivation

factors allow employees to be content in their jobs and promote growth.

Hygiene factors: factors that are not related to workplace satisfaction but must be
cover
present in the workplace in order to prevent dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors

PAGE 14
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
EDUC 123: CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND
 workplace policy and
relationsil3
pay grade,
extrinsic needs sUch as

peers.
6. PROCESS THEORIES

REINFORCEMENT THEORY (SKINNER)

assumption that behaviOur is influenced by its
on the
B.F Skinner's work is built controlling
Reinforcement theory is the process of shaping behavior by
Consegquences.
proposes that yoU Can change
Conseguences of the behavior. Reinforcement theory
punishment, and extinction.
someone's behavior by Using reinforcement,
Positive reinforcement OcCUrs when the consequence resulting in the behavior
behavior will
you are attempfing to produce increases the probability that the desired
continue. Negative reinforcement occurs when anegative consequence is withheld if
the behavior yoU desire is demonstrated, which will increase the probability that the
behavior youare seeking will continue.
consequence to reduce an
Punishment oCCUrs when you impOse a negative
someone from performing a learned
Undesirable behavior. Extinction is ameans to stop

behavior.

EXPECTANCY THEORY (VROOM)

School of
expectancy theory was proposed by Victor Vroom of Yale
The
in 1964. Vroom stresses and foCUses on outcomes, and not on needs.
Management
theory states that the intensity of a tendency to perform in aparticular manner
The
expectation that the performance will be followed
of an
is dependent on the intensity
on the appeal of the outcome to the individual.
by adefinite outcome and
states that employee's motivation is an outcome of:
The Expectancy theory
reward (Valence),
how much anindividualwants a
likelihood that the effort will lead toexpected performance
the assessment of the
(Expectancy), and
(Instrumentality).
performance will lead to reward
the belief that the

PAGE 15
PRINCIPLES
ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING
EDUC 123:CHILD AND
 GOAL SETTING THEORY (LOCKE) specific
theory is a motivationtheory thatproposes that
Edwin Locke's goa-setting task
feedback, contribute to higher and better
along with
and challengirng goals, maintainina
this theory, goals are essential for directing and
performance. AcCording to
driving force in determining the behavior of individuals.
effort, and they serve as a
measurable goals leads to higher
Locke's theory sUggests that setfing clear and
andasense of purpose for individuUals.
levels of motivation, as it provides a clear direction
specific, measurable,
Moreover, Locke's theory suggests that goals should be
achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). Specificity allows for clear
communication and understanding of what is expected, while measurability enables
progresstracking. Achievability andrelevance ensure that the goal is challenging yet
realistic and meaningful to the individual. Finally, time-bound goals provide a sense of
Urgency and adeadline for completion.

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY (DECI & RYAN)

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a motivation theory developed by Edward L.

three basic psychological
Deci and Richard M. Ryan, which proposes that humans have
competence,
needs that are essential for their motivation and wel-being: autonomy,
and relatedness.
their own lives
Autonomy refers to the need for individuals to have control over
Competence
and to be able to make choices that reflect their own values and interests.
and mastering skills.
refers to the need to feel capable and effective in achieving goals
others and to be able to form
Finally, relatedness refers to the need to feel connected to
meaningful relationships.
essential for individuals to
According to SDT, the fulfillment of these needs is
internal sense of satisfaction and
experience intrinsic motivation, which is driven by an
driven by external rewards or
enjoyment. In contrast, extrinsic motivation, which is
and well-being.
punishments, is less likely to lead to long-term motivation

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LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES
EDUC 123: CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
 The theory propoos that the SOcial contezt Co oitther uppol t dorntg ities
fulfillment of these basic nOeds, Ind Ihal inividuak who fol ptrtees in fulfra ttie
needs are more likely to experionce inlrinsic meotivation it ied wel t,etig te, ,her
hand. individuals who feel that their basic nood, re ot boiiy ie1 tiy /oitG
feelings of disengagement, anxiety, and dopreion.

D. MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

1. PIAGET

According to Jean Piaget, children's moral reasoning is influerced by their ability

to understand and interpret social rules and norms, as well as their ability to
take the
perspective of others.
Piaget identified two main stages of moral development: the heteronomous
stage and the autonomous stage.
O The heteronomous stage occurs in early childhood, typically from around ages 4
7.At this stage, children see rules and moral judgments as fixed and unchanging.
and they tendto base their moral judgments on the con,:quence, of acio
rather thanon the intentions behind them. Children at this stage rnay rue, a.
coming from external authorities, SUch as parents or teachers, and may riot fully
understand the reasons behind them.

O The autonomous stage typically emerges around age 10, and it involves a more
sophisticated understanding of morality. At this stage,children begin to recogníze
thatrules are created and can be changed by people, and that moral judgments
are based on both intentions and consequences. Children at this stage are also

more likely toconsider the perspectives and feelings of others when making moral
judgments.
Piaget's theory also suggests that moral development is influenced by cognitive
development more broadly. As children become more able to understand abstract
concepts and think logicaly, their moral reasoning becomes more complex and

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EDUC 123: CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES
 bisticated. MOreover, PiageT emphasized the importance of social
interactions and
experiences in shaping children's moral development.

2. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG'S STAGES OFMORAL

DEVELOPMENT
Level I: Preconventional Morality
People act under external controls. They obey rules to avoid punishment or
reap
rewards, or they act Out of self- interest. This level is typical of childrenages 4to 10.
Stage l: Orientation toward Punishment/Obedience
What wil happen to me?
Children obey rules to avoid punishment. They ignore the motives of an act and
focus on its physical form (such as the size of alie) or itsconsequences (for example.
the amount of physical damage).
Stage 2:Instrumental purpose and eXchange
--You scratch my back, IWscratch yours.lI
Children conform to rules out of self- interest and consideration for what others

can do for them.They look at an act in terms of the human needs it meetsand
differentiate this value from the act's physical form and consequences.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Also known as morality of conventional role conformity.
People have internalized the standards of authority figures. They are concerned
about being -good,l pleasing others, and maintaining the social order.
move beyond it,
This level is typically reached after age 10; many people never
even in adulthood.
others, the golden rule
Stage 3: Maintining mutual relations, approval of
Amla good boY or girl?
judge the intentions of others, and
Children want to please and help others, can
person is. They evaluate an act according
develop their own ideas of what a good

PAGE 18
 and they take circumstances info
TO me moBive behind itor the person performing it,
account.

Stage 4; Sociai Concen and Conscience

What if everybody did it?
doing their duty, showing respect for higher authority.
People are concerned with
They consider an act always wrong, regardless of
order.
and maintainingthe social
violates arule and harms others.
motive or circumstances, if it

Morality
Level 3: Postconventional
as morality of autonomous moral principles.
Also known
between moral standards and make their own
People recognize conflicts
and justice. People generally do not
principles of right, fairness,
judgmernts on the basis of
or more commonly in
untl at least early adolescence,
reach this level of moral reasoning
young adulthood, if ever. democratically accepted law
of individual rights, and of
Stage 5: Morality of contract, majority and the welfare of
rational terms, valuing the will of the
People think in the law.
values as best supported by adherence to
these
SOciety. They generally see law conflict,
times when human need and the
that there are
While they reCognize obey the law.
for society in the longrun if they
they believe itis better
Morality of universal ethical principles
Stage 6:
right, regardless of legal restrictions or
individuals think is
People do what they as internalized standards, knowing
accordance with
They act in
the opinions of others.
would condemn themselves if they did not.
that they

Morality and Convention

3. TURIEL
Knowledge:
Development of Social
In his book The
knowledge:
Elliot Turiel outlined three domains of
(1983), another).
how individuals ought to treat one
(principles of
1. the moral
 the societal (reguiafions designed to promote the smooth
functioning of socia!
2
groups and institutions). and
self, others, and beliefs about autonomy
3. the psychological (an understanding of
and individuality).

4. GILLIGAN masCuline
Kohlberg's theory was biased toward a
that
Carol Gilligan argued moral reasoning
between
for differences in
adequately accounf
Derspective ond did not
rmen gnd wOmen.
moral orientations: the ethic of justice
there ore twodistinct
Gilligan proposed that the masculine
perspective
associated with
care. The efhic of justice is
andthe ethic of
fairness, and rules that apply equally to
of
individual rights, principles
andemphasizes
feminine perspective and emphasizes
with the
care is associated
everyone. The ethic of relationships.
empathy, and the importance of adopt an ethic of
care.
compassion, more likely to
suggeststhat women are this
Giligan's theory justice. According to Gilligan,
ethic of
more likely to adopt an typically taught to prioritize
men are
while socialization, as girls are
differences in prioritize individual
difference is due to taught to
others, while boys are
caring for
relationships and
moral
achievement and competition. between these two
that individuals may move example,a
Gilligan'stheory also suggests relationships involved. For
and the
depending on the context relationships but adopt an ethic of
orientations, personal
ethic of care in their
prioritize an
person may
professional life. gender stereotypes and
justice in their reinforces
argued that it gender
Gilligan'stheory have experiences within
Critics of orientations and
diversity of moral the importance of
account for the highlighting
fais to praised for
theory has also been attention to the role of
her bringing
groups. However, reasoning, and for
empathy in moral
relationships and
development.
gender in moral
PAGE20
DLEARNING PRINCIPLES
 E. PEDAGOGICAL APPLICATIONS

routines that encourage workingtogether and getting

I. For teachers, develop
along. by
of a child's socio-emotional strengths and weaknesses
2. Gain understanding
home.
observing the child's behavior at
provider to
collaboratively with the child's parents and health-care
3. Work
child's development.
expand one's insights on the
where children have opportunities to practice
4. Provide asupportive setting
peers.
emotional regulation and social skills with
children activities when they can practice taking turns sharing and
5. Give
playing cooperatively.
these emotions
6. Be a role modelof healthy emotions andexpressing
appropriately.
REFERENCES

Edition. New York:

Papalia, D.& Martorell, G. (2021). Experience Human Development 14th
McGraw-Hill Education.
The Child and Adolescent
Corpuz, B.B, Lucas, M.R.D., Borabo, H.G.L., & Lucido, P.I. (2018)
Philippines.
Learners and Learning Principles, Lorimar Publishing, Inc, Quezon City,
Edition. USA:
Rathus, S.A. (2017). Childhood and Adolescence Voyages in Development Sixth
Cengage Learning.

Gillibrand, R., Lam, V. &O'Donnell, V.L. (2016). Developmental Psychology Second Edition. United
Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited.

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-4136760

https://timvandevall.com/printable-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-chart/

https://worldofwork.io/2019/02/alderfers-erg-theory-of-motivatior/

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-introductiontobusiness/chapter/alderfers-erg-theory/
https://educationlibrary.org/herzbergs-motivation-hygiene-theory-two-factorl
www.potentialunearthed.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Reinforcement-Theory.pdf
https://www.managementstudyguide.com/expectancy-theory-motivation. htm