Motion in Two Dimension 125

60
Chapter

E3
Motion In Two Dimension
The motion of an object is called two dimensional, if two of the (i) A bomb released from an aeroplane in level flight
three co-ordinates required to specify the position of the object in space,
change w.r.t time.
In such a motion, the object moves in a plane. For example, a
billiard ball moving over the billiard table, an insect crawling over the
ID (ii) A bullet fired from a gun
(iii) An arrow released from bow
(iv) A Javelin thrown by an athlete

Assumptions of Projectile Motion

floor of a room, earth revolving around the sun etc.
U
Two special cases of motion in two dimension are (1) There is no resistance due to air.
1. Projectile motion 2. Circular motion (2) The effect due to curvature of earth is negligible.
YG

Introduction of Projectile Motion (3) The effect due to rotation of earth is negligible.

A hunter aims his gun and fires a bullet directly towards a
monkey sitting on a distant tree. If the monkey remains in his position,
he will be safe but at the instant the bullet leaves the barrel of gun, if
the monkey drops from the tree, the bullet will hit the monkey because
the bullet will not follow the linear path.
D
(4) For all points of the trajectory, the acceleration due to gravity ‘ g’
is constant in magnitude and direction.
Principle of Physical Independence of Motions
(1) The motion of a projectile is a two-dimensional motion. So, it can
be discussed in two parts. Horizontal motion and vertical motion. These two

motions take place independent of each other. This is called the principle of
physical independence of motions.
(2) The velocity of the particle can be resolved into two mutually
U

perpendicular components. Horizontal component and vertical component.

(3) The horizontal component remains unchanged throughout the
flight. The force of gravity continuously affects the vertical component.
ST

(4) The horizontal motion is a uniform motion and the vertical motion is
a uniformly accelerated or retarded motion.

Types of Projectile Motion

The path of motion of a bullet will be parabolic and this motion of (1) Oblique projectile motion
bullet is defined as projectile motion.
Fig : 3.1 (2) Horizontal projectile motion
If the force acting on a particle is oblique with initial velocity then the (3) Projectile motion on an inclined plane
motion of particle is called projectile motion.

Projectile Y X
A body which is in flight through the atmosphere under the effect of
gravity alone and is not being propelled by any fuel is called projectile.
Example:

X
Y
Y
X


 126 Motion in Two Dimension


r  xˆi  yˆj …(i)
The horizontal distance covered during time t is given as
x  v x t  x  u cos t …(ii)
The vertical velocity of the particle at time t is given as
v y  (v 0 )y  gt, …(iii)
Oblique Projectile
Now the vertical displacement y is given as
In projectile motion, horizontal component of velocity (u cos),
acceleration (g) and mechanical energy remains constant while, speed, y  u sin t  1 / 2 gt 2 …(iv)
velocity, vertical component of velocity (u sin ), momentum, kinetic energy

60
Putting the values of x and y from equation (ii) and equation (iv) in
and potential energy all changes. Velocity, and KE are maximum at the point equation (i) we obtain the position vector at any time t as
of projection while minimum (but not zero) at highest point.
  1 
(1) Equation of trajectory : A projectile is thrown with velocity u at r  (u cos  ) t ˆi   (u sin ) t  gt 2  ˆj
 2 
an angle  with the horizontal. The velocity u can be resolved into two
2
 1 2

E3
rectangular components.
 r  (u t cos  )2   (u t sin )  gt 
Y  2 
2
 gt  gt sin
x P r ut 1   and   tan 1 (y / x )
 
2u u
u y
u sin   1 2

axis.

O u cos 
Fig : 3.3
v cos  component along X–axis and u sin  component along Y–
X ID  tan

Note
 ut sin  gt 
1  2  or   tan 1  2u sin  gt 
 (u t cos  ) 



: 




 2u cos  



The angle of elevation  of the highest

U
x
For horizontal motion x = u cos  t  t  … (i)
u cos  point of the projectile and the angle of projection  are related to each
other as
1 2
For vertical motion y  (u sin ) t  gt …(ii) Y
YG

1
2 tan   tan 
From equation (i) and (ii) 2

 x  1  x2 
y  u sin    g   u
 
 u cos   2  u cos 
2 2
 H
 
1 gx 2
(3) Instantaneous velocity
O v : In projectile motion, X vertical
y  x tan   R
2 u 2 cos 2  component of velocity changes but horizontal component of velocity
D

remains always constant. Fig : 3.5

This equation shows that the trajectory of projectile is parabolic
because it is similar to equation of parabola Example : When a man jumps over the hurdle leaving behind its
skateboard then vertical component of his velocity is changing, but not the
y = ax – bx 2
U

horizontal component which matches with the skateboard velocity.

Note : Equation of oblique projectile also can be As a result, the skateboard stays underneath him, allowing him to land on
written as it.
ST

 x u 2 sin 2
y  x tan  1   (where R = horizontal range = )
 R g

(2) Displacement of projectile ( r ) : Let the particle acquires a
position P having the coordinates (x, y) just after time t from the instant of

projection. The corresponding position vector of the particle at time t is r
as shown in the figure.
Fig : 3.6
Y Let v be the instantaneous velocity of projectile at time t, direction
i

vx of this velocity is along the tangent to the trajectory at point P.

 P (x, y)  
v  vx vi  v x i  v y ˆj  v i  v x2  v y2
y r  

 vy

O
X
x
vi
Fig : 3.4
  u 2 cos 2   (u sin  gt)2
(ii) For complementary angles of projection  and 90 –  o

T1 2u sin / g
(a) Ratio of time of flight = 
v i  u 2  g 2 t 2  2u gt sin T2 2u sin(90   ) / g
T1
vy u sin  gt = tan    tan 
Direction of instantaneous velocity tan    T2
vx u cos
2u sin 2u cos
 gt  (b) Multiplication of time of flight = T1 T2 
or   tan 1 tan   sec   g g
 u 
2R
(4) Change in velocity : Initial velocity (at projection point)  T1 T2 
g
u i  u cos ˆi  u sin ˆj (iii) If t is the time taken by projectile to rise upto point p and t is 2

the time taken in falling from point p to ground level then

Final velocity (at highest point) u f  u cos ˆi  0 ˆj 2u sin g(t1  t 2 )
t1  t 2   time of flight or u sin 
(i) Change in velocity (Between projection point and highest point) g 2


60
u  u f  u i  u sin ˆj 1
Y P
t1
When body reaches the ground after completing its motion then t2
h
final velocity u f  u cos ˆi  u sin ˆj
X
O
(ii) Change in velocity (Between complete projectile motion) Fig : 3.8 1 2
and height of the point p is given by h  u sin t1  gt 1

E3
 2
u  u f  u i  2u sin î
(t1  t 2 ) 1
(5) Change in momentum : Simply by the multiplication of mass in the hg t1  gt12
2 2
above expression of velocity (Article-4).
g t1 t 2
(i) Change in momentum (Between projection point and highest by solving h 
2

point) p  p f  p i   mu sin ˆj


(ii) Change in momentum (For the complete projectile motion)
p  p f  p i   2mu sin ˆj
(6) Angular momentum : Angular momentum of projectile at
ID (iv) If B and C are at the same level on trajectory and the time
difference between these two points
is t , similarly A and D are also at
the same level and the time
difference between these two
Y

h B
t1
C
U
positions is t then t 2
highest point of trajectory about the point of projection is given by A D
8h
 u 2 sin2   t 2  t1 
2 2
O X
L  mvr Here r  H   Fig : 3.9
1

g
 2g 
YG

(8) Horizontal range : It is the horizontal distance travelled by a

u sin 
2
m u cos sin 
2 3 2 body during the time of flight.
 L  m u cos  2

2g 2g So by using second equation of motion in x-direction

Y R  u cos   T Y

P = mv  u cos   (2u sin / g)

u 2 sin 2 u
u r 
D

 X g
 X
O Fig : 3.7 u 2 sin 2 O Horizontal range
(7) Time of flight : The total time taken by the projectile to go up R
g Fig : 3.10
and come down to the same level from which it was projected is called time
U

of flight. (i) Range of projectile can also be expressed as :

For vertical upward motion 0 = u sin  – gt 2u sin
R = u cos × T = u cos 
 t = (u sin /g) g
ST

Now as time taken to go up is equal to the time taken to come 2 u cos  u sin 2u x u y
 
down so g g
2u sin
Time of flight T  2 t  2u xuy
g  R (where u and u are the horizontal and vertical
g
x y

2 .u y component of initial velocity)

(i) Time of flight can also be expressed as : T  (where u is
g (ii) If angle of projection is changed from  to   = (90 – ) then
y

the vertical component of initial velocity). range remains unchanged.

60o
30o
Blast
 128 Motion in Two Dimension

 tan   [4 / n] or   tan 1[4 / n]

The angle of projection is given by   tan 1 [4 / n]

Note : If R = H then   tan 1 (4 ) or   76 o .

If R = 4H then   tan 1 (1) or   45 o .

(9) Maximum height : It is the maximum height from the point of
projection, a projectile can reach.
So, by using v 2  u 2  2as Y

0  (u sin )2  2 gH

60
u 2 sin 2 ' u 2 sin[2(90 o   )] u 2 sin 2 u 2 sin2  u
R'    R H

Max. height
g g g 2g
 X
So a projectile has same range at angles of projection  and (90 – (i) Maximum height can also be expressed
O as
Fig : 3.13
), though time of flight, maximum height and trajectories are different. u y2
H  (where u y is the vertical component of initial velocity).

E3
These angles  and 90 –  are called complementary angles of
o
2g
projection and for complementary angles of projection, ratio of range
u2
R1 u 2 sin 2 / g R1 (ii) H max  (when sin = max = 1 i.e.,  = 90 )
2 o

 2 1  1 2g
R 2 u sin[2 (90 o   )] / g R2
i.e., for maximum height body should be projected vertically upward.
(iii) For angle of projection  = (45 – ) and  = (45 + ), range
1 2
So it falls back to the point of projection after reaching the maximum
will be same and equal to u cos 2/g.
1 2
2

 and  are also the complementary angles.

(iv) Maximum range : For range to be maximum

d  u 2 sin 2 
ID height.
(iii) For complementary angles of projection  and 90 – 
Ratio of maximum height
H1 u 2 sin2  / 2 g sin2 
o

dR
0    0 =  2   tan 2 
U
d d   H 2 u sin2 (90 o   ) / 2 g cos 2 
g 
H1
 cos 2 = 0 i.e. 2 = 90   = 45 o o
  tan 2 
H2
and R = (u /g)
YG

max

i.e., a projectile will have maximum range when it is projected at an (10) Projectile passing through two different points on same height
at time t and t : If the particle passes two points situated at equal height y
angle of 45 to the horizontal and the maximum range will be (u /g).
o 2 1 2

at t  t 1 and t  t2 , then
When the range is maximum, the height H reached by the projectile
(i) Height (y): y  u sin t1 
Y 1 2
gt1 …(i)
2

y  u sin  t 2 
1 2
and …(ii)
D

u gt2
H 2
45o Y
O R = 4 H2 X
2 max
u 2 sin2  u 2 sin 45 u R
U

H  
Fig : 3.12  max
2g 2g 4g 4
t = t1 t = t2
i.e., if a person can throw a projectile to a maximum distance R , u
max

y
R  y
ST

The maximum height during the flight to which it will rise is  max  . 
 4  O
X
Fig : 3.14
(v) Relation between horizontal range and maximum height : Comparing equation (i) with equation (ii)
u sin 2
2
u sin  2 2
g t 1  t 2 
R and H  u sin 
g 2g 2
Substituting this value in equation (i)
R u 2 sin 2 / g
  2  4 cot   R  4 H cot   t  t2  1 gt t
H u sin2  / 2 g y  g 1  t1  gt12  y  1 2
(vi) If in case of projectile motion range R is n times the maximum  2  2 2
height H 1 2
(ii) Time (t and t ): y  u sin t 
1 2
gt
u sin 2
2
u sin  2 2 2
i.e. R = nH  n
g 2g
 Motion in Two Dimension 129

 2   K sin2 
2u sin u sin   2 gy  
1 1 
2y
t 
2
t 0 t   (iii) Total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
g g g   u sin  
  
  1 1
 mu 2 cos 2   mu 2 sin2 
 2 
2 2
u sin   2 gy  
t1   
g 1  1   u sin   =
1
mu 2 = Energy at the point of projection.
    2
 
This is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.
 2 
u sin   2 gy  
and t 2    Horizontal Projectile
1  1   
g  u sin  
  When a body is projected horizontally from a certain height ‘y’
 

(11) Motion of a projectile as observed from another projectile :
Suppose two balls A and B are projected simultaneously from the origin,
with initial velocities u and u at angle  and  , respectively with the
1 2
60
vertically above the ground with initial velocity u. If friction is considered to
be absent, then there is no other horizontal force which can affect the
horizontal motion. The horizontal velocity therefore remains constant and
so the object covers equal distance in horizontal direction in equal intervals
1 2

horizontal.
of time.
Y

E3
The horizontal velocity therefore remains constant and so the
A
object covers equal distance in horizontal direction in equal intervals of
u1
time.
y1 – y2
u2 (1) Trajectory of horizontal projectile : The horizontal displacement x
1 B is governed by the equation
2
X
u
O Fig : 3.15
The instantaneous positions of the two balls are given by

Ball A : x = (u cos )t, y 1  (u 1 sin 1 ) t 

1 1 1
1 2
2
gt
ID x = ut  t 
x
u
The vertical displacement y is
governed by
…. (i)
y
O

x
X

P(x, y)
U
1 2
Ball B : x = (u cos )t, y 2  (u 2 sin 2 ) t 
2 2 2
gt y
1
gt 2
…. (ii) Y
2 2
Fig : 3.17
The position of the ball A with respect to ball B is given by
(since initial vertical velocity is
YG

x  x 1  x 2  (u1 cos  1  u 2 cos  2 ) t zero)

y  y 1  y 2  (u1 sin 1  u 2 sin 2 ) t 1 g x2
By substituting the value of t in equation (ii) y 
y  u 1 sin 1  u 2 sin 2  2 u2
Now    constant
x  u 1 cos  1  u 2 cos  2 

(2) Displacement of Projectile (r ) : After time t, horizontal displacement
Thus motion of a projectile relative to another projectile is a straight line. 1 2
x  ut and vertical displacement y  gt .
D

(12) Energy of projectile : When a projectile moves upward its 2

kinetic energy decreases, potential energy increases but the total energy
 1
always remain constant. So, the position vector r  ut ˆi  gt 2 ˆj
2
If a body is projected
U

Y
with initial kinetic energy K(=1/2 2
u cos  gt   gt 
mu ), with angle of projection 
2

K = Kcos2 Therefore r  ut 1    and   tan 1  

u  2u   2u 
with the horizontal then at the

ST

highest point of trajectory

K X  gy   2y 
(i) Kinetic energy Fig : 3.16   tan 1  u  as t  
 2   g 
1 1    
 m (u cos  )2  mu 2 cos 2 
2 2 (3) Instantaneous velocity : Throughout the motion, the horizontal
component of the velocity is v = u. x

 K '  K cos 2  The vertical component of velocity increases with time and is given
by
u 2 sin2 
(ii) Potential energy  mgH  mg v =0+gt=gt (From v = u + g t)
2g y


  So, v  v x ˆi  v y ˆj = u ˆi  g t ˆj
 As H  u sin 
2 2
1 
 mu 2 sin2   
2  2g 
 130 Motion in Two Dimension

2 (i) They strike the ground with same speed at different times
 gt 
i.e. v  u  gt
2 2
u 1    irrespective of their initial direction of velocities.
u  (ii) Time would be least for particle E which was thrown vertically
downward.

Again v  uˆi  2 gy ˆj (iii) Time would be maximum for particle A which was thrown
vertically upward.
i.e. v  u 2  2 gy Projectile Motion on An Inclined Plane
x Let a particle be projected up with a speed u from an inclined
O u X plane which makes an angle  with the horizontal and velocity of

y projection makes an angle  with the inclined plane.

r We have taken reference x-axis in the direction of plane.

60
P (x,y)


vx
Hence the component of initial velocity parallel and perpendicular to
vy v the plane are equal to u cos and u sin respectively i.e. u||  u cos 
and u  u sin .
Y vy
Fig : 3.18
Direction of instantaneous velocity : tan   The component of g along the plane is g sin and perpendicular

E3
vx
to the plane is g cos  as shown in the figure i.e. a||   g sin and
 vy   2 gy 
   tan 1    tan 1   or   tan 1  gt  a  g cos  .
  u  u 
 vx    Therefore the particle decelerates at a rate of g sin as it moves
Where  is the angle of instantaneous velocity from the horizontal. from O to P.
(4) Time of flight : If a body is projected horizontally from a height (1) Time of flight : We know for oblique projectile motion
h with velocity u and time taken by the body to reach the ground is T, then

2h
1
h  0  gT 2
2
(for vertical motion)
ID
T
2u sin
g
or we can say T  
Y

u
2u
a

T
U
g P X
(5) Horizontal range : Let R is the horizontal distance travelled by a x=–g sin  t =T
the body   a y= g cos 
 g
YG

1 O t =0
R  uT  0 T 2 (for horizontal motion)
2 Fig : 3.21 2u sin
 Time of flight on an inclined plane T 
g cos 
2h
R u (2) Maximum height : We know for oblique projectile motion
g
(6) If projectiles A and B are projected horizontally with different u 2 sin2  u 2
H or we can say H 
initial velocity from same height and third particle C is dropped from same 2g 2a
point then
D

(i) All three particles will take equal time to reach the ground. u 2 sin2 
 Maximum height on an inclined plane H 
(ii) Their net velocity would be different but all three particle 2 g cos 
possess same vertical component of velocity.
1 2
U

(iii) The trajectory of projectiles A and B will be straight line w.r.t. (3) Horizontal range : For one dimensional motion s  ut  at
particle C. 2
1
Horizontal range on an inclined plane R  u|| T  a|| T 2
2
ST

h B
C A
1
R  u cos  T  g sin T 2
2
2
 2u sin  1  2u sin 
(7) If various particles thrownFigwith
: 3.19 same initial velocity but in R  u cos     g sin  
different direction then  g cos   2  g cos  
A
2u 2 sin cos(   )
By solving R
g cos 2 
u u
u  
(i) Maximum range occurs when   
A B C D E 4 2
u u (ii) The maximum range along the inclined plane when the projectile
h is thrown upwards is given by
A E
Fig : 3.20
 Motion in Two Dimension 131

u2 d r
R max  (iii) Ratio of distance and displacement : 
g (1  sin ) r 2r sin / 2
(iii) The maximum range along the inclined plane when the 
projectile is thrown downwards is given by  cosec ( / 2)
2
u2 (2) Angular displacement () : The angle turned by a body moving
R max 
g (1  sin ) in a circle from some reference line is called angular displacement.
Circular Motion (i) Dimension = [M L T ] (as  = arc / radius) .
0 0 0

Circular motion is another example of motion in two dimensions. To (ii) Units = Radian or Degree. It is some time also specified in terms
create circular motion in a body it of fraction or multiple of revolution.

must be given some initial velocity and

a force must then act on the body
which is always directed at right angles
to instantaneous velocity.
Since this force is always at
right angles to the displacement
60
v2
 (iii) 2 rad  360 o  1 Revolution
v3
(iv) Angular displacement is a axial vector quantity.
F F Its direction depends upon the sense of rotation of the object and
 can be given by Right Hand Rule; which states that if the curvature of the
F
F fingers of right hand represents the sense of

E3
therefore no work is done by the force 
v1 rotation of the object, then the thumb, held
on the particle. Hence, its kinetic S
 perpendicular to the curvature of the fingers,
energy and thus speed is unaffected. v4 
represents the direction of angular displacement O r
But due to simultaneous action of the Fig : 3.22 vector.
force and the velocity the particle
follows resultant path, which in this case is a circle. Circular motion can be (v) Relation between linear displacement
classified into two types – Uniform circular motion and non-uniform
circular motion.
Variables of Circular Motion
(1) Displacement and distance : When particle moves in a circular
ID
and angular displacement s    r
or s  r
Fig : 3.25

(3) Angular velocity () : Angular velocity of an object in circular

motion is defined as the time rate of change of its angular displacement.
U
path describing an angle  during time t (as shown in the figure) from the
position A to the position B, we see that the magnitude of the position angle traced  d 
 (i) Angular velocity  =  Lt 
time taken t  0 t dt
vector r (that is equal to the radius of the circle) remains constant. i.e.,
 
YG

r1  r2  r and the direction of the position vector changes from time to d

 
time. dt
(i) Displacement : The change of position vector or the displacement (ii) Dimension : [M L T ]0 0 –1


r of the particle from position A to the position B is given by referring (iii) Units : Radians per second (rad.s ) or Degree per second.
–1

the figure. 
v2  (iv) Angular velocity is an axial vector.
     v1
 r  r2  r1  r  r  r2  r1
Its direction is the same as that of . For anticlockwise rotation of
D

 B
r  r12  r22  2r1r2 cos  r2 the point object on the circular path, the direction of , according to Right
 hand rule is along the axis of circular path directed upwards. For clockwise
Putting r1  r2  r we obtain O A
 rotation of the point object on the circular path, the direction of  is along
U

r1
r  r 2  r 2  2r.r cos the axis of circular path directed downwards.

 r  2r 2 1  cos   Fig : 3.23 B (v) Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity v    r
ST

  (vi) For uniform circular motion  remains constant where as for non-
  r2 r
 2r 2  2 sin2  uniform motion  varies with respect to time.
 2 

 r  2r sin
 O  r1
A Note : It is important to note that nothing actually
2 Fig : 3.24
moves in the direction of the angular velocity vector  . The direction of
(ii) Distance : The distanced covered by the particle during the time
t is given as  simply represents that the circular motion is taking place in a plane
d = length of the arc AB = r  perpendicular to it.
(4) Change in velocity : We want to know the magnitude and
direction of the change in velocity of the particle which is performing
uniform circular motion as it moves from A to B during time t as shown in
figure. The change in velocity vector is given as
 132 Motion in Two Dimension
  with respect to the other (i.e., time in which B completes one more or less
v  v 2  v1 
  v1 revolution around O than A)
v2  v2
v1
2 2 TT  2 
 T   1 2 as T   
B  rel  2  1 T1  T2  

Special case : If  B   A ,  rel  0 and so T = ., particles will
 A
O maintain their position relative to each other. This is what actually happens
  in case of geostationary satellite ( =  = constant)
v  v 2  v1
1 2


v 1 (7) Angular acceleration () : Angular acceleration of an object in
Fig : 3.26 Fig : 3.27 circular motion is defined as the time rate of change of its angular velocity.
  
v  v 2  v1  v  v12  v 22  2v1v 2 cos

60
or
(i) If  be the change in angular velocity of the object in time
For uniform circular motion v1  v 2  v interval t, while moving on a circular path, then angular acceleration of
the object will be

So v  2v 2 1  cos    2v sin
2 


E3
The direction of v is shown in figure that can be given as


180 o  
2

 90 o   / 2 
Fig : 3.28
(5) Time period (T) : In circular motion, the time period is defined
 d  d 2
as the time taken by the object to complete one revolution on its circular   Lt   2
t 0 t
path.
(i) Units : second.
(ii) Dimension : [M L T] 0 0

(iii) Time period of second’s hand of watch = 60 second.

ID (ii) Units : rad. s
dt
–2
dt

(iii) Dimension : [M L T ] 0 0 –2

(iv) Relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration

(iv) Time period of minute’s hand of watch = 60 minute
U
a  r
(v) Time period of hour’s hand of watch = 12 hour
(6) Frequency (n) : In circular motion, the frequency is defined as (v) For uniform circular motion since  is constant so
the number of revolutions completed by the object on its circular path in a d
 0
YG

unit time. dt
(i) Units : s or hertz (Hz).
(vi) For non-uniform circular motion   0
–1

(ii) Dimension : [M L T ] 0 0 –1

Centripetal Acceleration
Note : Relation between time period and frequency (1) Acceleration acting on the object undergoing uniform circular
: If n is the frequency of revolution of an object in circular motion, then the motion is called centripetal acceleration.
object completes n revolutions in 1 second. Therefore, the object will (2) It always acts on the object along the
D

complete one revolution in 1/n second. v

radius towards the centre of the circular path. ac
T  1 / n (3) Magnitude of centripetal acceleration,
 Relation between angular velocity, frequency and time period : v2 4 2
a   2 r  4 2 n 2 r  2 r
U

Consider a point object describing a uniform circular motion with frequency

r T Fig : 3.29
n and time period T. When the object completes one revolution, the angle
traced at its axis of circular motion is 2 radians. It means, when time t = T, (4) Direction of centripetal acceleration : It is always the same as

 2 that of  . When t decreases,  also decreases. Due to which 
ST

  2 radians. Hence, angular velocity     2n ( T

t T becomes more and more perpendicular to  . When  t  0, 
= 1/n) becomes perpendicular to the velocity vector. As the velocity vector of the
2 particle at an instant acts along the tangent to the circular path, therefore
  2n
T  and hence the centripetal acceleration vector acts along the radius of
the circular path at that point and is directed towards the centre of the
 If two particles are moving on same circle or different coplanar
circular path.
concentric circles in same direction with different uniform angular speeds
 and  respectively, the angular velocity of B relative to A will be
A B
Centripetal force
 rel   B   A According to Newton's first law of motion, whenever a body moves
in a straight line with uniform velocity, no force is required to maintain this
So the time taken by one to complete one revolution around O with velocity. But when a body moves along a circular path with uniform speed,
respect to the other (i.e., time in which B complete one revolution around O its direction changes continuously i.e. velocity keeps on changing on account
 Motion in Two Dimension 133
of a change in direction. According to Newton's second law of motion, a line motion but to observer B it appears that a real force has actually acted
change in the direction of motion of the body can take place only if some on the body and is responsible for throwing the body radially out-wards.
external force acts on the body. This imaginary force is given a name to explain the effects of inertia to the
Due to inertia, at every point of the circular path; the body tends to observer who is sharing the circular motion of the body. This inertial force
move along the tangent to the circular path is called centrifugal force. Thus centrifugal force is a fictitious force which
at that point (in figure). Since every body has v has significance only in a rotating frame of reference.
directional inertia, a velocity cannot change v
Work Done by Centripetal Force
by itself and as such we have to apply a force.
But this force should be such that it changes F The work done by centripetal force is S
the direction of velocity and not its F F always zero as it is perpendicular to velocity and
magnitude. This is possible only if the force F hence instantaneous displacement.
90o
acts perpendicular to the direction of velocity.

60
Work done = Increment in kinetic energy
Because the velocity is along the tangent, this v of revolving body F
force must be along the radius (because the v
Fig : 3.30 Work done = 0
radius of a circle at any point is perpendicular
to the tangent at that point). Further, as this force is to move the body in a Fig : 3.31
Also W = F. S = F  S cos = FS cos
circular path, it must acts towards the centre. This centre-seeking force is
90 = 0

E3
o

called the centripetal force.

Hence, centripetal force is that force which is required to move a
body in a circular path with uniform speed. The force acts on the body
along the radius and towards centre.
Formulae for centripetal force :
Example : (i) When an electron revolves around the nucleus in
hydrogen atom in a particular orbit, it neither absorb nor emit any energy
means its energy remains constant.
(ii) When a satellite established once in a orbit around the earth and
it starts revolving with particular speed, then no fuel is required for its

F
mv 2
r
 m  2 r  m 4 2 n 2 r 
m 4 2 r
T2
Table 3.1 : Centripetal force in different situation
Situation Centripetal Force
ID circular motion.
Skidding of Vehicle on A Level Road

A particle tied to a string and
whirled in a horizontal circle
Vehicle taking a turn on a level
YG
force.
When a vehicle takes a turn on a circular path it requires centripetal
U
Tension in the string If friction provides this centripetal force then vehicle can move in
circular path safely if
Frictional force exerted by the Friction force  Required centripetal force

road road on the tyres

A vehicle on a speed breaker Weight of the body or a
component of weight
Revolution of earth around the Gravitational force exerted by the
sun sun
Electron revolving around the Coulomb attraction exerted by the mg m2r
nucleus in an atom protons in the nucleus mv 2
D

A charged particle describing a Magnetic force exerted by the  mg 

r
circular path in a magnetic field agent that sets up the magnetic
field  v safe  rg
U

Fig : 3.32
This is the maximum speed by which vehicle can take a turn on a
Centrifugal Force circular path of radius r, where coefficient of friction between the road and
It is an imaginary force due to incorporated effects of inertia. When tyre is .
ST

a body is rotating in a circular path and the centripetal force vanishes, the Skidding of Object on A Rotating Platform
body would leave the circular path. To an observer A who is not sharing the
motion along the circular path, the body appears to fly off tangentially at On a rotating platform, to avoid the skidding of an object (mass m)
the point of release. To another observer B, who is sharing the motion along placed at a distance r from axis of rotation, the centripetal force should be
the circular path (i.e., the observer B is also rotating with the body with the provided by force of friction.
same velocity), the body appears to be stationary before it is released. When Centripetal force  Force of friction
the body is released, it appears to B, as if it has been thrown off along the
radius away from the centre by some force. In reality no force is actually m r  mg
2

seen to act on the body. In absence of any real force the body tends to
  max  (g / r) ,
continue its motion in a straight line due to its inertia. The observer A
easily relates this events to be due to inertia but since the inertia of both Hence maximum angular velocity of rotation of the platform is
the observer B and the body is same, the observer B can not relate the
(g / r) , so that object will not skid on it.
above happening to inertia. When the centripetal force ceases to act on the
body, the body leaves its circular path and continues to move in its straight- Bending of A Cyclist
 134 Motion in Two Dimension
A cyclist provides himself the necessary centripetal force by leaning
inward on a horizontal track, while going round a curve. Consider a cyclist In the figure (A) shown reaction R is resolved into two components,
of weight mg taking a turn of radius r with velocity v. In order to provide the component R cos balances weight of vehicle
the necessary centripetal force, the cyclist leans through angle  inwards as
shown in figure.  R cos   mg …(i)

The cyclist is under the action of the following forces : and the horizontal component R sin  provides necessary
centripetal force as it is directed towards centre of desired circle
The weight mg acting vertically downward at the centre of gravity of
cycle and the cyclist. mv 2
Thus R sin   …(ii)
The reaction R of the ground on cyclist. It will act along a line- r
making angle  with the vertical. Dividing (ii) by (i), we have
The vertical component R cos of the normal reaction R will balance

60
v2
the weight of the cyclist, while the horizontal component R sin  will tan   …(iii)
rg
provide the necessary centripetal force to the cyclist.
 2r v
mv 2 R or tan    …(iv) [As v = r ]
R sin  …(i) g g
r
R cos

E3
and R cos  = mg …(ii) If l = width of the road, h = height of the outer edge from the
 ground level then from the figure (B)
Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we have
h h
R sin m v2 r mv2/r R sin  tan    …(v) [since  is very small]
 x l
R cos  mg
From equation (iii), (iv) and (v)
v2  2r v  h
or tan  

Therefore,
rg

the cyclist should

…(iii)

bend
mg

through
Fig : 3.33
an
ID
angle
tan  

Note
v2
rg

g


:
g

l

If friction is also present between the tyres

v2 
2
  tan 
U
v
  tan 1   and road then 
 rg 1   tan 
 rg 
It follows that the angle through which cyclist should bend will be  Maximum safe speed on a banked frictional road
YG

greater, if rg(  tan  )

v
(i) The radius of the curve is small i.e. the curve is sharper 1   tan 
(ii) The velocity of the cyclist is large.
Overturning of Vehicle
Note : For the same reasons, an ice skater or an
When a car moves in a circular path with speed more than a certain
aeroplane has to bend inwards, while taking a turn. maximum speed then it overturns even if friction is sufficient to avoid
skidding and its inner wheel leaves the ground first
Banking of A Road
D

For getting a centripetal force, cyclist bend towards the centre of

circular path but it is not possible in case of four wheelers.
Therefore, outer bed of the road is raised so that a vehicle moving
U

on it gets automatically inclined towards the centre.

R cos  R1 G R2
R
h
ST


2a
F
R sin 
Weight of the car = mg mg
 Speed of the car = v Fig : 3.35

Radius of the circular path = r
mg Fig. (A) Distance between the centre of wheels of the car = 2a
Height of the centre of gravity (G) of the car from the road level = h
Reaction on the inner wheel of the car by the ground = R 1

l Reaction on the outer wheel of the car by the ground = R 2

h When a car move in a circular path, horizontal friction force F

provides the required centripetal force

x
Fig. (B)
Fig : 3.34
 Motion in Two Dimension 135

mv 2 (2) When car moves on a convex bridge

i.e., F  …(i)
R R
For rotational equilibrium, by taking the moment of forces R , R and 1 2
v
F about G  mg cos

Fh  R1a  R2 a …(ii) mg

As there is no vertical motion so R + R = mg …(iii)
1 2

By solving (i), (ii) and (iii) Convex bridge

mv 2
1  v 2h  Centripetal force = mgFig
cos: 3.38
 R 
R1  M  g   …(iv) r
2  ra 

60
mv 2
and reaction R  mg cos  
1  v 2h  r
and R 2  M g   …(v)
2  ra  Non-Uniform Circular Motion
It is clear from equation (iv) that if v increases value of R decreases 1
If the speed of the particle in a horizontal circular motion changes
and for R = 0 with respect to time, then its motion is said to be non-uniform circular

E3
1

motion.
2
v h gra
 g or v  Consider a particle describing a circular path of radius r with centre
ra h
at O. Let at an instant the particle be at P and  be its linear velocity and
i.e. the maximum speed of a car without overturning on a flat road is given
 be its angular velocity.
gra   
by v  Then,    r …(i)
h

Motion of Charged Particle In Magnetic Field

When a charged particle having mass m , charge q enters
perpendicularly in a magnetic field B with velocity v then it describes a
ID Differentiating both sides of w.r.t. time t we have


dt

dt

d  d    dr
 r  

dt


…(ii)

dv 
U
circular path. Here,  a, (Resultant acceleration)
dt at
Because magnetic force (qvB) works in the perpendicular direction of      a
a    r   
v and it provides required centripetal force
 
YG

Magnetic force = Centripetal force d  O ac P

         (Angular acceleration)
dt
mv 2      
v    
qvB = a  a t  ac …(iii)
r        Fig : 3.39

 radius of the circular path      q  dr 
F   (Linear velocity)
       dt
mv
r        Thus the resultant acceleration of the particle at P has two
D

qB B component accelerations
      

Fig : 3.36 (1) Tangential acceleration : a t    r

It acts along the tangent to the circular path at P in the plane of
U

Reaction of Road On Car circular path.

 
(1) When car moves on a concave bridge then According to right hand rule since  and r are perpendicular to
each other, therefore, the magnitude of tangential acceleration is given by
ST

R
 | a t | |   r |   r sin 90 o   r.

(2) Centripetal (Radial) acceleration : a c    v

It is also called centripetal acceleration of the particle at P.
 v It acts along the radius of the particle at P.
mg cos
mg
Concave bridge According to right hand rule since  and  are perpendicular to
Fig : 3.37
each other, therefore, the magnitude of centripetal acceleration is given by
  
| ac | |   |    sin90 o =    ( r)   2 r   2 / r
mv 2
Centripetal force = R  mg cos   Table 3.2 : Tangential and centripetal acceleration
r
Centripetal Tangential Net acceleration Type of motion
mv 2 acceleration acceleration
and reaction R  mg cos  
r ac = 0 at = 0 a=0 Uniform
 136 Motion in Two Dimension
translatory (1) Velocity at any point on vertical loop : If u is the initial velocity
motion imparted to body at lowest point then velocity of body at height h is given
ac = 0 at  0 a = at Accelerated by
translatory
motion v  u 2  2 gh  u 2  2 gl(1  cos  )
ac  0 at = 0 a = ac Uniform
[As h = l – l cos = l (1 – cos)]
circular motion
where l is the length of the string
ac  0 at  0 Non-uniform
a  ac2  at2 circular motion C

Note : Here a governs the magnitude of v while

t
l O B
D

60
 v
a c its direction of motion.
h P
(3) Force : In non-uniform circular motion the particle u
simultaneously possesses two forces A

mv 2 (2) Tension at any point onFig : 3.40 loop : Tension at general point
vertical
Centripetal force : Fc  ma c   mr 2

E3
r P, According to Newton’s second law of motion.
Net force towards centre = centripetal force
Tangential force : Ft  ma t C
mv 2
T  mg cos  
l
Net force : Fnet  ma = m ac2  at2
mv 2 l
or T  mg cos   D B
Note : O
In non-uniform circular motion work done
 
by centripetal force will be zero since Fc  v
 In non uniform circular motion work done by
tangential force will not be zero since F  0
ID T
m 2
l
l

[u  gl(2  3 cos  )]

[As v  u 2  2 gl(1  cos  ) ]

A


Fig : 3.41
T

mg

P
mg cos
+ mv2/r
U
t

 Rate of work done by net force in non-uniform

circular motion = rate of work done by tangential force Table 3.3 : Velocity and tension in a vertical loop
dW   Position Angle Velocity Tension
i.e. P   Ft .v
YG

dt
0o mu 2
A u  mg
Equations of Circular Motion l

90o mu 2
For accelerated motion For retarded motion B u 2  2 gl  2mg
l
2  1   t 2  1   t
180o mu 2
1 1 C u 2  4 gl  5 mg
  1t   t 2   1t   t2 l
D

2 2
 22   12  2   22   12  2  270o mu 2
D u 2  2 gl  2mg
l
 
n  1  (2n  1) n  1  (2n  1) TA  TB  TC and T = T
U

2 2 It is clear from the table that : B D

TA  TB  3mg,
Where
TA  TC  6mg
 = Initial angular velocity of particle
ST

 = Final angular velocity of particle and TB  TC  3mg

2

 = Angular acceleration of particle Table 3.4 : Various conditions for vertical motion
 = Angle covered by the particle in time t Velocity at lowest Condition
 = Angle covered by the particle in n second
n
th
point
Motion in vertical circle Tension in the string will not be zero at any of the
u A  5 gl
This is an example of non-uniform circular motion. In this motion point and body will continue the circular motion.
body is under the influence of gravity of earth. When body moves from Tension at highest point C will be zero and body will
u A  5gl ,
lowest point to highest point. Its speed decrease and becomes minimum at just complete the circle.
highest point. Total mechanical energy of the body remains conserved and
Particle will not follow circular motion. Tension in
KE converts into PE and vice versa. 2 gl  u A  5 gl ,
string become zero somewhere between points B and
C whereas velocity remain positive. Particle leaves
circular path and follow parabolic trajectory.
 Motion in Two Dimension 137

u A  2 gl
Both velocity and tension in the string becomes zero at u 2  gl
B and particle will oscillate along semi-circular path. Height at which the tension vanishes is h 
3g
velocity of particle becomes zero between A and B but (3) Critical condition for vertical looping : If the tension at C is zero,
u A  2 gl
tension will not be zero and the particle will oscillate then body will just complete revolution in the vertical circle. This state of
about the point A.
body is known as critical state. The speed of body in critical state is called
as critical speed.
Note : K.E. of a body moving in horizontal circle is
mu 2
same throughout the path but the K.E. of the body moving in vertical circle From the above table 3.3 T = C
 5 mg  0
is different at different places. l
 If body of mass m is tied to a string of length l and is  u  5 gl
projected with a horizontal velocity u then : It means to complete the vertical circle the body must be projected

60
u2
Height at which the velocity vanishes is h  with minimum velocity of 5 gl at the lowest point.
2g
Table 3.5 : Different variables in vertical loop
Quantity Point A Point B Point C Point D Point P

E3
Linear velocity (v)
5 gl 3 gl gl 3 gl gl (3  2 cos )

Angular velocity () 5g 3g g 3g g

(3  2 cos )
l l l l l
Tension in String (T) 6 mg 3 mg 0 3 mg 3mg (1  cos )
Kinetic Energy (KE)

Potential Energy (PE)

Total Energy (TE)

5
2
mgl

0
3
2
mgl

mgl
ID 1
2
mgl

2 mgl
3
2
mgl

mgl
mu 2
l
 5 mg  0

mgl (1  cos )
U
5 5 5 5 5
mgl mgl mgl mgl mgl
2 2 2 2 2

(4) Motion of a block on frictionless hemisphere : A small block of mass m 2

i.e. the block lose contact at the height of r from the ground.
YG

slides down from the top of a frictionless hemisphere of radius r. The component 3
of the force of gravity (mg cos) provides required centripetal force but at point B
h 2
it's circular motion ceases and the block lose contact with the surface of the sphere. and angle from the vertical can be given by cos  
r 3
2
A    cos 1 .
B (r – h ) 3
r
D

  h Conical Pendulum
This is the example of uniform circular motion in horizontal plane.
mg
For point B, by equating theFigforces, A bob of mass m attached to a light and in-extensible string rotates
U

: 3.42
in a horizontal circle of radius r with constant angular speed  about the
mv 2 vertical. The string makes angle  with vertical and appears tracing the
mg cos   …(i)
r surface of a cone. So this arrangement is called conical pendulum.
ST

For point A and B, by law of conservation of energy The force acting on the bob are tension and weight of the bob.
Total energy at point A = Total energy at point B
mv 2
K.E. + P.E. = K.E. + P.E.
( A) ( A) ( B) ( B)
From the figure T sin  ….(i)
r
1
0 + mgr = mv 2  mgh  v  2 g(r  h) …(ii) and T cos   mg ….(ii)
2
S
and from the given figure h  r cos  …(iii)
By substituting the value of v and h from eq (ii) and (iii) in eq (i)
n n


 2 g (r  h)  
l
h m 2 2 h
mg    h  2 (r  h)  h  r
r r 3

O r P

Fig : 3.43
 138 Motion in Two Dimension

(f) Change in the direction of motion  

2
 v2  (ii) On return to the ground, that is in going from O to G, the following
(1) Tension in the string : T  mg 1   
changes take place
 rg 
(a) Change in speed = zero
mg mgl h l2  r2 (b) Change in velocity = 2 u sin
T  [As cos    ]
cos  l r
2 2 l l
(c) Change in momentum = 2 mu sin
S
(d) Change in kinetic energy = zero
 (e) Change in potential energy = zero
T
T cos (f) Change in the direction of motion = 2

60
  (i) At highest point, the horizontal component of velocity is v =u cos x

T sin P mv2/r  and vertical component of velocity v is zero.

O y

(ii) At highest point, linear momentum of a particle

mg 2
Fig : 3.44
(2) Angle of string from the vertical : tan  
v m v = mu cos.
x

E3
rg
1
(iii) Kinetic energy of the particle at the highest point = mv x2
(3) Linear velocity of the bob : v  gr tan  2
1
(4) Angular velocity of the bob :  mu 2 cos 2  .
2


g
tan  
g

g  At highest point, acceleration due to gravity acting vertically

TP  2
r

l cos 
 2
h
(5) Time period of revolution :

h
l cos 
ID
downward makes an angle of 90° with the horizontal component of the
velocity of the projectile.
 At the highest point, momentum of the projectile thrown at an
angle  with horizontal is p cos and K.E. = (K.E.) cos . 2

g g i
U
 In projectile motion, horizontal component ucos of velocity u
l2  r2 r remains constant throughout, whereas vertical component usin changes
 2  2
g g tan  and becomes zero at the highest point.
YG

 The trajectory of a projectile is parabolic.

 Consider a projectile of mass m thrown with velocity u making
angle  with the horizontal. It is projected from the point O and
D
 For a projectile, time of flight and maximum height depend on the
vertical component of the velocity of projection.
 The range of the projectile is maximum for the angle of projection
  45 .

returns to the ground at G. Also M is the highest point attained by it.  The maximum range of the projectile is :
(See figure). u2
R max 
U

g
Y
 When the range is maximum, the height attained by the projectile
M is :
ST

P (X,Y)
u u2 R
H  max
H 4g 4
 G
X
O  When the range of the projectile is maximum, the time of flight is :
R
(i) In going from O to M, following changes take place –
2u
(a) Change in velocity  u sin T  2t 
g
(b) Change in speed  u(1  cos )  2u cos 2 ( /2)
 The height attained by a projectile is maximum, when   90 .
(c) Change in momentum  mu sin
u2
(d) Change (loss) in kinetic energy  1 / 2 mu sin  2 2 H max 
2g
(e) Change (gain) in potential energy  1 / 2 mu 2 sin2  It is twice that of height attained, when the range is maximum.
 Motion in Two Dimension 139
the direction of rotation, then the outstretched thumb gives the direction
 The time of flight of the projectile is also largest for   90 .   
of  ,  and 
2u
Tmax    
g   ,  and  are called pseudo vectors or axial vectors.
 The trajectory of the projectile is a symmetric parabola only when  For circular motion we have –
g is constant through out the motion and  is not equal to 0°, 90° or    
(i) r  v (ii) r antiparallel to ac
180°.    
(iii) ac  v (iv) ac  at
 If velocity of projection is made n times, the maximum height       
attained and the range become n times and the time of flight becomes n
2
(v)  , ,  are perpendicular to r , ac , at , v
times the initial value.    

60
(vi) r , ac , at and v lie in the same plane
 If the force acting on a particle is always perpendicular to the P

velocity of the particle, then the path of the particle is a circle. The
centripetal force is always perpendicular to the velocity of the particle.
 If circular motion of the object is uniform, the object will possess
only centripetal acceleration.

E3
 If circular motion of the object is non-uniform, the object will
possess both centripetal and transverse acceleration.
 When the particle moves along the circular path with constant
speed, the angular velocity is also constant. But linear velocity,
momentum as well as centripetal acceleration change in direction,
although their magnitude remains unchanged.
 For circular motion of rigid bodies with uniform speed, the angular
speed is same for all particles, but linear speed varies directly as the
radius of the circular path described by the particle (v  r) .
ID
U
 When a body rotates, all its particles describe circular paths about
a line, called axis of rotation.
 The centre of the circle describe by the different particles of the
YG

rotating body lie on the axis of rotation.

 Centripetal force F = ma , m  2r where m = mass of the body.
c c

 Centripetal force is always directed towards the centre of the

circular path.
 When a body rotates with uniform velocity, its different particles
D

have centripetal acceleration directly proportional to the radius

(ac  r) .

 There can be no circular motion without centripetal force.

U

 Centripetal force can be mechanical, electrical or magnetic force.

 Planets go round the earth in circular orbits due to the centripetal
force provided by gravitational force of the sun.
ST

 Gravitational pull of earth provides centripetal force for the orbital

motion of the moon and artificial satellites.
 Centripetal force cannot change the kinetic energy of the body.
 In uniform circular motion the magnitude of the centripetal
acceleration remains constant whereas its direction changes continuously
but always directed towards the centre.
 A pseudo force, that is equal and opposite to the centripetal force
is called centrifugal force.
  
 The  ,  and  are directed along the axis of the circular path.
Their sense of direction is given by the right hand fist rule as follows : ‘If
we catch axis of rotation in right hand fist such that the fingers point in