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Self-cultivation
Self-cultivation or personal cultivation (Chinese: 修身; pinyin: xiūshēn; Wade–Giles: hsiu-shen;
lit. 'cultivate oneself') is the development of one's mind or capacities through one's own efforts.[1]
Self-cultivation is the cultivation, integration and coordination of mind, body, and life-world.[2]
Although self-cultivation may be practiced as a form of psychotherapy, it goes beyond healing and
self-help to also encompass self-development and self-improvement. It is associated with attempts
to go beyond normal states of being, and enhancing and endless polishing of a person's capacities
and the development of innate human potential.[3]

Self-cultivation also alludes to philosophical models in Confucianism, Taoism and other Chinese
philosophies, as well as in Epicureanism, and is an essential component of well-established East-
Asian ethical values. Although this term applies to cultural traditions in Confucianism and Taoism,
the goals and aspirations of self-cultivation in these traditions differ greatly.[4][5]

Theoretical background

Purposes and applications

Self-cultivation is an essential component of the context of existential relations. It enhances

individuality and personal growth and centralises the idea of human agency. Self-cultivation is a
psychological process that cultivates one's mind and body attempting to reach beyond the normal
states of being. By enhancing their coordination and integration of thoughts and beliefs, it aims to
polish a person's capacities and potentials endlessly.

Self-Cultivation: Cultural and Philosophical Psychotherapies

During their history of evolution, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have adopted parts of
doctrine from one another to form new branches and sects.  Some of them had been disseminated
to neighbouring East Asian regions including Taiwan, Japan, and Korea.[6]

Confucianism and the relational self

Confucius believed that one's life is the continuation of their parents' life. Therefore, followers of
Confucianism teach their children in such way that the younger generation is educated to cultivate
themselves to live with a satisfactory level of self-discipline. Even though individuals see a clear-
cut boundary between one's self and others, each person in a dyadic relationship is seen embedded
in a particular social network. By respecting the parents, the elder and the superior, they are
always raised to be morally upright to consider other's expectation. From certain perspectives, it
implies a form of social burden and stress from interpersonal relationships, and can cause
disturbance and conflicts.

Taoism and the authentic self

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Whilst  the Confucian way of self-cultivation might seem to be

emotionally and spiritually restraining at times, Taoism tends
to focus on linking the body and mind to the Nature. Taoism
advocates the authentic self that is free from legal, social, or
political restrictions. It seeks to cultivate one's self by healing
and emancipating individuals from the ethical bounds of the
human society. Taoism interprets the fortune or misfortune in
one's life in terms of one's destiny (命), which is determined by
the person's birth date and time. By avoiding the interference
of personal desires and by relating everything to the system of
the opposing elements of yin and yang, the cosmology of
Taoism aims to keep individuals and everything in the
harmonious balance. The explanation of self-cultivation in
Taoism also corresponds to the equilibrium of the Five
Chinese Philosophy – Five
Transformative Phases (五行 Wu Xing): metal (金), wood (木),
Elements (Cycle of Balance and
water (水), fire (火),  and  earth (土).
Control)

Buddhism and the non-self

After the introduction of Buddhism to China "spiritual self-cultivation" (精神修养) became one of
the terms used to translate the Buddhist concept of bhāvana. The ultimate life goal in Buddhism is
nirvana. Individuals are encouraged to practice self-cultivation by detaching themselves from their
desires and ego, and attain a mindful awareness of the non-self. Chán and Zen Buddhist scholars
emphasise that the key in self-cultivation is a "beginner's mind" which can allow the uncovering of
the "luminous mind" and the realisation of innate Buddha-nature through the experience of
sudden enlightenment.[7]

In Japan, the Buddhist practice is equated with the notion of shūyō (修養 しゅうよう) or personal
cultivation.[8]

Azanlansh's Dialectical Mandala Model of Self-cultivation (DMMS)

Philosopher Azanlansh presents the first dialectical

construction of an ontological model of self-cultivation, which
frames the terminology in a tetralemmic dialectic that prevents
concepts such as yin, yang, and self-nature from being limited
to a subject-object dichotomy worldview. The DMMS unfolds
the universal domains of self-cultivation and emphasizes that
those cultural system domains dialectally coexist and imply
each other. As the first step in Hwang’s epistemological
strategy,[9] its construction takes a dialectical approach that
strategically regards spiritual development as the expansion or
inward transcendence of the self-model to avoid controversy
over different hierarchical rankings of spiritual development.
Therefore, the DMMS is intended as a cross-cultural The Dialectical Mandala Model of
framework for further analyzing and integrating specific Self-cultivation.
cultural systems in the second step of the strategy to construct
additional culture-specific ontologies.[10]

For example, to evaluate Buddhist practitioners’ advances in self-cultivation and help them
develop a deeper awareness of their beliefs and paths, culture-specific ontological models can be
further constructed by applying the DMMS framework to analyze and integrate the traditional
models of self-cultivation in Buddhist classics, such as the Seven Stages of Purification in the
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Visuddhimagga, the Four Levels of Jhāna (meditation) described in the Jhāna Sutta, the Nine
Levels of Meditation in the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra, and the Ten Oxherding Pictures in the Zen
tradition,[11] thereby creating subdomains to the DMMS. Azanlansh has analyzed each of the Ten
Oxherding Pictures, showing how to integrate a traditional model of self-cultivation into the
DMMS framework. The first and second pictures correspond to the first and second DMMS layers,
respectively. The following four pictures are mapped onto the third layer of this framework, and
the final four pictures onto the fourth layer. It is noteworthy that some stages of this traditional
model are integrated into the DMMS framework as orderly and horizontally expanded domains in
the same layer rather than as vertically ranked layers. Given the traditional model’s multiplicity of
meanings, this hermeneutic approach is deliberately inclusive, enlightening, and exploratory
rather than definitive. A culture-specific model reconstructed in this way is an improvement upon
a traditional model, with an ontological commitment to the DMMS, and is more comprehensive
and analyzable.[12]

In constructing the DMMS, the catuṣkoṭi is employed to assimilate and integrate concepts and
worldviews from various philosophies. It deeply probes different self-cultivation systems’
ontologies and merges them into a model to define such abstract concepts as emptiness and a non-
self. Azanlansh has roughly outlined the Buddhist, Taoist, and Confucianist teachings about self-
cultivation as examples to explain the DMMS and demonstrates how we can apply the DMMS to
reveal and identify the 16 indispensable domains of a specific self-cultivation system. Concepts
used in current scientific practices were considered in the development of the DMMS, and the
definitions of the 16 domains are supported by philosophies or scientific theories. Thus, after
modeling the ontology of self-cultivation, the related concepts may be scientifically treated.[13]

Influences of self-cultivation on Chinese philosophy

Confucian self-cultivation as a psychological process

Self-cultivation ( 修 养 xiū yǎng) in the Confucian tradition refers to the action and effort of
keeping the balance between inner and outer selves, and between self and others. Self-cultivation
in Chinese is an abbreviation of "xiū-xīn  yǎng-xìng" ( 修 心 养 性 ), which  literally  translates to
"rectifying one’s mind and nurturing one’s character (with a particular art or philosophy)".[6]

Confucianism embodies metaphysics of self. It develops a complex model of self-cultivation. The

cohering key concept is 'intellectual intuition', which is explained as a direct cognition of
knowledge, or an insight of reality, with no inference or logical reasoning. Confucianism combines
both the outer and inner self in terms of spiritual cultivation, which is world redemption and
vindication, as well as self-cultivation.

Self-cultivation is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept that forms a fundamental level of

understanding of Confucianism. This philosophy aims to achieve a harmonious society and it is
dependent on personal moral cultivation. The process entails the pursuit of moral perfection and
knowledge.[5]

Junzi

In the Analects that Confucius is depicted to transmit instead of innovate, there are two types of
persons. One is the "profound person" ( 君 子 jūnzǐ), and the other is "petty person" ( 小 人
xiǎorén). These two types are opposed to one another in terms of developed potential.
Individuals are not defined in terms of basic potential, as Confucius summarises in the Analects,
that "all human beings are alike at birth" (17.2) and "the profound person understands what is
moral. The petty person understands what is profitable" (4.16).
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The jūnzǐ is the person who always manifests the quality of rén ("humaneness", "co-humanity" in
an interdependent, hierarchical universe," 仁 ") in themselves and they display the quality of yì
("rightness", "righteousness") in their actions (4.5). Confucius highlights his fundamentally elitist,
hierarchical model of relations by describing how the jūnzǐ relates to their follow human beings:

"The moral force of the jūnzǐ is like the wind, whereas the xiǎorén's is like the grass.
The grass shall bend when the wind is let to blow over it."

— Analects, 12.32

According to D. C. Lau, yì is an attribute of actions, and rén is an attribute of agents.[14] There are
established conceptual links between yì, lǐ ("ritual propriety"), dé ("virtue"), and the jūnzǐ.
According to what is yì, the jūnzǐ exerts the moral force, which is dé, and thus demonstrates rén.

The following passages from the Analects points out the pathway Confucius taught towards self-
cultivation, with the ultimate goal of becoming the jūnzǐ:

"The Master's Way is nothing but other-regard and self-reflection."

— Analects, 4.15

"From the age of fifteen on, I have been intent upon learning; from thirty on, I have
established myself; from forty on, I have not been confused; from fifty on, I have
known the mandate of Heaven; from sixty on, my ear has been attuned; from seventy
on, I have followed my heart's desire without transgressing what is right."

— Analects, 2.4

In the first passage, "self-reflection" is explained as "Do not do to other what you do not desire for
yourself" (15.24). Confucius considers it extremely important for one to realise the necessity of
concern and empathy for others, which can be achieved by reflecting upon oneself. The deeply
relational self can then respond to inner reflection with outer virtue.

The second passage indicates the life-long time scale of the process of self-cultivation. It can begin
during one's early teenage years, then extends well into more-mature age. The process includes the
transformation of the individual, where they realise that they should be able to distinguish and
choose from what is right and what is desired.

Self-cultivation, as Confucius expects, is an essential philosophical process for one to become

jūnzǐ by maximising ren. He aims to reflect upon a self that is able to compare itself with moral
and social principles of tradition. Confucius, as a scholar who represents early Chinese philosophy
and school of thought, does not suffer from the Cartesian "mind-body problem" as H. Fingarette
has demonstrated. In Confucianism, there is no division between inner and outer self, thus the
cumulative effect brought by Confucian self-cultivation is not just limited to one's self or personal,
but rather social and even cosmic.[15]

Cultural and Ethical Values involved

As one of the key principles of Confucianism, self-cultivation may be considered the core of
Chinese philosophy. The latter can be seen as the disciplined reflections on the insights of self-
cultivation. While E. Balazs asserted that all Chinese philosophy is social philosophy and that the
idea of the group takes precedence over conceptions of the individual self as the social dimension
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of the human condition features so prominently in the Chinese

world of thought, Wing-tsit Chan suggests a more
comprehensive characterisation of Chinese philosophy as
humanism: 'not the humanism that denies or slights a Supreme
Power, but one that professes the unity of man and Heaven[16]

Similar to the Western sense of guilt, the Chinese sense of

shame is studied to amplify that social approval and other
external factors, such as the impression from others, defines
the fundamental morals the Chinese society holds, rather than
internal psychological sanction. In Chinese ethics, the
prevalent sociological literature on the mechanisms of "saving
face" (面子 miànzǐ) and "networking" (关系 guānxì) exhibits
the importance of Chinese interpersonal and social
relationships via the understanding of self-cultivation.

Monument of Confucius
Cultivation of self in East Asian philosophy of
education

In the East Asian cultures, self-cultivation has always been one

of the most important concerns in regards to personal growth.
Therefore, in order to help students and the younger
generation understand the true meaning of being a person,
philosophers (mostly considered scholars) tried to explain their
own definition of self with various theoretical approaches.
Confucius and Students
The legacy of Chinese philosopher Confucius, and many others
(for example, Laozi, Zhuangzi and Mencius) from thousands of
years ago, has provided a rich and unique domain of Chinese-philosophical cultural heritage in
East Asia.[17] Firstly, the ultimate goal of education, and essentially, one's most noble goal in life, is
to properly develop oneself in order to become a "profound person" (君子 jūnzǐ). The youth was
taught that it was shameful to become a "petty person" ( 小 人 xiǎo rén), as that was the exact
opposite to "sage" (圣人 shèngrén). However, as both Confucian and Daoist philosophers adopted
the term shèngrén, there has been possible divergence that lead to differences in educational
concepts and practices.[18] Besides Confucianism and Daoism existing as the ideas accepted and
understood by the majority, the Hundred Schools of Thought in Ancient China also had Buddhist
and various other branches of philosophy, offering different thoughts on the ideal conception of
self.

In modern era, some East Asian cultures have abandoned some of the archaic conceptions, or have
replaced the traditional humanistic education with more-common modern approach of self-
cultivation that adapts the influences of globalisation. Nevertheless, the East Asian descendants
and followers of Confucius still consider an ideal human being essential for their life-time
education, with their cultural heritage deeply influenced by radical Confucian values.

Modern practices

The "self"-concept in Western culture

The "self" concept in western psychology originated from views of a number of empiricists and
rationalists. By its very nature, the concept of "self" has continued to exhibit high involvement in
Western educational psychology. Hegel (1770–1831) established a more comprehensive belief of
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self-consciousness. That is, by observation, our subject-object consciousness stimulates our

rationale and reasoning, which then guides human behaviour. The 3-part model of the psyche
Freud (1856–1939) developed comprises the Id (Das Es), the Ego (Das Ich), and the superego (Das
Über-Ich; Freud, 1923). Freud's self-concept has established an influence on Erikson (1902–1994),
who emphasized self-identity crisis and self-development. Following Erikson, J. Marcia described
the continuum of identity development and the nature of our self-identity.

The more commonly-recognised concept, self-consciousness, is derived from self-esteem, self-

regulation, and self-efficacy. The subject's concept of "self" is defined in how the individual
perceives and builds the link between their self and the world around them.

Morita therapy

Through case-based research, Japanese psychologist Morita

Masatake (1874–1938) introduced Morita therapy. Morita
Therapy is developed based on Masatake's theory of
consciousness. With assistance from his four-stage therapeutic
method, Morita Therapy is described as an ecological therapy
method that focuses on purpose through individuals'
responses. Morita therapy is cognate with rational-emotive
therapy by American psychologist A. Ellis. Commonalities have
also been established between Morita Therapy and existential
and cognitive behavioral therapy.[19]

Naikan therapy

Naikan (" 内 観 ", lit. 'looking inside', self-reflection) is a Morita Masatake (1874–1938) aka.
Japanese psychotherapeutic method introduced and developed Morita Shoma (森田 正馬)
decades ago by Japanese businessman and Buddhist monk
(Jōdo Shinshū) Yoshimoto Ishin (1916–1988).

Initially, naikan therapy was more often used in correctional settings, however its recent adaption
has been switched to situational and psychoneurotic disorders.

In comparison to Morita therapy, naikan therapy requires shorter period of time and is able to
regulate longer periods of meditation on the daily basis, where the focus of introspection is moved
to the resolution of conflicts.

Similar to Morita therapy, naikan requires a relatively total subordination to a carefully structured
period of "retreat," that is compassionately supervised by the practitioner. Contrary to Morita,
naikan is shorter (seven days) and utilizes long, regulated periods of daily meditation where
introspection is directed toward the resolution of contemporary conflicts and problems.

"In contrast to Western psychoanalytic psychotherapy, both naikan and Morita tend to keep
transference issues simplified and positive, while resistance is dealt with procedurally rather than
interpretively."[20]

The theory of constructive living

Based largely on the adaptions of two Japanese structured methods of self-reflection, Naikan
therapy and Morita therapy, constructive living is a Western approach to mental health education.
Purpose-centered and response-oriented, constructive living (sometimes abbreviated as CL)

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focuses on the mindfulness and purposes of one's life. It is considered as a process of action to
approach the reality thoughtfully. It also emphasizes the ability to understand one's self by
recognizing the past, in which it reflects upon the present. Constructive Living highlights the
importance of acceptance, of the world we live in, as well as the emotions and feelings individuals
have in unique situations.

D. Reynolds (https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=AjbeXHIAAAAJ&hl=en), Author of

Constructive Living and Director of the Constructive Living Center in Oregon, U.S.A, argues that
before taking the actions which may potentially bring positive changes, people are often hold back
by the belief of "dealing with negative emotions first". According to Reynolds, the most crucial
component of the process of effectuating affirmations is not getting the mind right. However, one's
mind and emotions are effectively adjusted during the process of self-reflection,[21] which
indicates that there shall be a behavioural change taken place beforehand.

Epicurean meleta

At the closing of his Letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus instructs his disciple to practice (meleta) "both
by yourself and with others of like mind". The first field of practice shares semantic roots with and
is related to the Hellenistic philosophical concept of "epimeleia heauton" (self-care), which
involves methods of self-cultivation. In addition to the study of philosophy, this may include other
techniques for living (techne biou) or technologies of the soul, like the visualizing technique known
as "placing before the eyes", a cognitive therapy technique known as "relabeling", moral
portraiture, and other didactic and ethical methods. We find examples of these techniques in
Philodemus of Gadara, the poet Lucretius, and other Epicurean guides.

Nietzsche's ethics of self-cultivation

"If you incorporate this thought within you, amongst your

other thoughts" he maintains "It will transform you. If for
everything you wish to do you begin by asking yourself: 'Am I
certain I want to do this an infinite number of times?' this will
become for you the greatest weight.[22]" (KSA 9:11 [143])
Nietzsche worked on the project of reviving Self-cultivation, an
ancient ethics. "I hate everything that merely instructs me
without augmenting or directly invigorating my own activity"
(HL 2:1) "It follows therefore that he must conceive eternal
recurrence among other things as a practice that stimulates
self-cultivation. In fact in one of his characteristically grandiose
moments he identified it as 'the great cultivating thought' in the
sense that it might weed out those too weak to bear the thought
of living again (WP 1053). In a more tempered fashion,
however, he framed the thought of recurrence as part of an
F. Nietzsche (1844-1900)
ethics of self-cultivation and self-transformation."[23]

See also
Self
Neo-Confucianism
Eastern philosophy

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External links
"Confucius" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/confuciu). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Neo-Confucian Philosophy" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/neo-conf). Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry: Confucius (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confuci
us/#ConPol/)
Interfaith Online: Confucianism (http://www.interfaith.org/confucianism/)
Confucian Documents (http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/index.htm) at the Internet Sacred
Texts Archive.
Oriental Philosophy, "Topic:Confucianism" (http://philosophy.lander.edu/oriental/confucism.htm
l)

Institutional

China Confucian Philosophy (http://www.rujiazg.com/)

China Confucian Religion (http://www.rjzg.net/)
China Confucian Temples (https://web.archive.org/web/20140517062808/http://chinakongmia
o.org/)
China Kongzi Network (http://www.chinakongzi.org/)

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