Electrostatics 253

60
Chapter

E3
Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Introduction Thus work done by a force is equal to the scalar (or dot product) of

The terms 'work', 'energy' and 'power' are frequently used in

everyday language. A farmer clearing weeds in his field is said to be working
hard. A woman carrying water from a well to her house is said to be
working. In a drought affected region she may be required to carry it over
ID the force and the displacement of the body.
If a number of forces F 1 , F 2 , F 3 ...... F n are acting on a body and
it shifts from position vector r 1 to position vector r 2 then

large distances. If she can do so, she is said to have a large stamina or W  (F 1  F 2  F 3  .... F n ).( r 2  r 1 )
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energy. Energy is thus the capacity to do work. The term power is usually
associated with speed. In karate, a powerful punch is one delivered at great Nature of Work Done
speed. In physics we shall define these terms very precisely. We shall find Positive work
that there is a loose correlation between the physical definitions and the
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Positive work means that force (or its component) is parallel to

physiological pictures these terms generate in our minds.
displacement
Direction of motion
Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces F
the body through a certain distance in the direction of force.

Work Done by a Constant Force s 0 o    90 o

Fig. 6.2
Let a constant force F be applied on the body such that it makes
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an angle  with the horizontal and body is displaced through a distance s
By resolving force F into two components :
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The positive work signifies that the external force favours the
motion of the body.
Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work
done by the (upward) lifting force is positive

(i) F cos in the direction of displacement of the body.

(ii) F sin in the perpendicular direction of displacement of the body. F man
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F sin
F s

F cos
(ii) When a lawn roller is Fig. 6.3 by applying a force along the
pulled
handle at an acute angle, work done by the applied force is positive.
s
Since body is being displacedFig. the direction of F cos , therefore
in 6.1
work done by the force in displacing the body through a distance s is given F
by
W  (F cos ) s  Fs cos s
(iii) When a spring is stretched, work done by the external
or W  F.s (stretching) force is positive. Fig. 6.4

s
F

Fig. 6.5

s
F
 254 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

Fg

Maximum work : Wmax  F s

s
When cos   maximum  1 i.e.   0 o
It means force does maximum work when angle between force and
displacement is zero. (ii) When a body is made Fig. to 6.7
slide over a rough surface, the work
Negative work done by the frictional force is negative.
Negative work means that force (or its component) is opposite to Minimum work : Wmin   F s
displacement i.e.

60
F Direction of motion F
+ +
s
 90 o    180 o
s Fig. 6.8

When cos  minimum  1 i.e   180 o

E3
Fig. 6.6
The negative work signifies that the external force opposes the It means force does minimum [maximum negative] work when
motion of the body. angle between force and displacement is 180 . o

Example: (i) When a person lifts a body from the ground, the work
done by the (downward) force of gravity is negative. (iii) When a positive charge is moved towards another positive
charge. The work done by electrostatic force between them is negative.

Zero work

Under three condition, work done becomes zero W  Fs cos  0

(1) If the force is perpendicular to the displacement [ F  s ]

ID
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Example: (i) When a coolie travels on a horizontal platform with a load on his head, work
done against gravity by the coolie is zero. s
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(ii) When a body moves in a circle the work done by the centripetal force is
always zero. Fg
(iii) In case of motion of a charged particle in a magnetic field as force
[F  q(v  B)] is always perpendicular to motion, work done by this force is
always zero.

(2) If there is no displacement [s = 0]

D

Example: (i) When a person tries to displace a wall or heavy stone by applying a force and it
F
does not move, then work done is zero.
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(ii) A weight lifter does work in lifting the weight off the ground but does not work s 0
in holding it up.

(3) If there is no force acting on the body [F = 0]

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Example: Motion of an isolated body in free space.

Work Done by a Variable Force The total work done in going from A to B as shown in the figure is
When the magnitude and direction of a force varies with position, W  A F. d s  A (F cos  )ds
B B

the work done by such a force for an infinitesimal displacement is given by

dW  F. d s In terms of rectangular component F  Fx ˆi  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ
B
d s  dxˆi  dyˆj  dzkˆ
ds
 W  A (Fx ˆi  Fy ˆj  Fz kˆ ).(dxˆi  dyˆj  dzkˆ )
B

F
x y z
or W  x B Fx dx  y B Fy dy  z B Fz dz
A A A
A
Fig. 6.9
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 255

Dimension and Units of Work Work Done in Conservative and

Dimension : As work = Force  displacement Non-conservative Field
(1) In conservative field, work done by the force (line integral of the
[W]  [MLT 2 ]  [L]  [ML2 T 2 ]
Units : The units of work are of two types
force i.e.  F.d l ) is independent of the path followed between any two
points.
Absolute units Gravitational units W AB  W AB  W AB
I
Joule [S.I.]: Work done is said to be kg-m [S.I.]: 1 kg-m of work is Path I Path II Path III A B
one Joule, when 1 Newton force done when a force of 1kg-wt. II
displaces the body through 1 metre in displaces the body through 1m
or  F.d l   F.d l   F.d l
its own direction. in its own direction.

60
Path I Path II Path III
III
From, W = F.s From W=Fs
Fig. 6.11
1 Joule = 1 Newton 1 m 1 kg-m = 1 kg-wt  1 m (2) In conservative field work done by the force (line integral of the force
i.e.  F.d l ) over a closed path/loop is zero.
= 9.81 N  1 metre
= 9.81 Joule WAB  WB A  0

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 
erg [C.G.S.] : Work done is said to gm-cm [C.G.S.] : 1 gm-cm of or  F.d l  0 A B
be one erg when 1 dyne force work is done when a force of
displaces the body through 1 cm in 1gm-wt displaces the body
its own direction. through 1cm in its own
From W = F s direction. Fig. 6.12
Conservative force : The forces of these type of fields are known as
From W = F s
1 erg  1dyne  1cm
Relation between Joule and erg
1 Joule = 1 N  1 m
= 10 dyne  10 cm
5 2
1 gm-cm = 1gm-wt  1cm. = 981
dyne  1cm
= 981 erg
ID
conservative forces.
Example : Electrostatic forces, gravitational forces, elastic forces,
magnetic forces etc and all the central forces are conservative in nature.
If a body of mass m lifted to height h from the ground level by
different path as shown in the figure
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B B B B
= 10 dyne  cm = 10 erg
7 7

Work Done Calculation by Force Displacement

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Graph I II III IV
l h
Let a body, whose initial position is x i , is acted upon by a variable h3
 h2
force (whose magnitude is changing continuously) and consequently the h1
body acquires its final position x f .
A A A A
Force
Work done through different
Fig.paths
6.13

WI  F. s  mg  h  mgh
D

F
h
WII  F. s  mg sin  l  mg sin   mgh
sin
WIII  mgh1  0  mgh2  0  mgh3  0  mgh4
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O xi xf Displacement
x dx
 mg(h1  h2  h3  h4 )  mgh
Let F be the average value of Fig. 6.10 force within the interval dx
variable
from position x to (x + dx) i.e. for small displacement dx. The work done WIV   F. d s  mgh
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will be the area of the shaded strip of width dx. The work done on the body
in displacing it from position x i to x f will be equal to the sum of areas It is clear that WI  WII  WIII  WIV  mgh .
of all the such strips Further if the body is brought back to its initial position A, similar
amount of work (energy) is released from the system, it means
dW  F dx
WAB  mgh and WBA  mgh .
xf xf
W  xi
dW  
xi
F dx Hence the net work done against gravity over a round trip is zero.
WNet  WAB  WBA  mgh  (mgh)  0
x
W  x f (Area of stripof widthdx ) i.e. the gravitational force is conservative in nature.
i

W  Area under curve between x i and x f Non-conservative forces : A force is said to be non-conservative if
work done by or against the force in moving a body from one position to
i.e. Area under force-displacement curve with proper algebraic sign another, depends on the path followed between these two positions and for
represents work done by the force. complete cycle this work done can never be zero.
 256 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Example: Frictional force, Viscous force, Airdrag etc. 1 Joule = 10 7 erg
If a body is moved from position A to another position B on a rough
table, work done against frictional force shall depend on the length of the 1 eV = 1.6  10 19 Joule
path between A and B and not only on the position A and B. 1 kWh = 3.6  10 6 Joule
WAB  mgs 1 calorie = 4.18 Joule
Further if the body is brought back to its initial position A, work has (4) Mass energy equivalence : Einstein’s special theory of relativity shows that
to be done against the frictional force, which opposes the motion. Hence the material particle itself is a form of energy.
net work done against the friction over a round trip is not zero. The relation between the mass of a particle m and its equivalent
energy is given as
R E  mc 2 where c = velocity of light in vacuum.
s
If m  1 amu  1.67  10 27 kg

60
F
then E  931 MeV  1.5  10 10 Joule .
WBA  mgs.
Fig. 6.14 If m  1kg then E  9  1016 Joule
WNet  WAB  WBA  mgs  mgs  2mgs  0.
Examples : (i) Annihilation of matter when an electron (e  ) and a
i.e. the friction is a non-conservative force.
positron (e  ) combine with each other, they annihilate or destroy each

E3
Work Depends on Frame of Reference
other. The masses of electron and positron are converted into energy. This
With change of frame of reference (inertial), force does not change energy is released in the form of  -rays.
while displacement may change. So the work done by a force will be
e  e    
different in different frames.
Examples : (1) If a porter with a suitcase on his head moves up a Each  photon has energy = 0.51 MeV.
Here two  photons are emitted instead of one  photon to
staircase, work done by the
upward lifting force relative
to him will be zero (as
displacement relative to
him is zero) while relative
to a person on the ground
ID conserve the linear momentum.
(ii) Pair production : This process is the reverse of annihilation of
matter. In this case, a photon ( ) having energy equal to 1.02 MeV interacts
with a nucleus and give rise to electron (e  ) and positron (e  ) . Thus
U
will be mgh. energy is converted into matter.
(2) If a person is  (Photon)
pushing a box inside a h
moving train, the work e– + e+
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done in the frame of train Fig. 6.15

Fig.nucleus
(iii) Nuclear bomb : When the 6.16 is split up due to mass defect
will F.s while in the (The difference in the mass of nucleons and the nucleus), energy is released
in the form of  -radiations and heat.
frame of earth will be F. (s  s 0 ) where s 0 is the displacement of the
(5) Various forms of energy
train relative to the ground.
(i) Mechanical energy (Kinetic and Potential)
Energy (ii) Chemical energy
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The energy of a body is defined as its capacity for doing work. (iii) Electrical energy
(1) Since energy of a body is the total quantity of work done, (iv) Magnetic energy
therefore it is a scalar quantity. (v) Nuclear energy
(2) Dimension: [ML2T 2 ] it is same as that of work or torque.
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(vi) Sound energy

(3) Units : Joule [S.I.], erg [C.G.S.] (vii) Light energy
Practical units : electron volt (eV), Kilowatt hour (KWh), Calories (viii) Heat energy
(cal) (6) Transformation of energy : Conversion of energy from one form
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Relation between different units: to another is possible through various devices and processes.
Table : 6.1 Various devices for energy conversion from one form to another

Mechanical  electrical Light  Electrical Chemical  electrical

Light Cathode
N S Anode
– +

Dynamo Photoelectric Primary

A
cell cell
+ –
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 257

Chemical  heat Sound  Electrical Heat  electrical

Fe

Hot Cold

Coal G Cu
Burning Microphone Thermo-couple

Heat  Mechanical Electrical  Mechanical Electrical  Heat

60
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Engine Motor Heater

Electrical  Sound Electrical  Chemical Electrical  Light

Speaker Voltameter
ID
Anode
+
Cathode
–

Electrolyte
Bulb
U
Kinetic Energy v2
 v 2  0  2as s 
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion, is called 2a
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kinetic energy. Since the displacement of the body is in the direction of the applied
Examples : (i) Flowing water possesses kinetic energy which is used force, then work done by the force is
to run the water mills.
v2
(ii) Moving vehicle possesses kinetic energy. W  F  s  ma 
2a
(iii) Moving air (i.e. wind) possesses kinetic energy which is used to
1
run wind mills.  W  mv 2
2
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(iv) The hammer possesses kinetic energy which is used to drive the
This work done appears as the kinetic energy of the body
nails in wood.
1
(v) A bullet fired from the gun has kinetic energy and due to this KE  W  mv 2
2
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energy the bullet penetrates into a target.

v (2) Calculus method : Let a body is initially at rest and force F is
u=0 
F applied on the body to displace it through small displacement d s along its
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own direction then small work done

s dW  F.d s  F ds
Fig. 6.17  dW  m a ds [As F = ma]
(1) Expression for kinetic energy :
Let m = mass of the body, dv  dv 
 dW  m ds  As a  dt 
u = Initial velocity of the body (= 0) dt  
F = Force acting on the body,
ds
a = Acceleration of the body,  dW  mdv .
dt
s = Distance travelled by the body,  dW  m v dv …(i)
v = Final velocity of the body
From v 2  u 2  2as
 258 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

 ds   W
1
m[v 2  u 2 ]
 As dt  v 
  2
Therefore work done on the body in order to increase its velocity Work done = change in kinetic energy
from zero to v is given by
W  E
v
v v v  1 2 This is work energy theorem, it states that work done by a force
W  0 mv dv  m 0 v dv  m    mv 2 acting on a body is equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body.
 2  0 2
This theorem is valid for a system in presence of all types of forces
This work done appears as the kinetic energy of the body (external or internal, conservative or non-conservative).
1 If kinetic energy of the body increases, work is positive i.e. body
KE  mv 2 .
2 moves in the direction of the force (or field) and if kinetic energy decreases,

60
work will be negative and object will move opposite to the force (or field).
1
In vector form KE  m (v . v ) Examples : (i) In case of vertical motion of body under gravity when
2 the body is projected up, force of gravity is opposite to motion and so
kinetic energy of the body decreases and when it falls down, force of gravity
As m and v .v are always positive, kinetic energy is always positive
is in the direction of motion so kinetic energy increases.
scalar i.e. kinetic energy can never be negative.

E3
(ii) When a body moves on a rough horizontal surface, as force of
(3) Kinetic energy depends on frame of reference : The kinetic friction acts opposite to motion, kinetic energy will decrease and the
energy of a person of mass m, sitting in a train moving with speed v, is zero decrease in kinetic energy is equal to the work done against friction.
1 (6) Relation of kinetic energy with linear momentum: As we know
in the frame of train but mv 2 in the frame of the earth.
2
1 1 P
(4) Kinetic energy according to relativity : As we know E mv 2    v 2 [As P  mv ]
2 2 v 
1
E  mv 2 .
2
But this formula is valid only for (v << c) If v is comparable to c
(speed of light in free space = 3  10 8 m / s ) then according to Einstein
ID  E
1
2

P2
Pv

 P
or E   As v  m 
U
theory of relativity 2m  
mc 2 p2
E  mc 2 So we can say that kinetic energy E 
1 1
mv 2  Pv 
1  (v / c )
2 2
2 2 2m
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(5) Work-energy theorem: From equation (i) dW  mv dv . and Momentum P 

2E
 2mE
v
Work done on the body in order to increase its velocity from u to v
is given by From above relation it is clear that a body can not have kinetic energy
without having momentum and vice-versa.
v
v v v 2 
W  u mv dv  m u v dv  m  
 2  u
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(7) Various graphs of kinetic energy

E
U

E
E  P2
Ev 2

m = constant
m = constant
ST

v v
E
E
E
1 P E
m m = constant
P = constant
m P

Stopping of Vehicle by Retarding Force (1) Stopping distance : Letm = Mass of vehicle,
v = Velocity, P = Momentum, E = Kinetic energy
If a vehicle moves with some initial velocity and due to some retarding
force it stops after covering some distance after some time. F = Stopping force, x = Stopping distance,
t = Stopping time
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 259

Then, in this process stopping force does work on the vehicle and 1 1
destroy the motion. mv 2 mv 2
2 2 v2
Stopping distance x   
By the work- energy theorem F ma 2 g
1 [As a  g]
W  K  mv 2
2
Initial velocity = v Final velocity = 0 mv mv v
Stopping time t   
F m g g
Potential Energy
x Potential energy is defined only for conservative forces. In the space
occupied by conservative forces every point is associated with certain energy
Fig. 6.18

60
 Stopping force (F)  Distance (x) = Kinetic energy (E) which is called the energy of position or potential energy. Potential energy
generally are of three types : Elastic potential energy, Electric potential energy
Kineticenergy (E) and Gravitational potential energy.
 Stopping distance (x) 
Stopping force (F) (1) Change in potential energy : Change in potential energy between
any two points is defined in the terms of the work done by the associated
mv 2 conservative force in displacing the particle between these two points
 x …(i)

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2F without any change in kinetic energy.
(2) Stopping time : By the impulse-momentum theorem r
 
U 2  U1  r 2 F. dr  W …(i)
F  t  P  F  t  P 1

We can define a unique value of potential energy only by assigning

P
 t some arbitrary value to a fixed point called the reference point. Whenever
F and wherever possible, we take the reference point at infinity and assume

or t 
mv
F
…(ii)

(3) Comparison of stopping distance and time for two vehicles :

Two vehicles of masses m and m are moving with velocities v and v
1 2 1
ID
2
potential energy to be zero there, i.e. if we take r1   and r2  r then
from equation (i)
r
 
U    F. dr  W
respectively. When they are stopped by the same retarding force (F).
U
In case of conservative force (field) potential energy is equal to
x1 E m 1 v 12 negative of work done by conservative force in shifting the body from
The ratio of their stopping distances  1  reference position to given position.
x2 E2 m 2 v 22
This is why, in shifting a particle in a conservative field (say
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t P m v gravitational or electric), if the particle moves opposite to the field, work

and the ratio of their stopping time 1  1  1 1 done by the field will be negative and so change in potential energy will be
t2 P2 m 2 v 2
positive i.e. potential energy will increase. When the particle moves in the
(i) If vehicles possess same velocities direction of field, work will be positive and change in potential energy will
v=v
1 2
be negative i.e. potential energy will decrease.
(2) Three dimensional formula for potential energy: For only
x1 m t1 m  
 1 ;  1 conservative fields F equals the negative gradient () of the potential
x2 m2 t2 m2
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energy.
(ii) If vehicle possess same kinetic momentum   
P=P So F  U (  read as Del operator or Nabla operator and
1 2

  ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
 i j
U

x1 E  P 2   2m  m2 k)
 1   1   22  x y z
x 2 E2  2m1   P2  m
 1   U ˆ U ˆ U ˆ 
 F   i j k
t1 P
 1 1  x y z 
ST

t2 P2 where,
(iii) If vehicle possess same kinetic energy U
 Partial derivative of U w.r.t. x (keeping y and z constant)
x1 E x
 1 1 U
x2 E2  Partial derivative of U w.r.t. y (keeping x and z constant)
y
t1 P 2m1 E1 m1 U
 1    Partial derivative of U w.r.t. z (keeping x and y constant)
t2 P2 2 m 2 E2 m2 z
(3) Potential energy curve : A graph plotted between the potential
Note :  If vehicle is stopped by friction then energy of a particle and its displacement from the centre of force is called
potential energy curve. U(x)

C D
A

B
x
O
Fig. 6.19
 260 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Figure shows a graph of potential energy function U(x) for one dU
dimensional motion.  negative , then F is in positive direction
dx
As we know that negative gradient of the potential energy gives
i.e. force is repulsive in nature.
force.
In graph this is represented in region AB.
dU
  F (iii) Zero force :
dx On increasing x, if U does not change,
(4) Nature of force dU
(i) Attractive force :  0 then F is zero
dx
On increasing x, if U increases,
i.e. no force works on the particle.
dU Point B, C and D represents the point of zero force or these points
 positive, then F is in negative direction
dx can be termed as position of equilibrium.
i.e. force is attractive in nature.

60
(5) Types of equilibrium : If net force acting on a particle is zero, it
In graph this is represented in region BC. is said to be in equilibrium.
(ii) Repulsive force : dU
On increasing x, if U decreases, For equilibrium  0 , but the equilibrium of particle can be of three
dx
types :

Stable
When a particle is displaced slightly from its
present position, then a force acting on it
brings it back to the initial position, it is said
to be in stable equilibrium position.
Potential energy is minimum.
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Unstable
When a particle is displaced slightly from its
present position, then a force acting on it tries
to displace the particle further away from the
equilibrium position, it is said to be in unstable
equilibrium.
Neutral
When a particle is slightly displaced from its
position then it does not experience any force acting
on it and continues to be in equilibrium in the
displaced position, it is said to be in neutral
equilibrium.

F
dU
dx
0 F
ID
Potential energy is maximum.
dU
dx
0
Potential energy is constant.

F
dU
dx
0

d 2U d 2U d 2U
U
 positive  negative 0
dx 2 dx 2 dx 2
dU dU dU
i.e. rate of change of is positive. i.e. rate of change of is negative. i.e. rate of change of is zero.
YG

dx dx dx
Example : Example : Example :
D

A marble placed at the bottom of a A marble balanced on top of a hemispherical A marble placed on horizontal table.
hemispherical bowl. bowl.

Elastic Potential Energy

U

(1) Restoring force and spring constant : When a spring is stretched or

compressed from its normal position (x = 0) by a small distance x, then a i.e. F   x
restoring force is produced in the spring to bring it to the normal position.
ST

According to Hooke’s law this restoring force is proportional to the or F   k x …(i)

displacement x and its direction is always opposite to the displacement.
where k is called spring constant.

m If x = 1, F = k (Numerically)
or k=F
x=0
F Hence spring constant is numerically equal to force required to
produce unit displacement (compression or extension) in the spring. If
m Fext required force is more, then spring is said to be more stiff and vice-versa.
+x Actually k is a measure of the stiffness/softness of the spring.
F
F
m Fext Dimension : As k 
x

–x
Fig. 6.20
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 261

[F] [MLT 2 ]  Elastic potential energy U 

1 2
 [k ]    [MT 2 ] kx
[x ] L 2

Units : S.I. unit Newton/metre, C.G.S unit Dyne/cm. 1  F

U Fx  As k  x 
 
Note : Dimension of force constant is similar to
2

surface tension. F2  F
(2) Expression for elastic potential energy : When a spring is
U  As x  k 
2k  
stretched or compressed from its normal position (x = 0), work has to be
done by external force against restoring force. F ext   F restoring  k x 1 2 1 F2
 Elastic potential energy U  kx  Fx 
2 2 2k
Let the spring is further stretched through the distance dx, then

60
work done
Note : If spring is stretched from initial position
dW  F ext . d x  Fext . dx cos 0  kx dx [As cos 0 = 1]
o o x 1 to final position x 2 then work done
= Increment in elastic potential energy
Therefore total work done to stretch the spring through a distance x 1
from its mean position is given by  k (x 22  x 12 )

E3
2
x2
x
  Work done by the spring-force on the block in various
x x 1 2
W  0 dW  0 kx dx  k    kx situation are shown in the following table
 2  0 2

This work done is stored as the potential energy in the stretched

spring.

Initial state of the spring

Natural
Final state of the spring

Compressed
ID
Table : 6.2 Work done for spring
Initial position (x1)

0
Final position (x2)

–x
Work done (W)

–1/2 kx2
U
Natural Elongated 0 x –1/2 kx2

Elongated Natural x 0 1/2 kx2

YG

Compressed Natural –x 0 1/2 kx2

Elongated Compressed x –x 0

Compressed Elongated –x x 0

(3) Energy graph for a spring : If the mass attached with spring
performs simple harmonic motion about its mean position then its potential
D

energy at any position (x) can be given by

x=0
m
U

O This is maximum potential energy or the total energy of mass.

x=–a 1 2
 Total energy E  ka …(ii)
ST

m 2

A [Because velocity of mass is zero at extreme position]

x=+a
1
m  K mv 2  0 ]
2

B Now kinetic energy at any position

1 2 Fig. 6.21 1 1
U kx …(i) K  E U  k a2  k x 2
2 2 2
So for the extreme position 1
K k (a 2  x 2 ) …(iii)
1 2 2
U ka [As x =  a for extreme]
2 From the above formula we can check that
Energy

E
U

K
A O B
x =– a x=0 x = +a
Position
 262 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

1 2 maximum but through out the complete motion, total energy remains
U max  ka [At extreme x =  a] constant as shown in the figure.
2
and U min  0 [At mean x = 0]

1 2
K max  ka [At mean x = 0]
2
and K min  0 [At extreme x =  a]

1 2 Work Done in Pulling the Chain Against Gravity

E ka  constant (at all positions)
2 A chain of length L and mass M is held on a frictionless table with
(1/n) of its length hanging over the edge.

60
th

It means kinetic energy and potential energy changes parabolically

w.r.t. position but total energy remain always constant irrespective to M
position of the mass Let m  mass per
L
Electrical Potential Energy unit length of the chain and y is the L/ n
length of the chain hanging over the
It is the energy associated with state of separation between charged edge. So the mass of the chain of

E3
particles that interact via electric force. For two point charge q 1 and q 2 , length y will be ym and the force
separated by distance r. acting on it due to gravity will be
mgy. Fig. 6.25
1 q q
U . 1 2 The work done in pulling the
4 0 r dy length of the chain on the table.
dW = F(– dy) [As y is decreasing]
While for a point charge q at a point in an electric field where the
potential is V
U = qV
As charge can be positive or negative, electric potential energy can be
ID i.e. dW = mgy (– dy)
So the work done in pulling the hanging portion on the table.

0
positive or negative. 0 y2  mg L2
U
Gravitational Potential Energy
W  
L/n
mgy dy  mg  
 2  L / n

2n 2

It is the usual form of potential energy and this is the energy MgL
 W [As m = M/L]
YG

associated with the state of separation F12 F21 2n 2

between two bodies that interact via m1 m2
gravitational force.
Alternative method :
r If point mass m is pulled
For two particles of masses m and 1
through a height h then work
m separated by a distance r Fig. 6.23
2
done W = mgh
L/2n
G m1m 2 Similarly for a chain we
Gravitational potential energy U   Centre of mass
can consider its centre of mass at
D

r
the middle point of the hanging
(1) If a body of mass m at height h relative to surface of earth then part i.e. at a height of L/(2n) from
the lower end and mass of the Fig. 6.26
mgh
Gravitational potential energy U 
U

M
h hanging part of chain 
1 n
R
So work done to raise the centre of mass of the chain on the table is
Where R = radius of earth, g = acceleration due to gravity at the given by
ST

surface of the earth.

M L
(2) If h << R then above formula reduces to U = mgh. W g [As W = mgh]
n 2n
(3) If V is the gravitational potential at a point, the potential energy
of a particle of mass m at that point will be MgL
or W 
2n 2
U = mV
(4) Energy height graph : When a body projected vertically upward
Velocity of Chain While Leaving the Table
from the ground level with some initial velocity then it possess kinetic
energy but its initial potential energy is zero.
( L/ n)
As the body moves upward its potential energy increases due to
increase in height but kinetic energy decreases (due to decrease in velocity). L
At maximum height its kinetic energy becomes zero and potential energy

Fig. 6.27
Energy

K
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 263

W W
Average power (Pav. )  
t t
 
Taking surface of table as a reference level (zero potential energy) dW F. d s  
Instantaneous power (Pinst.)   [As dW  F. ds ]
Potential energy of chain when 1/n length hanging from the edge
th
dt dt
 MgL   
  ds
Pinst  F. v [As v  ]
2n 2 dt
MgL i.e. power is equal to the scalar product of force with velocity.
Potential energy of chain when it leaves the table  
2 Important Points
Kinetic energy of chain = loss in potential energy
1 MgL MgL (1) Dimension : [P]  [F][v]  [MLT 2 ][LT 1 ]
 Mv 2  

60
2 2 2n 2
 [P]  [ML2 T 3 ]
1 MgL  1 
 Mv 2  1 2 
2 
(2) Units : Watt or Joule/sec [S.I.]
2 n 
Erg/sec [C.G.S.]
 1 
 Velocity of chain v gL 1  2  Practical units : Kilowatt (KW), Mega watt (MW) and Horse power

E3
 n  (hp)
Law of Conservation of Energy Relations between different units :
(1) Law of conservation of energy 1 W att  1 Joule / sec  10 7 erg / sec
For a body or an isolated system by work-energy theorem we have
  1hp  746 W att
K 2  K 1   F. dr …(i)
But according to definition of potential energy in a conservative field
 
U 2  U1   F. dr …(ii)
So from equation (i) and (ii) we have
K 2  K1  (U 2  U1 )
ID 1 MW  10 6 W att

1 KW  10 3 W att

(3) If work done by the two bodies is same then power 

1
time
U
or K 2  U 2  K1  U1 i.e. the body which perform the given work in lesser time possess
more power and vice-versa.
i.e. K + U = constant.
For an isolated system or body in presence of conservative forces, (4) As power = work/time, any unit of power multiplied by a unit of
YG

the sum of kinetic and potential energies at any point remains constant time gives unit of work (or energy) and not power, i.e. Kilowatt-hour or
throughout the motion. It does not depend upon time. This is known as the watt-day are units of work or energy.
law of conservation of mechanical energy. J
1 KW h  10 3  (60  60 sec)  3.6  10 6 Joule
(K  U)  E  0 sec
[As E is constant in a conservative field] (5) The slope of work time curve gives the instantaneous power. As
 K  U  0 P = dW/dt = tan
i.e. if the kinetic energy of the body increases its potential energy will
D

Work
decrease by an equal amount and vice-versa.
(2) Law of conservation of total energy : If some non-conservative
force like friction is also acting on the particle, the mechanical energy is no 
more constant. It changes by the amount equal to work done by the
U

frictional force.
(K  U)  E  W f Time
Fig. 6.28 dW
[where W f is the work done against friction] (6) Area under power-time curve gives the work done as P 
ST

dt
The lost energy is transformed into heat and the heat energy developed is
exactly equal to loss in mechanical energy.
We can, therefore, write E + Q = 0
 W 
 P dt
[where Q is the heat produced]  W = Area under P-t curve
This shows that if the forces are conservative and non-conservative Position and Velocity of an Automobile w.r.t Time
both, it is not the mechanical energy which is conserved, but it is the total An automobile of mass m accelerates, starting from rest, while the
energy, may be heat, light, sound or mechanical etc., which is conserved. engine supplies constant power P, its position and velocity changes w.r.t
In other words : ‚Energy may be transformed from one kind to time.
another but it cannot be created or destroyed. The total energy in an
(1) Velocity : As Fv = P = constant
isolated system remain constant". This is the law of conservation of energy.
dv  mdv 
Power i.e. m v  P  As F  dt 
dt  
Power of a body is defined as the rate at which the body can do the
work.
 264 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
contact while in collision of alpha particle by a nucleus (i.e. Rutherford
 
P
or v dv  dt scattering experiment) there is no physical contact.
m
(1) Stages of collision : There are three distinct identifiable stages in
v2 P collision, namely, before, during and after. In the before and after stage the
By integrating both sides we get  t  C1 interaction forces are zero. Between these two stages, the interaction forces
2 m
are very large and often the dominating forces governing the motion of
As initially the body is at rest i.e. v = 0 at t = 0, so C1  0 bodies. The magnitude of the interacting force is often unknown, therefore,
1/2 Newton’s second law cannot be used, the law of conservation of momentum
 2 Pt 
 v  is useful in relating the initial and final velocities.
 m 
F
1/2
 2 Pt 
(2) Position : From the above expression v   
 m 
u1 u2 v1 v2

60
ds  2 Pt 
1/2
 ds  m1 m2 m1mm m1 m2
1 2m2
or    As v  dt  Fext
dt  m   
t
 2 Pt 
1/2 t

i.e. ds  

 m 
 dt Before collision During collision After collision

By integrating both sides we get (2) Momentum and energy conservation

Fig. 6.29 in collision

E3
1/2
 2P  2 (i) Momentum conservation : In a collision, the effect of external
s  . t 3 / 2  C2 forces such as gravity or friction are not taken into account as due to small
 m  3
duration of collision (t) average impulsive force responsible for collision is
Now as at t = 0, s = 0, so C 2  0 much larger than external force acting on the system and since this
1/2 impulsive force is 'Internal' therefore the total momentum of system always
 8P  remains conserved.
s  t3/2
 9m 
Collision
Collision is an isolated event in which a strong force acts between
two or more bodies for a short time as a result of which the energy and
momentum of the interacting particle change.
ID energy.
(ii) Energy conservation : In a collision 'total energy' is also always
conserved. Here total energy includes all forms of energy such as mechanical
energy, internal energy, excitation energy, radiant energy or even mass

U
In collision particles may or may not come in real touch e.g. in
collision between two billiard balls or a ball and bat, there is physical
These laws are the fundamental laws of physics and applicable for
any type of collision but this is not true for conservation of kinetic energy.
(3) Types of collision : (i) On the basis of conservation of kinetic
energy.

Perfectly elastic collision Inelastic collision Perfectly inelastic collision

YG

If in a collision, kinetic energy after collision is equal If in a collision kinetic energy after collision is If in a collision two bodies stick together or
to kinetic energy before collision, the collision is said not equal to kinetic energy before collision, the move with same velocity after the collision,
to be perfectly elastic. collision is said to inelastic. the collision is said to be perfectly inelastic.
Coefficient of restitution e = 1 Coefficient of restitution 0 < e < 1 Coefficient of restitution e = 0
Here kinetic energy appears in other forms. In The term 'perfectly inelastic' does not
some cases (KE) < (KE) such as when initial
final initial
necessarily mean that all the initial kinetic
(KE) = (KE) KE is converted into internal energy of the energy is lost, it implies that the loss in
D

final initial

product (as heat, elastic or excitation) while in kinetic energy is as large as it can be.
other cases (KE) > (KE) final
such as when
initial
(Consistent with momentum conservation).
internal energy stored in the colliding particles
is released
U

Examples : (1) Collision between atomic particles Examples : (1) Collision between two billiard Example : Collision between a bullet and a
(2) Bouncing of ball with same velocity after the balls. block of wood into which it is fired. When
collision with earth. (2) Collision between two automobile on a the bullet remains embedded in the block.
road.
ST

In fact all majority of collision belong to this

category.
(ii) On the basis of the direction of colliding bodies
Head on or one dimensional collision Oblique collision
In a collision if the motion of colliding particles before and after the collision If two particle collision is ‘glancing’ i.e. such that their directions of
is along the same line, the collision is said to be head on or one dimensional. motion after collision are not along the initial line of motion, the collision
is called oblique.
If in oblique collision the particles before and after collision are in same
plane, the collision is called 2-dimensional otherwise 3-dimensional.
Impact parameter b is zero for this type of collision. Impact parameter b lies between 0 and (r1  r2 ) i.e .

0 < b < (r1  r2 ) where r1 and r2 are radii of colliding bodies.

v1
u1 u2 v1 v2 m1
m1 m2 m1 m2
u1
m1 b 
m2 u2
Before collision After collision 

Before collision After collision

m2
v
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 265

Example : collision of two gliders on an air track. Example : Collision of billiard balls.

Perfectly elastic head on collision v 2  v1

e
u1  u 2

60
Let two bodies of masses m 1 and m 2 moving with initial velocities
u 1 and u 2 in the same direction and they collide such that after collision or v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 )
their final velocities are v 1 and v 2 respectively.
 For perfectly elastic collision, e = 1
u1 u2 v1 v2
 v 2  v 1  u1  u 2 [As shown in eq. (vi)]

E3
m1 m2 m1 m2

 For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0

Before collision After collision
Fig. 6.30  v 2  v1  0 or v 2  v 1
According to law of conservation of momentum
It means that two body stick together and move with same velocity.
m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m 2 v 2

 m1 (u1  v1 )  m 2 (v 2  u 2 )
According to law of conservation of kinetic energy
… (i)

…(ii)
ID  For inelastic collision, 0 < e < 1

 v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 )

In short we can say that e is the degree of elasticity of collision and

U
1 1 1 1 it is dimensionless quantity.
m 1 u12  m 2 u 22  m 1 v12  m 2 v 22 …(iii)
2 2 2 2
Further from equation (v) we get
 m 1 (u12  v12 )  m 2 (v 22  u 22 ) …(iv)
v 2  v1  u1  u 2
YG

Dividing equation (iv) by equation (ii)

Substituting this value of v 2 in equation (i) and rearranging
v1  u1  v 2  u 2 …(v)

 u1  u 2  v 2  v 1 …(vi)  m  m2  2m 2 u 2
we get, v1   1  u1 
 …(vii)
 1
m  m 2  m 1  m2
Relative velocity of separation is equal to relative velocity of
approach. Similarly we get,
D

Note :  The ratio of relative velocity of separation and  m  m1 

v 2   2  u2 
2m1u1
…(viii)
 
relative velocity of approach is defined as coefficient of restitution.  1
m m 2  m1  m2
U

(1) Special cases of head on elastic collision

(i) If projectile and target are of same mass i.e. m = m 1 2

 m  m2   m  m1 
ST

2m 2 2m1u1
Since v1   1  u1 
 u2 and v 2   2  u2 

 m1  m 2  m 1  m2  1
m  m 2  m 1  m2

Substituting m1  m 2 we get
v1  u2 and v 2  u1
It means when two bodies of equal masses undergo head on elastic collision, their velocities get interchanged.
Example : Collision of two billiard balls
Before collision After collision
Sub case : u2  0 i.e. target is at rest
10 kg 10 kg 10 kg 10 kg
v1  0 and v 2  u1
u1 = 50m/s u2 = 20m/s v1 = 20 m/s v2 = 50 m/s
(ii) If massive projectile collides with a light target i.e. m >> m 1 2
 266 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

 m  m2  2m 2u 2  m  m1  2m1u1
Since v1   1  u1 
 and v 2   2  u2 

 m1  m 2  m 1  m2  1
m  m 2  m 1  m2

Substituting m 2  0 , we get
v1  u1 and v 2  2u1  u2
Example : Collision of a truck with a cyclist
u1 = 120 km/hr
m1 = 103 kg m2 = 60 kg
u2 = 10 km/hr

60
Before collision

v1 = 120 km/hr

E3
v2 = 230 km/hr Sub case : u 2  0 i.e. target is at rest

v = u and v = 2u
After collision 1 1 2 1

(iii) If light projectile collides with a very heavy target i.e. m << m 1 2

 m  m2  2m 2 u 2  m  m1  2m1u1
Since v1   1  u1  v 2   2  u2 
 1
m  m 
2 

Substituting m1  0 , we get
v1   u1  2u2 and v 2  u2
m 1  m2

Example : Collision of a ball with a massive wall.

and
ID
 1
m  m 
2  m 1  m2
U
Sub case : u 2  0 i.e. target is at rest
u2 = 2 m/ s v2 = 2 m/s
YG

v = – u and v = 0
1 1 2

u1 = 30 m/s v1 = – 26 m/s
i.e. the ball rebounds with same speed in opposite
direction when it collide with stationary and very massive
m1 = 50gm
wall.

m2 = 100 kg
Before collision After collision
D

(2) Kinetic energy transfer during head on elastic collision  m  m2  2m 2 u 2

v 1   1  u1 

1  m 1  m 2  m 1  m2
Kinetic energy of projectile before collision Ki  m1u12
2
U

 m  m2 
1 If the target is at rest i.e. u = 0 then v1   1  u1

Kinetic energy of projectile after collision K f  m 1 v 12  m1  m 2 
2

2
2
ST

Kinetic energy transferred from projectile to target K = decrease in K  m  m2 

From equation (i)  1   1 
 …(ii)
kinetic energy in projectile K  m1  m 2 
1 1 1
K  m 1 u 12  m 1 v 12  m 1 (u 12  v 12 )
2 2 2 K 4m1m 2
or  …(iii)
Fractional decrease in kinetic energy
K (m 1  m 2 ) 2

1 K 4m1m 2
m (u 2  v 12 ) 2 or  …(iv)
K 2 1 1 v  K (m 1  m 2 ) 2  4 m 1 m 2
  1   1 
 …(i)
K 1  u1 
m 1 u 12
2 Note :  Greater the difference in masses,
We can substitute the value of v1 from the equation lesser will be transfer of kinetic energy and vice versa
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 267

 Transfer of kinetic energy will be maximum when the

difference in masses is minimum
2m 1 u 1
 v2 
i.e. m1  m 2  0 or m 1  m 2 then m1  m 2
K
 1  100%
K 2u 1
 As u 2  0 and
1  m 2 / m1
So the transfer of kinetic energy in head on elastic collision
(when target is at rest) is maximum when the masses of particles are equal
i.e. mass ratio is 1 and the transfer of kinetic energy is 100%. m2
Assuming n
m1
 If m 2  n m 1 then from equation (iii) we get

60
K 4n 2u 1
  v2 
K (1  n)2 1n

 Kinetic energy retained by the projectile 2nm 1 u 1

(ii) Momentum of target : P2  m 2 v 2 
 K  1n
   1  kinetic energy transferred by projectile

E3
 K Retained
 2u 1 
 As m 2  m 1 n and v 2  1  n 
 K   m m   m  m2 
2 2
 
    1  1   1 2
   1
 m m 

 K Retained   m  m 2    2 
 1
 1
2m 1 u 1
 P2 
1  (1 / n)
(3) Velocity, momentum and kinetic energy of stationary target after head on
elastic collision

(i) Velocity of target : We know

ID (iii) Kinetic energy of target :

K2 
1 1  2u 
m 2 v 22  n m 1  1  
2
2 m 1 u 12 n
 m  m1  2m 1 u 1 1  n  (1  n) 2
U
2 2
v 2   2 u2 

 1
m  m 2  m 1  m2
4 (K 1 )n  1 2
  As K 1  2 m 1 u 1 
(1  n)  4 n
2
 
YG

u1 u2=0 v1 v2
m1 m2 m1 m2
(iv) Relation between masses for maximum velocity, momentum and
kinetic energy
Before collision After collision

Fig. 6.31
Velocity For v 2 to be maximum n must be minimum
2u1 Target should be very light.
v2 
D

m2
1n i.e. n  0  m 2  m1
m1
Momentum For P2 to be maximum, (1/n) must be minimum or n must be
U

2m1u1 maximum. Target should be massive.

P2 
(1  1 / n) m2
i.e. n    m 2  m1
m1
ST

Kinetic energy For K 2 to be maximum (1  n)2 must be minimum.

4 K1 n Target and projectile should
K2  m
(1  n)2  4 n i.e. 1  n  0  n  1  2  m 2  m1 be of equal mass.
m1

Perfectly Elastic Oblique Collision

Let two bodies moving as shown in figure.
By law of conservation of momentum
v1
Along x-axis, m 1u1  m 2 u 2  m 1v1 cos   m 2 v 2 cos  ...(i)
m1
u1 Along y-axis, 0  m 1 v1 sin  m 2 v 2 sin ...(ii)
m1 
m2 u2


Before collision After collision

m2
v2
Fig. 6.32
 268 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
By law of conservation of kinetic energy v 2  v1 v 2  v1
 e 
1 1 1 1 u1  u 2 u0
m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22  m 1 v 12  m 2 v 22 ...(iii)
2 2 2 2  v 2  v 1  eu …(i)
In case of oblique collision it becomes difficult to solve problem By conservation of momentum :
unless some experimental data is provided, as in these situations more
Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision
unknown variables are involved than equations formed.
mu  mv 1  mv 2
Special condition : If m 1  m 2 and u 2  0 substituting these
values in equation (i), (ii) and (iii) we get  v1  v 2  u …(ii)

u1  v 1 cos   v 2 cos  ...(iv) u

60
Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get v 1  (1  e )
2
0  v 1 sin  v 2 sin ...(v)
u
and v 2  (1  e )
and u12  v 12  v 22 …(vi) 2
v1 1  e
Squaring (iv) and (v) and adding we get  

E3
v2 1  e
u12  v 12  v 22  2v 1 v 2 cos(   ) …(vii)
(3) Loss in kinetic energy
Using (vi) and (vii) we get cos(   )  0 Loss in K.E. (K) = Total initial kinetic energy

    / 2 – Total final kinetic energy

i.e. after perfectly elastic oblique collision of two bodies of equal masses (if
the second body is at rest), the scattering angle    would be 90 o .

Head on Inelastic Collision

ID 1
2
1
2
 1
  2
1
2

=  m 1 u12  m 2 u 22    m 1 v 12  m 2 v 22 
 

Substituting the value of v1 and v 2 from the above expressions

U
(1) Velocity after collision : Let two bodies A and B collide 1  m1m 2 
Loss (K) =   (1  e 2 ) (u1  u2 )2
inelastically and coefficient of restitution is e. 2  m1  m 2 
Where
v 2  v 1 Relativevelocityof separation By substituting e = 1 we get K = 0 i.e. for perfectly elastic collision,
YG

e  loss of kinetic energy will be zero or kinetic energy remains same before
u1  u 2 Relativevelocityof approach
and after the collision.
 v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 )
Rebounding of Ball After Collision With Ground
 v 2  v1  e(u1  u 2 ) …(i) If a ball is dropped from a height h on a horizontal floor, then it
strikes with the floor with a speed.
From the law of conservation of linear momentum
D

m 1 u1  m 2 u 2  m 1 v 1  m 2 v 2 …(ii) v 0  2gh0 [From v 2  u 2  2 gh]

By solving (i) and (ii) we get and it rebounds from the floor with a speed

 m  em 2   (1  e ) m 2 
U

v 1   1  u1  
  m m
u2

 m1  m 2   1 2 
h0
h1 h2
 (1  e ) m 1   m 2  e m1 
ST

Similarly v 2    u 1   u2
 v0 v1 v2
 m 1  m 2   m1  m 2  t0 t1 t2
By substituting e = 1, we get the value of v1 and v 2 for perfectly Fig. 6.34
elastic head on collision. v 1  e v 0  e 2gh0
(2) Ratio of velocities after inelastic collision : A sphere of mass m
 velocityafter collision 
moving with velocity u hits inelastically with another stationary sphere of  Ase  
same mass.  velocitybefore collision

u1 = u u2 = 0 v1 v2 v 12
(1) First height of rebound : h1   e 2 h0
m m m m 2g

Before collision After collision  h = eh

1
2

(2) Height of the ball after n rebound : Obviously, the velocity of

th

Fig. 6.33 ball after n rebound will be

th
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 269

vn  e nv0 m 1u1  m 2 (u 2 )  (m 1  m 2 )v comb

Therefore the height after n rebound will be
th
(Taking left to right as positive)
v n2 m 1 u1  m 2 u 2
hn   e 2n h0  v comb 
2g m1  m 2
 hn  e 2 n h 0 u1 u2
m1 m2
(3) Total distance travelled by the ball before it stops bouncing
H  h0  2h1  2h2  2h3  ...  h0  2e 2h0  2e 4 h0  2e 6 h0  ... Before collision

H  h0 [1  2e (1  e  e  e ....)]
2 2 4 6 Fig. 3.36
when m 1 u1  m 2 u 2 then v comb  0 (positive)

60
  1 
 h0 1  2e 2   i.e. the combined body will move along the direction of motion of
 1  e2 
mass m 1 .
 1 
 As 1  e  e  .... 
2 4
 when m 1 u1  m 2 u 2 then v comb  0 (negative)
 1e2 
i.e. the combined body will move in a direction opposite to the

E3
1  e 2 
 H  h0  2  motion of mass m 1 .
 1  e 
(4) Total time taken by the ball to stop bouncing (3) Loss in kinetic energy
K = Initial kinetic energy – Final kinetic energy
2h0 2h1 2h2
T  t0  2t1  2t2  2t3  ..  2 2  ..
g g g 1 1  1 
  m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22    (m 1  m 2 ) v comb
2



2h0
g

2h 0
[1  2e  2e 2  ......]

[1  2e (1  e  e 2  e 3  ......)]
ID
[As h1  e 2 h0 ; h 2  e 4 h0 ]

2
1 m 1m 2
2

2 m1  m 2
 2

(u1  u 2 )2

U
g Collision Between Bullet and Vertically
2h 0   1  2h 0  1  e  Suspended Block
 1  2e     
 1  e  g 1  e  A bullet of mass m is fired horizontally with velocity u in block of
g 
mass M suspended by vertical thread.
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 1  e  2h 0 After the collision bullet gets embedded in block. Let the combined
 T  
1  e  g system raised upto height h and the string makes an angle  with the
vertical.
Perfectly Inelastic Collision
(1) Velocity of system
In such types of collisions, the bodies move independently before
collision but after collision as a one single body. Let v be the velocity of the system (block + bullet) just after the
collision.
D

(1) When the colliding bodies are moving in the same direction
By the law of conservation of momentum
m 1 u1  m 2 u 2  (m 1  m 2 )v comb L–h 
L
U

m 1 u1  m 2 u 2
 v comb  M
m1  m 2 m h
u
vcomb M
u1 u2
ST

m1 m2 m1 m2
Fig. 3.37
Momentum + Momentum = Momentum
bullet block bullet and block system

Before collision After collision

mu  0  (m  M )v
Fig. 6.35
Loss in kinetic energy mu
 v …(i)
1 1  1 (m  M )
K   m 1 u 12  m 2 u 22   (m 1  m 2 )v comb
2

2 2  2 (2) Velocity of bullet : Due to energy which remains in the bullet-

1  m1m 2  block system, just after the collision, the system (bullet + block) rises upto
K    (u 1  u 2 ) 2 height h.
2  m 1  m 2


By the conservation of mechanical energy
[By substituting the value of v ] comb

1
(2) When the colliding bodies are moving in the opposite direction (m  M )v 2  (m  M )gh  v  2 gh
2
By the law of conservation of momentum
 270 Work, Energy, Power and Collision
Now substituting this value in the equation (i) we get done.

2 gh 
mu  When work is done on a body, its kinetic or potential energy
mM increases.

 (m  M ) 2 gh   When the work is done by the body, its potential or kinetic energy
 u  decreases.
 m 
 According to the work energy theorem, the work done is equal to
(3) Loss in kinetic energy : We know that the formula for loss of the change in energy. That is W  E .
kinetic energy in perfectly inelastic collision
 Work energy theorem is particularly useful in calculation of
1 m1m 2 minimum stopping force or minimum stopping distance. If a body is
K  (u1  u2 )2 (When the bodies are moving in brought to a halt, the work done to do so is equal to the kinetic energy
2 m1  m 2
lost.

60
same direction.)
 Potential energy of a system increases when a conservative force
1 mM does work on it.
 K  u2
2 mM
 The kinetic energy of a body is always positive.
[As u1  u , u 2  0 , m 1  m and m 2  M ]  When the momentum of a body increases by a factor n, then its
kinetic energy is increased by factor n .

E3
2

(4) Angle of string from the vertical

 If the speed of a vehicle is made n times, then its stopping distance
 (m  M ) 2 gh  becomes n times.
From the expression of velocity of bullet u    we
2

 m   The total energy (including mass energy) of the universe remains

2 constant.
u  m 
2
can get h     One form of energy can be changed into other form according to
2g  m  M 

From the figure cos  

Lh
L
h
1  1
L
u  m 

2

2 gL  m  M 
2 ID the law of conservation of energy. That is amount of energy lost of one
form should be equal to energy or energies produced of other forms.
 Kinetic energy can change into potential energy and vice versa.
When a body falls, potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
 1  mu  
2
 Pendulum oscillates due to conversion of kinetic energy into
U
or   cos 1 1    
 2 gL  m  M   potential energy and vice versa. Same is true for the oscillations of mass
attached to the spring.
 Conservation laws can be used to describe the behaviour of a
YG

mechanical system even when the exact nature of the forces involved is
not known.
 Although the exact nature of the nuclear forces is not known, yet
we can solve problems regarding the nuclear forces with the help of the
 The area under the force-displacement graph is equal to the work conservation laws.
done.  Violation of the laws of conservation indicates that the event cannot
take place.
D

 Work done by gravitation or electric force does not depend on the

path followed. It depends on the initial and final positions of the body.
 The gravitational potential energy of a mass m at a height h above
Such forces are called conservative. When a body returns to the starting mgh
the surface of the earth (radius R) is given by U  . When h <<
point under the action of conservative force, the net work done is zero 1  h/R
U

R, we find U=mgh.
that is  dW  0 . 1
 Electrostatic energy in capacitor - U  CV 2 , where C is
ST

 Work done against friction depends on the path followed. Viscosity 2

and friction are not conservative forces. For non conservative forces, the capacitance, V = potential difference between the plates.
 Electric potential energy of a test charge q at a place where electric
work done on a closed path is not zero. That is  dW  0 . potential is V, is given by : U =q V.
P 0
0

 Electric potential energy between two charges (q and q ) separated

 Work done is path independent only for a conservative field. 1 2

1 q1q 2
 Work done depends on the frame of reference. by a distance r is given by U  . Here  0 is permittivity of
4 0 r
 Work done by a centripetal force is always zero.
2 2
vacuum and 1 / 4  0  9  10 Nm C .
9
 Energy is a promise of work to be done in future. It is the stored
ability to do work.  Magnetic energy stored in an inductor –
 Energy of a body is equal to the work done by the body and it has 1 2
nothing to do with the time taken to perform the work. On the other U LI , where L = inductance, I = current.
2
hand, the power of the body depends on the time in which the work is
 Work, Energy, Power and Collision 271
   
 Energy gained by a body of mass m, specific heat C, when its where u1 and u 2 are initial velocities and v1 and v 2 are the velocities
temperature changes by  is given by : Q  mC  . of the colliding bodies after the collision. This is called Newton's law of
impact.
 The Potential energy associated with a spring of constant k when
1 2  The collision is said to be inelastic when the kinetic energy is not
extended or compressed by distance x is given by U  kx . conserved.
2
 In the perfectly inelastic collision, the colliding bodies stick
 Kinetic energy of a particle executing SHM is given by : together. That is the relative velocity of the bodies after the collision is
1 zero.
K  m  2 (a 2  y 2 ) where m = mass,  = angular frequency, a=
2  In an elastic collision of two equal masses, their kinetic energies are
amplitude, y = displacement. exchanged.
 Potential energy of a particle executing SHM is given by :  If a body of mass m moving with velocity v, collides elastically with

60
1 a rigid wall, then the change in the momentum of the body is 2mv.
U  m 2 y 2 .  
2 v 2  v1
 e    is called coefficient of restitution. Its value is 1 for
 Total energy of a particle executing SHM is given by : u1  u 2
1 elastic collisions. It is less than 1 for inelastic collisions and zero for
E  K U  m  2a2 .

E3
2 perfectly inelastic collision.
1  During collision, velocity of the colliding bodies changes.
 Energy density associated with a wave   2 a 2 where
2  Linear momentum is conserved in all types of collisions.
 =density of medium,  = angular frequency, a = amplitude of the of  Perfectly elastic collision is a rare physical phenomenon.
the wave.
 Collisions between two ivory or steel or glass balls are nearly
 Energy associated with a photon :
E  h  hc /  , where h = planck’s constant,  = frequency of the
light wave, c = velocity of light,  = wave length.
 Mass and energy are interconvertible. That is mass can be
ID elastic.
 The force of interaction in an inelastic collision is non-conservative
in nature.
 In inelastic collision, the kinetic energy is converted into heat
U
converted into energy and energy can be converted into mass. energy, sound energy, light energy etc.
 A mass m (in kg) is equivalent to energy (in J) which is equal to  In head on collisions, the colliding bodies move along the same
mc where c = speed of light.
2
straight line before and after collision.
 A stout spring has a large value of force constant, while for a  Head on collisions are also called one dimensional collisions.
YG

delicate spring, the value of spring constant is low.

 The term energy is different from power. Whereas energy refers to
the capacity to perform the work, power determines the rate of
performing the work. Thus, in determining power, time taken to perform
the work is significant but it is of no importance for measuring energy
of a body.
 Collision is the phenomenon in which two bodies exert mutual
D
 In the oblique collisions the colliding bodies move at certain angles
before and/or after the collisions.
 The oblique collisions are two dimensional collisions.
 When a heavy body collides head-on elastically with a lighter body,
then the lighter body begins to move with a velocity nearly double the
velocity of the heavier body.

force on each other.  When a light body collides with a heavy body, the lighter body
 The collision generally occurs for very small interval of time. returns almost with the same speed.
 Physical contact between the colliding bodies is not essential for the  If a light and a heavy body have equal momenta, then lighter body
U

collision. has greater kinetic energy.

 The mutual forces between the colliding bodies are action and  Suppose, a body is dropped form a height h and it strikes the
0

reaction pair. In accordance with the Newton’s third law of motion, they ground with velocity v . After the (inelastic) collision let it rise to a
ST

are equal and opposite to each other. height h . If v be the velocity with which the body rebounds, then
1 1

 The collision is said to be elastic when the kinetic energy is 1/2 1/2
v1  2 gh1  h 
conserved. e    1
v0  2 gh0   h0 
 In the elastic collisions the forces involved are conservative.
 In the elastic collisions, the kinetic or mechanical energy is not  If after n collisions with the ground, the velocity is v and the height
n

converted into any other form of energy. to which it rises be h , thenn

 Elastic collisions produce no sound or heat. vn  hn 

1/2

en   
 There is no difference between the elastic and perfectly elastic v0  h0 
collisions.   
 In the elastic collisions, the relative velocity before collision is equal  P  F . v  F v cos  where v is the velocity of the body and
     
to the relative velocity after the collision. That is u1  u 2  v 2  v1  is the angle between F and v .
 272 Work, Energy, Power and Collision

 Area under the F  v graph is equal to the power dissipated.

 Power dissipated by a conservative force (gravitation, electric force
etc.) does not depend on the path followed. It depends on the initial and
final positions of the body. That is  dP  0 .

 Power dissipated against friction depends on the path followed.

That is  dP  0 .

 Power is also measured in horse power (hp). It is the fps unit of

power. 1 hp = 746 W.

60
 An engine pulls a train of mass m with constant velocity. If the rails
are on a plane surface and there is no friction, the power dissipated by
the engine is zero.
 In the above case if the coefficient of friction for the rail is  , the
power of the engine is P   mgv .

E3
 In the above case if the engine pulls on a smooth track on an
inclined plane (inclination  ), then its power P  (mg sin ) v .

 In the above case if the engine pulls upwards on a rough inclined

plane having coefficient of friction  , then power of the engine is
P  ( cos   sin )mg v .
 If the engine pulls down on the inclined plane then power of the
engine is
P  ( cos   sin )mg v .
ID
U
YG
D
U
ST