GEC REVIEWER
research and traditional medicine-
WEEK 10
Biodiversity- (from “biological diversity”)
refers to the variety of life on Earth at all
its levels, from genes to ecosystems, and
can encompass the evolutionary,
ecological, and cultural processes that
sustain life.
Change in biodiversity
- Alteration in any system could bring
varied effects. A change in biodiversity
could have erratic effects not only in
wildlife or marine life but also human
beings.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
1. Habitat loss and destruction
2. Alterations in ecosystem composition
3. Over-exploitation
4. Pollution and contamination
5. Global climate change
Biodiversity loss- means that we are
losing, before discovery, many of
nature's chemicals and genes, of the kind
that have already provided humankind
with enormous health benefits
#Specific pressures and
linkages between health and
biodiversity include:
Nutritional impact of biodiversity-
Biodiversity plays a crucial role in human
nutrition through its influence on world
food production, as it ensures the
sustainable productivity of soils and
provides the genetic resources for all
crops, livestock, and marine species
harvested for food
Importance of biodiversity for health
Traditional medicine continue to play an
essential role in health care, especially in
primary health care. Traditional
medicines are estimated to be used by
60% of the world’s population and in
some countries are extensively
incorporated into the public health
system.
Infectious diseases- Such disturbances
reduce the abundance of some
organisms, cause population growth in
others, modify the interactions among
organisms, and alter the interactions
between organisms and their physical
and chemical environments.
Climate change, biodiversity and
health- Climate is an integral part of
ecosystem functioning and human health
is impacted directly and indirectly by
results of climatic conditions upon
terrestrial and marine ecosystems.
WEEK 11-12
Genetic Engineering- is the process of
using recombinant DNA (rDNA)
technology to alter the genetic makeup of
an organism. involves the direct
manipulation of one or more genes. Most
often, a gene from another species is
added to an organism's genome to give it
a desired phenotype. coined by Jack
Williamson (1951) author of the science
fiction novel Dragon’s Island (Stableford,
2004).
Plants Genetic Modification
 Simple Selection- The easiest
method of plant genetic
modification
Crossing- occurs when a plant
breeder takes pollen from one
plant and brushes it onto the pistil
of a sexually compatible plant,
producing a hybrid that carries
genes from both parents.
Interspecies Crossing- can take
place through various means.
Closely related species, such as
cultivated oat (Avena sativa) and
its weedy relative wild oat (Avena
fatua), may cross-pollinate for
exchange of genetic information,
although this is not generally the
case.
Animal Genetic Modification
Domestication and Artificial
Selection- Sometimes human
technical intervention is required
to complete an interspecies gene
transfer. Some plants will cross-
pollinate and the resulting
fertilized hybrid embryo develops
but is unable to mature and
sprout.
Assisted Reproductive
Procedures- Modern breeds of
livestock differ from their
ancestors because the use of
frozen semen for artificial
insemination (AI), along with sire
testing and sire selection, has
markedly affected the genetic
quality of livestock, especially
dairy cattle.
The possible benefits of genetic
engineering include:
1. More nutritious food
2. Tastier food
3. Disease - and drought-resistant plants
that require fewer environmental
resources (such as water and fertilizer)
4. Less use of pesticides
5. Increased supply of food with reduced
cost and longer shelf life
6. Faster growing plants and animals
7. Food with more desirable traits, such
as potatoes that produce less of a
cancer-causing substance when fried
8. Medicinal foods that could be used as
vaccines or other medicines
There are Some people have
expressed concerns about GE
foods, such as:
• Creating foods that can cause an
allergic reaction or that are toxic
• Unexpected or harmful genetic changes
• Genes moving from one GM plant or
animal to another plant or animal that is
not genetically engineered
• Foods that are less nutritious.
GENETIC MODIFIED ORGANISM
(GMO)
- It is the term used for an
organism created through
genetic engineering.
- The World Health Organization
(W.H.O, 2014) defines GMO
as an “organism, either plants,
animal or microorganism, in
which the genetic material
(DNA) has been altered in a
 way that does not occur
naturally by mating or natural
recombination.
roles of GMOs in the food and
agricultural industries:
- Pest resistance
- Virus resistance
- Herbicide tolerance
- Fortification
- Cosmetic preservation
- Increase growth rate
Non-Food Crops and Micro
Organism
- Flower production
- Paper production
- Pharmaceutical productions
- Bioremediation
- Enzyme and drug production
- GMOs in the medical field
Benefits of GMOs
1. Higher efficiency in farming
2. Increase in harvest
3. Control in fertility
4. Increase in food processing
5. Improvement of desirable
characteristic
6. Nutritional and pharmaceutical
enhancement
7. Reduce the use of fertilization
Potential Risks of GMOs
• Since generic engineering is still a
branch of science, there are
inadequate studies on the effects
of GMOs to human and the
environment
• Genetic engineering promotes
mutation in organisms which the
long-term effect is still unknown
• Human Consumption of GMOs
might have the following effects:
• More allergic reactions
• Gene mutation
• Antibiotic resistance
• Nutritional Value
Potential Environmental Risks
Caused by GMOs
• Risk in gene flow
• Emergence if new forms of
resistance and secondary pests
and weed problems
• Recombination of virus and
bacteria to produce new Pathogen
Direct environmental risks-
unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the
environment if it escapes its intended use
and may post threats or become pests
Indirect environmental risks- May have
varied environmental impacts due to
GMOs interaction and release in the
natural environment
Potential Human Health Risks
caused by GMOs
1. Consumption of GMOs may
have adverse effect since it is not
naturally or organically produced;
2. Consumption of GMOs may
alter the balance of existing
 microorganisms in the human
digestive system;
3. Production of toxin may be
detrimental to human health; and
4. Production of allergens may
have adverse effect on humans.
Other Potential Risks that raise
major concern are:
1. Human Genome Project
(HGP) - Mapping of human genes
to provide framework for research
and studies in the field of
medicine.
2. Mutation of genetically
engineered micro-organisms -
Modified bacteria and virus may
mutate to become more resistant
or virulent that may cause more
dreadful disease for human
beings.
3. Cloning - The asexual
reproduction of an organism using
parent cell through genetic
engineering.
Gene therapy- a potential method to
either treat or cure genetic related human
illnesses. was inspired by the success of
recombinant DNA technology which
occurred over the last 20 years.
Basic Process of Gene Therapy
• Replacement of mutated gene
that cause disease with a healthy
copy of the gene
• Inactivation of a mutated gene
that is functioning improperly
• Introducing a new gene into the
body to help fight a disease
Two Types of Gene Therapy
1. Somatic Gene Therapy-
involves the manipulation of
genes in the cell that will be helpful
to the patient but not inherited to
the next generation.
2. Germ-line Gene Therapy-
which involves the genetic
modification of germ cells or the
origin cells that will pass the
change on to the next generation
(Your Genome,2017).
STEM CELLS- the mother cells that have
the potential to become any type of cells
in the body.
Stem Cells in Two Different Sources
are
Embryonic cells- are derived
from a four or five-day old human
embryo that is in the blastocyst
phase of development.
Somatic Stem Cells- are cells
that exist throughout the body
after embryonic development and
are found inside of different types
of tissue.
WEEK 13
Nanotechnology- refers to the science,
engineering and technology conducted at
the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100
nanometers.
Heinrich Rohrer (1933- 2013)- the
Father of NanoTechnology.
Nanoscience and nanotechnology-
employs the study and application of
exceptionally small things in other areas
of science including materials, science,
engineering, physics, biology and
chemistry.
Nanometer- a billionth of a meter, or 10^-
9 of a meter.
Types of Special Microscopes
that can view minute Nano
Materials
Electron Microscope
- This type of microscope
utilizes a particle beam of
electrons to light up a
specimen and develop a well
magnified image.
- Built by the German engineers
namely Ernst Ruska and Max
Knoll during 1930s. It was also
a first electron microscope.
Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
- Makes use of a mechanical
probe that gathers information
from the surface of a material.
- Was also first develop by Gerd
Binig, Calvin Quate and
Christoph Gerber in 1986.
Scanning Tunnelling Microscope
- A special type of microscope
enables scientists to view and
manipulate nanoscale
particles, atoms and small
molecules.
- In 1986, Gerd Binig and
Heinrich Rohrer won the Nobel
Prize because of this
invention.
Nano Manufacturing - It refers to scaled
up, reliable and cost-effective
manufacturing of nanoscale materials,
structures, devices and system.
Types of Nanomanufacturing
1. Bottom-up Fabrication- It
manufactures products by building
them up from atomic and
molecular scale components.
2. Top-down fabrication- It trims
down large pieces of materials
into nanoscale.
3. Dip pen lithography- It is a
method in which the tip of an
atomic force microscope is
“dipped” into a chemical fluid and
then utilized to “write” on a
surface, like an old-fashioned ink
pen onto paper.
4. Self-assembly- It depicts an
approach wherein a set of
components join together to mold
an organized structure in the
absence of an outside direction
5. Chemical vapor deposition- It is
a procedure wherein chemicals
act in response to form very pure,
high-performance films.
6. Nano imprint lithography- It is a
method of generating nanoscale
attributes by “stamping” or
“printing” them onto a surface.
7. Molecular beam epitaxy- It is
one manner for depositing
extremely controlled thin films.
8. Roll to roll processing- It is a
high-volume practice for
constructing nano scale devices
on a roll of ultrathin plastic or
metal.
9. Atomic layer epitaxy- It is means
for laying down one atom thick
layers on a surface.