Answers

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language – Answers to Student’s Book Activities
All exam-style questions and sample answers in this title were written by the authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded may be
different.
1.1 Sentences and clauses

Answers and follow-up to Student’s Book activities
1. a) There are several possible examples, including:
complex: ‘There is a lot of milk in this recipe, which makes the crumb very tender and soft.’
compound: ‘Gently remove the tin and allow to cool completely.’
compound-complex: ‘Tip this mixture into the dry ingredients and mix together using a wooden spoon to make a
smooth batter.’
b) The text uses a lot of compound and complex sentences because a recipe focuses on the sequence of events
(before doing this, do that; while this happens, do this, for example.). It is important to do things in the right order!
2. Responses will vary, but students’ attempts to include the features listed, and how successfully they have done so, can
form the basis of a follow-up peer- or self-assessment activity. Which feature worked best? Which might they have
used anyway without being prompted? Which did they find most difficult to get into the story? What have they learned
from the activity?
3. The majority of sentences are imperative, because a recipe provides instructions.
4. a) interrogative b) exclamatory c) declarative d) declarative e) declarative
Students’ reworking of the sentences will vary.
Final task indicative content
Responses should feature the following:
 imaginative content
 narrative language with a clear structure
 imagery
 a variety of sentence forms and functions
 dialogue.
1.2 Words and phrases

1. proper: Fluffy, Berlin, Romeo, Honda, Susan
common: adolescent, doorway, money, orange, steak, oak, peace, communism, fear, humiliation, spoon, red panda,
traffic
concrete: adolescent, doorway, money, orange, steak, oak, spoon, red panda, traffic
abstract: peace, communism, fear, humiliation
2. noun phrases: ‘the perfect place’ (abstract); ‘your family’ (collective and concrete); ‘this summer’ (abstract); ‘your local
sports club’ (concrete); ‘the local economy’ (abstract); ‘your children’ (concrete); ‘a great time’ (abstract); ‘your trouble’
(abstract); ‘the healthy activity’ (abstract)
pronouns: ‘you’ (second person singular); ‘it’ (third person singular)
3. Responses will vary. Students could peer assess/compare answers and consider the extent to which they have varied
their use of tense/aspect and subject. If they used the same tense/aspect, have they used different ways of explaining
the circumstances? These discussions should help refine their understanding of the different tense/aspect patterns and
how they are used.
4. Responses will vary considerably and are worth comparing within the class or within groups. Try to focus discussion on
the precision of vocabulary, and on concepts such as tone and atmosphere.
5. Good responses to this activity will:
 focus on an aspect of context (i.e. audience and/or form)
 comment on the reviewer’s choice of subject content (i.e. focus on the set question)
 include a quotation to provide evidence.
 well-chosen phrases to illustrate the writers’ choices
 links between language and context
 a minimum of five phrases chosen from each extract
 coverage of different aspects of context for each extract.
Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

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1.3 Images
1. a) Responses will vary, and it is worth discussing the impressions given by different comparisons, but may be similar to
the following:
 speed and irregular movement
 erratic movement that seems funny and non-threatening
 neat and well-ordered movement.
b) Responses will vary – it depends on the context of the animal and the overall tone desired, but effectiveness will be
personal to some extent.
c) Responses will vary, but examples include: ‘the vole darted from plant to plant like a ball bouncing downhill’; ‘he
watched as the rubber ball of a vole bounced from plant to plant’.
2. A lion’s roar has the wrong connotations for a rumbling stomach – it is too aggressive; bees are usually associated with
hard work, not joyously leaving school – this needs a more playful or celebratory image.
3. Good responses will feature:
 unusual, effective comparisons
 careful thought about connotations
 effective rephrasing to make both a simile and a metaphor work.
4. Effective responses will feature:
 contrasting atmospheres in both paragraphs
 personification and/or pathetic fallacy in the sorrowful paragraph
 imagery in the cheerful paragraph
 thoughtful use of vocabulary.
5. Responses will vary but are likely to include features such as assonance (e.g. ‘taste the rainbow’), rhyme (e.g. ‘once
you pop, you can’t stop’) and onomatopoeia (e.g. ‘bang and the dirt is gone’) and it is worth discussing them in groups
or as a whole class. The slogans/jingles could be collected to the front and grouped by technique to extend the task
and support less confident students.
 identification of a range of sound and figurative language features
 comments linking language and meaning
 insight on language linked to knowledge of the music (applying language knowledge to existing knowledge)
 comparative comments.
2.1 Form
1. Responses will vary, and are worth comparing in pairs or groups. How far have students been able to use familiar
features of advertisements? You could mention more language-focused features such as alliteration, direct address,
rhyme, pun, depending on what students have done.
2. Responses will vary. Students might usefully compare their findings in pairs or small groups. For example, for an
editorial, students might usefully select a quotation from the opening to show how the issue is framed, and how the
objective third-person position is established. Further ‘typical features’ to add when desscribing editiorials would
include: concrete references to time, usually in the last week (or month for monthly publications), specific names and
events as evidence/examples, clear opinions.
3. Responses may include the following:
 audience awareness, including a greeting
 specific explanation of the product reviewed
 a description of the item being reviewed
 evidence of knowledge of the genre or type of product being reviewed (e.g. the music or film genre)
 vocabulary relating to the product and/or reviewing.
4. Responses may include the following:
 first person narrative
 descriptive language

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 narrative format/structure
 thoughts and feelings
 idiosyncratic language such as slang, a ‘chatty’ style, or spoken-style syntax
 ddirect address to the reader.
5. Conventions of the form include:
 formal phrasing (‘There is a strong case to be made…’)
 evidence (‘for example’)
 rhetorical question (‘Surely … it would be better to require a demonstration of responsibility first?’)
 discourse markers (‘At the present time’).
6. Conventions of narrative include:
 chronological structure with clear markers of time (‘when’, ‘that was when’)
 comments on emotions and reactions with a sense of reasoning (‘so I ran’)
 use of dramatic adjectives (‘terrified’).
Responses should feature at least some of the following:
 a clearly identifiable form/genre (you can tell what it is supposed to be)
 a sense of audience
 appropriate language selected for audience and form
 different choices of language and content made for the two texts
 a clear sense of structure which is appropriate for each form.
2.2 Purpose
1. Responses will vary, but the range of techniques should be fairly close so it is worth getting students to compare their
responses in pairs or groups for peer assessment. Successful responses should include:
 clear features of a letter
 direct address
 emotional appeal to the audience
 clear and precise content requesting change
 details explaining why change is needed.
2. Responses will vary considerably, but it should be possible to share them in pairs. a) should be a clearly narrative
piece, offering some kind of action and/or character development, while b) should be a descriptive piece that evokes
atmosphere and conjures up a setting.
3. Successful response will feature some or all of the following:
 clear, easy-to-follow instructions
 numbered steps
 imperative sentence forms
 straightforward language, with no unnecessary jargon (or any jargon needed is explained).
4. Responses will vary and could usefully be discussed as a class or in small groups. There may be disagreements, as
purpose can be a matter of opinion. Students should be encouraged to support their claims. For example, students may
note that The Hunger Games can be seen as an entertainment text which is also critical of contemporary society in
various ways (e.g. reality TV, rich/poor divide, violence as entertainment).
Students should be able to produce a list of at least five or six possible leaflet purposes, following the level of specificity
modelled in the text (students should identify a clear and precise audience, topic and purpose). In a classroom setting, this
task can be made competitive – who can come up with the most ideas (each must be different)? This can also be carried
out in groups rather than individually.

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2.3 Audience
1. Gene Weingarten’s regular readers, also fans of Scrabble; regular readers of the magazine, wildlife enthusiasts; regular
readers of the beauty blog, those interested in organic skincare; regular podcast listeners (likely to be fans of children’s
TV from the 1990s), fans of Doug specifically.
 clear variation in language use between the two texts
 diary entry: first person narrative, descriptive language, chronological structure, simple language
 blog post: direct address, first person narrative, conversational tone, references to online mode (e.g. ‘click’,
‘subscribe’)
 newspaper column: first person narrative, direct address, anecdote, some complex vocabulary
 short story: narrative form, imagery, more varied/imaginative language.
3.1 Approaching texts in their context

1. Responses will vary, but students are likely to discuss issues relating to formality, slang, dialect and possibly
swearing/taboo language. They may comment on using more correct or fuller grammar or pronunciation when speaking
with parents, due to having been corrected on these aspects in the past.
2. book about the life of an actor or rock star: audience = fans of that person; purpose = to entertain and inform
leaflet about reducing the risk of heart disease: purpose = to inform and instruct
conversation between friends to plan a holiday: audience = the participants (students may find this difficult, and think of
people reading the transcript as an audience, but that’s not accurate for the intentions of the speakers at the time)
young-adult fantasy novel: audience = young adult fans of the fantasy genre, fans of that author; purpose = to entertain
travel blog about a trip to Egypt: audience = people looking to travel to Egypt, regular readers of the blog; purpose = to
inform and entertain
scripted speech introducing a wildlife documentary: audience = wildlife enthusiasts; purpose = to inform and entertain
hotel review on travel website: audience: people choosing a hotel or planning to visit that hotel; purpose = to review
3. The conversation is mostly transactional, but there is an interactional element. The mother is supporting and implicitly
encouraging the daughter. The mother is checking that the daughter knows what she needs to do for homework and
that she is on track to get it done, and the daughter is clarifying the task out loud. This results in the daughter
understanding her task more clearly, and the mother finding out what the daughter has to do and by when.
4. first-person address: clarifies that ideas are the writer’s opinion/makes a connection with the audience
metaphor: brings ideas and objects into focus for the reader
alliteration: makes ideas memorable for the audience
5. Responses will vary. Building an audience and sharing opinions on sleep are high priorities, while improving his
reputation as a sleep expert is not likely to not be a priority for this writer. It is worth discussing students’ reasons for
their chosen order.
6. Responses will vary, but an example might be that of an orchestra. Here, interactions would mostly take place between
the conductor and the whole group and the conductor and individuals, but rarely betweeen individuals. The conductor
holds most of the conversational power and can decide who speaks and when, and will issue commands to the players,
often with no spoken response. There may be times when individuals ask questions of the conductor. Address terms
are likely to be respectful towards the conductor, with honorifics (e.g. ‘maestro/a’) used, perhaps.
7. In scenario 1, the response is a simple suggestion in response to a question, whereas scenario 2 shows the speaker
avoiding making a negative comment (and thus saving the speaker’s positive face) by not directly answering the
question. The second scenario is therefore likely to make you feel less comfortable than the first, as you would
understand the response as negative, although the face value of the words themselves (the denotation) is positive.
8. Indicative content:
Text A (the video) includes both visual and auditory content, as it appeals to both channels at once. It is more
permanent than ephemeral, as it is intended to remain online and be viewed long after being made. The delivery
appears spontaneous, but there is likely to have been some planning, and potentially some editing in its production, as
it does have a smooth appearance. It is a monologic text, in that we only hear one voice and are unable to reply to it,
and its purposes are largely transactional (to get us to want to visit the zoo), although it is chatty and interactional in

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style. It is asynchronous, as the time of its production and our reception of it are not the same, and its language and
style are informal. It is clear that this is a thoroughly mixed-mode text, as is typical of video and online material.
Text B (the diary entry) is purely visual and largely permanent, as diaries are written to make a record. It is typical of a
fairly spontaneous text, having been produced with a single audience in mind, and written with a single voice, so it
qualifies as monologic also. There is no need for a diary to be interactional, as it is produced for oneself. The question
of time is more interesting with this text, as the producer and audience are one, but it is produced specifically to be
revisited, so it should be considered asynchronous. The language and organisation of the text are informal. Diaries are
usually typical of informal written texts, as this is.
Text C (the tourist brochure) is a highly visual text, using an image as well as writing, and is planned to a high degree. It
has no interactivity in the written form, and is transactional in purpose but uses an interactional style to connect with its
audience. It is asynchronous, and uses informalities of language to help it engage with the audience. These
informalities are typical of advertising and promotional texts such as this.
9. The lettered list makes it seem like a simple set of steps, connecting easily to the broad audience; the personal
reference helps to make a connection to the regular readers and to build an audience; the more persuasive tone here
suggests a persuasive purpose.
 comments that link language choices to context (i.e. audience, purpose or form)
 comparisons between the texts
 comparative comments focusing on the texts’ contexts
 at least two contextual factors discussed per text
 quotations from the texts to give evidence for ideas.
3.2 Approaching texts on a pragmatic level

1. Students should notice that the adjective ‘pragmatic’ is used to describe people and solutions that are practical, while
the noun ‘pragmatist’ is used to label a person who is focused on practicalities.
2. The first reference recalls a line from a famous speech by US president John F. Kennedy, and is clearly intended to be
emotive – to make the audience feel warm towards the man described, by the unspoken analogy with the much-loved
leader whose words are being used. The second is a broader historical reference, not recalling any particular individual
but rather a behaviour from hundreds of years ago; it is meant to imply ruthlessness.
3. Responses will vary. Comparing ideas in pairs or small groups before a full class discussion could result in an
interesting and useful activity, which perhaps allows students to explore the extent to which their own culture is shared.
Students may discuss references which are clear to them but perhaps would not be so to other audiences to explore
generational difference, for example (chart and alternative music may be useful for this)
4. Students should be focusing on what existing knowledge is needed in order to fully appreciate these titles:
 ‘a million to one chance’ is a clichéd phrase expressing that something is highly unlikely. It is, however, also a cliché
that in movies, million to one chances happen.
 ‘Sisters Are Doing it for Themselves’ is the title of a well-known feminist pop song from the 1980s.
 ‘an offer he couldn’t refuse’ is an often-quoted line from The Godfather, a blockbuster film from the 1970s.
 The A-Team was a popular TV show in the 1980s.
 To do something ‘by the book’ is to follow the rules, or to not deviate from typical ways.
Students’ comments should consider how these phrases help the writers connect with the audience (usually, shared
resources are like a nod to the audience – an acknowledgement that the writer and the audience belong to the same
group). Students may also identify other features in these headlines, such as puns, and explain how these, together
with the references, suggest what the articles will be like. In most cases, this will be light-hearted, but some students
may note a potentially critical tone in the pieces about remakes and book adaptations; if they can articulate that this is
because of negativity in the references chosen, they will be making quite subtle analytical points.
5. Students’ discussion of the word ‘represent’ may include the following ideas:
 to stand for, to symbolise
 to present again (to re-present)
 in a legal sense, to offer expertise and argue on behalf of someone
 to be a version of something.
Responses should feature some or all of the following:
 identification of specific uses of shared resources/intertextuality in the texts (e.g. the adaptation of ‘what happens in
Vegas, stays in Vegas’)

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 comments on the effect of pragmatic features such as appeals to shared resources

 identification of representations created in the texts, supported by textual evidence
 clear explanation of ideas
 discussion of positioning with explanation and textual reference
 sensible organisation of ideas
 links between the texts’ use of features and their audiences or other contextual factors.
3.3 Approaching texts on a lexical level

1. All are acceptable except the fourth sentence (‘This is quite a simple text, seen in the monosyllabic lexis “saw”…’).
‘Lexis’ cannot be used as a synonym for ‘word’.
2. interrogate/question/ask; impediment/problem/snag; debilitated/fatigued/tired; employment/vocation/work.
3. Check that students have placed the Latinate words as most formal and the words of Anglo-Saxon origin as the least
formal, with the French-derived words mostly in the middle. The etymology search should reveal this tendency.
4. a) because the conversation is between people who are familiar with each other
b) she is being sarcastic and criticising her mother’s bluntness
c) ‘charming’ is slightly higher in register, which is fairly typical of sarcasm – we tend to speak more technically/formally
when being sarcastic
The analysis following Activity 4 is particularly good at commenting on the pragmatics and linking them to specific
features in the transcription. In an analysis like this, it is important to anchor behavioural comments to particular turns
by noting specific words, phrases or labelled features.
5. Responses will vary, and could form the basis of a classroom discussion. This could also be an effective homework
activity, to prepare for a starter activity in class in which they compare ideas as data is reviewed and classified.
6. The leaflet explains the jargon immediately, so the reader is reassured and understands the meaning of the term used.
This may make them feel less anxious about the procedure.
The question asked of a teen patient after an accident just uses the jargon without explanation. The patient may be
unsure how to answer, and is unlikely to reassure someone who has just been in an accident.
7. Responses should focus on the language and how it has been used to create voice. There are several effective
quotations that could be used as examples:
 ‘You don’t know about me without you have read a book’ (unusual use of ‘without’, which could be described as
colloquialism/slang)
 ‘that ain’t no matter’ (non-standard grammar or colloquialism/slang)
 ‘and he told the truth, mainly’ (conversational-style syntax)
 ‘I never seen anybody but lied’ (non-standard grammar or colloquialism/slang)
Students may group quotations together or treat them separately, but they should discuss voice and character, focusing
on the idea of Huckleberry Finn as a young, uneducated boy, and how this comes across through the words Twain
chooses for him to tell his story.
Responses should feature some or all of the following:
 quotations to illustrate points
 comments on the effect of language
 discussion of register (e.g. use of specific lexis in the description/narrative and slang/dialect in the dialogue)
 comments on the use of lexis for characterisation (e.g. in dialogue and description)
 references to Latinate, French-Latinate or Anglo-Saxon lexis.
3.4 Approaching texts on a semantic level

1. Responses are likely to vary slightly, as connotations can be personal, but there should be some agreement that, for
example, ‘residence’ is impersonal and has legal connotations, whereas ‘home’ has associations of warmth, family and
comfort. It is worth discussing responses as a class.
2. Metaphor: peace fell over the house; the house tucked them in; her empty heart; haunted by his guilt.
Simile: fingers as deft as a spider; fists like hammers; he sighed like the tide going out.

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Personification: conniving cat; the trees whispered.

Hyperbole: I’ve told you a thousand times; faster than the speed of light; my Dad is as old as the hills.
Students’ additions will vary. It may be interesting to discuss their examples.
3. Semantic fields will vary, but students may suggest, for example, chairs, tables, sofas, beds as a semantic field for
furniture. Then, with chairs as a new hypernym, they could add dining chairs, armchairs, desk chairs, deck chairs,
stools, bean bags, rocking chairs.
4. a) Students should select three or four words from: ‘battlefield’, ‘Ypres’, ‘Menin Gate’, ‘In Flanders Fields’, ‘shelling’,
‘gassing’, ‘pillbox’, ‘poppies’, ‘VC’, ‘Somme’, ‘remembrance’, ‘emotional journey’, ‘memorial’.
b) Paragraphs will vary, of course, but students should use quotations from the text to exemplify the semantic fields as
above, and comment on the text’s reference to World War I and the idea of memory.
5. Responses can be collated and compared in class. This is a useful task collaborative task, as students will give each
other ideas. They can work together to collate a long list of idioms, clichés and proverbs, and then try to
classify/categorise them, discussing their provenance. If you have access to dictionaries of origin, or can use online
resources in class, this will add interest for students.
6. Shop names: Karl’s Plaice is a homophonic pun; all the others are collocational clash (ask students why they think this
is so popular for some types of shop names).
Tabloid headlines: both collocational clash.
Children’s jokes: the first (turtles) is a collocational clash; the second (spider) works off a homographic pun; the third
(snake) is a homophonic pun; the fourth (tomato) is a homographic pun.
Analytical comments will vary, but should include explanation of the intended effect.
Responses should include some or all of the following features:
 quotations to illustrate ideas
 references to semantic fields (e.g. of war, emotion, memory, place/nationality)
 comments on the effect of register, tone, idiom, cliché
 references to shared resources (e.g. place names, historical references)
 discussion of context, possibly linked to language choices.
3.5 Approaching texts on a phonological level

1. Students should notice that sound is what links all these words/objects. Phone – sound, ology – study of (Greek
derivation).
2. The main features of the lullaby are rhyme and repetition. Rhyme helps us to remember the next part each time, as it
limits the possibilities for the next line.
3. Ensure that students follow the rules for transcription. Ask them to copare transcription afterwards. It may be interesting
to ask students to record themselves in groups and then to individually transcribe the same recordings and compare
results – what differences are there? This can lead to an interesting discussion on transcription process, transcriber
bias and the impossibility of a perfect transcription.
4. Many different possibilities exist. Some examples are given below. Discuss students’ responses.
a) ‘oo’ as in ‘moon’ can also be rendered ‘ou’ (bijou) or ‘ough’ (through)
b) ‘ee’ as in ‘cheese’ could be ‘ea’ (please) or ‘ie’ (believe)
c) ‘ie’ as in ‘pie’ could be ‘y’ (fly) or uy (buy)
d) ‘oa’ as in ‘coat’ could be ‘o’ (go) or ‘ow’ (bow)
e) ‘ay’ as in ‘day’ can be ‘ey’ (hey) or ‘a’ (baby)
f) ‘ir’ as in ‘bird’ can be ‘ur’ (burden) or ‘ear’ (dearth)
g) ‘or’ as in ‘for’ could be ‘our’ (pour) or ‘aw’ (awesome)
h) ‘eer’ as in ‘deer’ could be ‘ere’ (here) or ‘ear’ (spear)
5. ɪŋglɪʃ læŋgwɪʤ; name transcriptions will need checking individually. They need to remember to transcribe each sound
rather than each letter (for example, in ‘English language’ the ‘ng’ becomes one symbol because it is a single sound).
6. She sells sea shells = fricatives; Peter Piper = plosives.
7. bilabial = using both lips; labiodental = teeth and lips; dental = teeth (tongue is between teeth); alveolar = ridge behind
teeth where gums meet roof of mouth (tongue hits this to articulate); post alveolar = just behind alveolar ridge (blade
rather than tip of tongue meets roof of mouth just behind alveolar ridge); retroflex is not used in standard English;
palatal = centre of hard palate/roof of mouth (middle of tongue blade rises to roof of mouth); velar = back of hard palate
(back of tongue raised); uvular is not used in standard English; pharyngeal is not used in standard English; glottal = in
throat, at vocal cords.

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Precise content will vary depending on the material selected, but features of a good analysis include:
 comments on phonological features such as rhyme or alliteration.
 comments using phonetic terminology such as ‘plosive’ or ‘fricative’.
 links drawn between linguistic features and intended meaning and/or context
 clear and useful selection of quotations to give evidence for analysis.
3.6 Approaching texts on a grammatical level

1. Grammar is:
 a way of describing patterns in the system of how language is used
 about how words can be adapted (e.g. take endings)
 about how words can be put together into phrases, clauses, sentences
 applicable to speech as well as writing – but differently
2. Students may comment on the variety of sentence types in the text, or on the speech-like construction of some of the
sentences – especially in the first section, which is reporting the words of the writer’s father. For example, they may
discuss how elements such as the address ‘son’ and the adverbials ‘more often than not’ and ‘typically’ are fronted
(although students may not label it in this way), which creates a conversational tone. They may focus on the brevity of
the early sentences, which helps the father convey the importance of his message by making it very clear. Many
students will notice the rhetorical question in the middle of the text, which he answers himself (hypophora), helping him
towards his persuasive aim with his son.
3. Examples will vary, but completed tables should be similar to this.
Examples What do we do What types are How does it behave What other words
with it? there? grammatically? can it go with?
(function) (form) (syntax)
noun table, Anwar, labels objects, concrete/ takes endings to determiners (e.g.
Sudan, teacher people, places abstract, show plurals the/a), adjectives (‘a
common/ sturdy table’)
proper
verb to walk, to be, indicates dynamic/ takes endings to pronouns or nouns

playing, action, process, stative, modal, show who is carrying as subjects and/or
suffering, sing state auxiliary/main, out the action objects (‘Shivani
think (subject), when laughed’, ‘the tiger
(tense) and whether is stalking its prey’);
it has finished adverbs (‘Shivani
(aspect) laughed helplessly’)
adjective green, tall, adds detail to base/ takes endings or nouns (‘a happy
passive nouns comparative/ modifiers to create boy’) and verbs (‘he
superlative comparative/ is happy’)
superlative form
adverb happily, very, adds detail to time, manner, takes modifiers verbs (‘she ran
hardly verbs and place, degree, (more/most) to form quickly’); adjectives
sentences/ sentence comparative/ (‘very blue’)
clauses superlative
pronoun I, we, us, replaces nouns subject/object, different pronouns verbs (‘he ate the
himself reflexive used to show apple’, ‘she gave it
subject/object (‘He to us’)
hit me’/‘I hit him’)

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4. Responses will vary, but examples are: activity, to act, actively, active; business, (no verb), busily, busy; beauty, to
beautify, beautifully, beautiful; conversion, to convert, (no adverb), converted; trial, to try, tryingly, trying.
5. Responses will vary and are worth discussing as a way of revisiting this text for a deeper analysis. Students may
explore aspects such as: noun phrases used to refer to soldiers (e.g.s just from title/first para: ‘the valiant’, ‘the soldiers
of the British Empire who fell in the First World War’, ‘the missing’ ‘men of the Imperial Australian Force’), which show
great variety of reference and also connote respect and honour.
6. Examples include ‘made’, ‘learnt’, ‘live’ (dynamic) and ‘is’, ‘resembles’, ‘forget’ (stative).
7. The first part of the text uses many simple present tense verb phrases, as the writer’s father is expressing universal
truths as he sees them, explaining how life is and how it will continue to be (‘Life is like a book’). The latter part of the
text shifts to a more mixed verb phrase use, as the writer is contextualising his father’s words and explaining his past.
This means there is some present perfect (‘I was born’) to express past events, and also some more present tense as
he also explains how things continue to be (‘I am one of four children’). This combination is appropriate for the text’s
context as an autobiography, and particularly for this extract as the opening passage.
8. a) passive b) active c) passive d) active e) active.
Note that although the examples all use a form of ‘to be’, the passive needs to express an action being carried out
against the first named noun phrase. In b) and d), the sentences are simply describing the animals and the bystanders,
not creating verb phrases.
Students’ plans for Text 9 should feature:
 clear reference to specific language choices
 clearly identified linguistic labels that they can apply
 links to context and meaning
 a range of frameworks to refer to (i.e. across pragmatics, lexis, semantics, phonology, grammar).
Tables planning a full analysis of Text 11 should feature at least some of the following:
 appropriate selection of quotations as evidence
 a range of points identified across the language levels in the table
 points noted match the levels in the table
 comments make relevant links to context and/or meaning.
4.1 Writing analytically

1. There are arguments to be made for both B and C, but A is clearly the weakest, as it is more like a pre-plan – a list of
what to plan for – than an actual plan that engages with the text. B is strongest as it includes evidence from the text and
some clear comments on what to say about those quotations, but some students may feel C is more effective as it
seems more detailed on what to do with the text. However, it does leave more work still to be done in finding that
textual evidence.
2. To an extent, this is a personal exploration, but it is helpful for students to note that ‘ticking through’ language levels
may not be the best approach (even though they may feel it will best ensure that they cover everything) as this is likely
to leave them less engaged with the text’s meanings. Either a context-led or text-led approach is likely to yield better
results. The context-led approach tends to suit those who need more structure/support, while text-led is best for those
able to be adaptable and to spot what is important in each text quickly.
3. Plans should feature at least some of the following:
 textual evidence
 references to linguistic features
 links to audience and/or form
 links to meaning
 coverage of a range of language levels (i.e. more than one of pragmatics, lexis, semantics, phonology, grammar).
4. Responses will vary but should include some of the features of a good introduction, such as clear identification of article
form and decision about key features e.g. the article’s tone, address to audience or use of scientific/specialist lexis.
Students could self/peer assess, comparing their own writing with the sample introductions provided.
5. adding a contrasting idea: However, On the other hand
building on the last idea: Additionally, Furthermore
moving onto a new idea: In terms of…, It is also interesting to note
6. There are many ways to rewrite this sentence, but focusing on the connotations of ‘cup of cancer’ rather than the
alliteration would be a far more effective place to start. The meaning is much more interesting here than the phonology.

different.
7. ‘time to speak the truth, the whole truth, frankly and boldly’ offers an intertextual reference to language of the courts,
which implies the speaker is on oath and therefore trustworthy.
‘Fear itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance’
uses personification via an expanded abstract noun phrase, which develops the key idea into an enemy to be fought
against.
 discourse markers to guide the reader
 connectives used logically to aid explanation
 quotations chosen effectively to illustrate the points made
 a focus on how the text suits a listening audience
 analysis of language features from a range of levels
 linguistic language used to aid analysis
 language features linked to the text’s context and/or meanings
 comments on how the text uses features such as repetition, shared resources and the rhythm of parallelism.
4.2 Writing narrative

1. Responses will vary, but may include: reading novels, reading comic books, listening to audiobooks, watching television
series, watching movies, listening to comedy, maybe in conversation (‘you’ll never guess what happened to me
yesterday…’. Students’ ideas could be compared in pairs/groups.
2. The first image creates negative, smothering connotations of the past. Tthe second has connotations of things being
hidden and smoothed over, which is more appropriate for the storyline to come.
3. The first is particularly good at character, but also gives us tone and aspects of setting. It is hard to tell what kind of
story it is going to be, but it seems to be character-led.
The second focuses more on plot, with a conflict/complication introduced straight away, but there are also character
aspects. This seems to be a realistic, problem-based tragic kind of story.
The third provides pace, plot and setting, and reads like it could be a thriller.
Students’ reactions to the story openings will vary.
4. Responses will vary considerably and could be compared within small groups in class. All responses should:
 introduce a character, setting and atmosphere of some sort
 clearly address one of the briefs given
 use imaginative language, which may include dialogue.
5. The problem and the setting are introduced most clearly, with the character names only introduced at the end of the
paragraph, although we already know some information about them by then. The writer is promising an intimate, real-
world story, focusing on small details of the couple’s personal life – it does not appear to be a high-drama or tragic tale,
or anything using fantasy elements.
6. Phrases include: ‘She used to look this way sometimes’; ‘even though Shoba and Shukumar hadn’t celebrated
Christmas that year’; ‘he’d forgotten to brush them that morning. It wasn’t the first time’; ‘The more Shoba stayed out…
the more he wanted to stay in’.
7.
Key benefits Key drawbacks
First person allows more intimacy and immediacy, you only get one point of view – some scenes are
the reader may feel more ‘in’ the story harder to include, hard to show character motivation
Third person allows more description; can include can lose some drama/immediacy
everyone’s perspective; don’t have to
think about who’s in a scene to be able
to write it
Past tense easier to write (most people tend to ‘slip can feel less exciting as it’s already all finished
into it’ when telling/writing stories)
Present tense has more immediacy can be harder to manage

different.
8. Responses should demonstrate at least some of the following:

 clear difference between the two styles
 different choices of vocabulary
 different imagery styles
 dialogue for characterisation.
Responses should feature some or all of of the following:
 clear response to the brief – the title ‘No Looking Back’ and a character making a difficult decision
 conscious structure for narrative effect (e.g. chronological, use of flashback)
 imaginative use of language
 control of narrative voice
 control of tense
 dialogue
 imagery
 language and content to show emotion
 language and structure to create tension.
4.3 Writing descriptively

1. Responses will vary, but should represent a detailed initial brainstorm of ideas and two plans showing different possible
structures. Students could compare ideas and discuss before producing the plans, in order to maximise their ideas and
consider different structural approaches.
2. The second opening is more effective. The first is an example of over-writing (purple prose), with outlandish imagery
that detracts from the atmosphere rather than contributing to it. The second creates an effective and cohesive
atmosphere (this is worth pointing out to students at this stage).
3. Responses should feature the following:
 two clearly contrasting descriptions of around 200–250 words each
 different choices of language and imagery
 conscious choices in structure for effect (this may be one structure repeated in both pieces)
 effective control of sentence structures
 descriptive language use
 appeals to more than one of the senses
 two distinct atmospheres.
Responses should feature some of the following:
 a clear response to the brief – the title ‘The Pool’ and description of movement and sound
 conscious structure for effect (e.g. use of time, space)
 imaginative use of language for description
 control of tenses
 description of different parts of the scene (for example; big picture, small details, people.)
 dialogue
 imagery
 language and content to create atmosphere
 references to more than one of the senses.

different.
4.4 Writing critically

1. Responses should feature some of the following:
 clear description of different food items eaten
 clear address, probably incorporating first and second person
 descriptive language
 description of food, atmosphere and service
 evaluation and/or recommendations, possibly including comparisons.
2. This text is not technically a review – it is not posted on a review site and it presents itself more as an opinion piece –
but it demonstrates many of the key features of review writing. It engages in some comparison, or at least positions this
film amongst others of its genre. It uses several typical review phrases, such as ‘core appeal’ and ‘laugh-out-loud
moments’, and it gives a clear recommendation using the conditional sentence ‘If, like me…’.
3. Responses will vary, but should include at least some of the key features of review writing. Students may self or peer
assess against the checklists/models in the book, or they could compare and/or work together to produce a master
version. Within a class, they could team up with others who like the same type of book/film/game to produce effective
reviews together, or write individual ones for homework and then compare to see how similar/different they are.
4. Responses will vary considerably, depending on the vlogger’s style examined, but most vlogs are likely to use a more
colloquial style than written reviews, and there is also more likely to be some kind of appeal to repeat audience – this
will be much more explicit in vlogs (and blogs) than in professional reviews, where it seems less appropriate to be
asking people to ‘subscribe’ or return to the site. Note that this task is quite time-consuming because of the
transcription, and may be best set for homework.
5. In this review, the audience is positioned with the writer – it is assumed that they share the same views on Vance Joy’s
music. However, there is also some distance, as the writer does not directly address the audience but uses phrases
such as ‘For those who enjoyed his first album…’ instead of ‘If you enjoyed…’, for example. This slight formality creates
a polite distance from the audience, while also not actually criticising Joy or his fans, creating the assumption that the
writer shares that fandom.
Views on addressing a peer audience effectively may vary, but are likely to include a more informal, direct, address
than in Text 7. They are also more likely to include slang and colloquial language.
6. Responses will vary, but should follow the structure given and use appropriate critical language, incorporating the
features covered in the chapter.
7. Responses will vary, and could be compared within a pair/group in the classroom setting. This task could usefully be
completed and peer reviewed, group to group, with the review stage focused on making language-based comments (in
order to support reflection for later).
Responses should feature some of the following:
 a response that clearly addresses the brief (a pair of reviews with contrasting opinions)
 language to evaluate
 recommendations
 comparative comments linking to other similar movies
 appropriate jargon or field-specific language
 comments on actors, setting/effects, other appropriate details.
4.5 Writing discursively

1. Responses will vary, and it may be useful to compare them as a the class and compile a master table to discuss the
variety of texts that fall into this category.
2. Responses should include a comment to explain effectiveness – for example, ‘This is an industry that both feeds and
feeds off the young’. The manipulation of the verb ‘feed’ to create different semantics is particulary effective, and
creates a well-balanced sentence that positions the fast-food industry as predatory, which is something many readers
will not have considered previously.
3. Responses should feature:
 a clearly constructed plan that shows a range of ideas on the chosen topic
 arguments and counter-arguments to allow a rounded discussion
 some sense of progression or logical connections between points.

different.
4. Paragraph 1: the final sentence sets out the topic clearly.

Paragraph 2: the second sentence states the point in the clearest way.
Paragraph 3 opens with a clear topic sentence.
5. Responses will vary, but expert opinions should name an individual and be phrased plausibly for experts; examples
might be expressed as case studies or they may be more anecdotal – students may question the difference between
example and anecdote, and should be helped to recognise that an anecdote can be used as an example, but not all
examples are anecdotes. Anecdotes will be personally known to the writer and are therefore likley to be phrased more
informally. Students’ ideas could be discussed/compared in pairs/groups.
6. Students may approach this in various ways. Statistics, anecdotes or case studies would all be equally valid evidence
to bolster this argument.
7. a) Repetition is a particular feature of Obama’s speech, which helps his audience stay with him and to recall his points.
The well-balanced nature of his sentences through lots of parallelism also makes them easy to listen to. In both
speeches, references to well-known ideas and shared resources are helpful for the listener.
b) Polysyndeton and anaphora should be easy to find in these particular speeches.
c) Responses will vary, but should focus on linking language with context by thinking particularly about the spoken
mode and the needs of listeners, who do not have the luxury of checking back as readers do.
8. Responses will vary by institution. Students could compare within the class, and check their use of features against the
exemplar given.
9. This is an extensive activity so it may be useful as a homework task. The idea is for students to really look at
newspaper writing, not to just assume that it is all formal – as the kind of articles they will be asked to write are not.
They will probably discover that average paragraph length is much shorter than they tend to write, and that many
articles are more conversational than they expect.
10. Students will produce six varied plans. Indicative content:
 distinct plans for the six tasks
 notes on content and style/form for each text (e.g. ideas of phrases to use or reminders to include particular
features)
 clear thought about how to construct the argument required for each text
 a sense of reasoning evident – possibly with counter-arguments, or detailed explanation
Responses are likely to feature at least some of the following:
 clear focus on the task (article form, suitable for students’ families, topic of technological change, possibly including
opinions)
 clear structure assisted by discourse markers
 purposeful paragraphing
 logical development of ideas
 reasons and explanations supported through logical and coherent syntax
 appropriate address and register for an article
 anecdote
 statistics
 a case study.
4.6 Writing reflectively

1. It would be better to comment on the superlative ‘most self-indulgent’, as this is easier to link to the context: ‘I opened
my review with the superlative “most self-indulgent” to show my strong feelings and evaluate the film in a clearly
negative way immediately.’
2. Responses will vary. Students should be linking language and intention to do well in this task.
3. The interrogative could be linked to the form of a persuasive letter, and the comment on the subject matter could be
better developed into a point about meaning – perhaps including semantic field instead of just ‘focusing on’ the topic.
4. Responses will vary. This is a useful task for peer assessment or paired reflection, with students helping each other – it
can be easier to see meaning/effect in others’ work at first before seeing it in your own.
5. Responses will vary, but should include some of the following:
 links between language and context
 links between language and meaning
 an overall sense that the writing was produced deliberately/consciously

different.
 first person expression/ownership of the writing

 clear linguistic register (use of terminology).
6. descriptive, letter, leaflet, narrative, voiceover
 description: use of descriptive language
 description: creation of effective atmosphere
 description: clear sense of a forest scene
 description: reference to the senses
 commentary: links between language and meaning
 commentary: first person expression/sense of ownership
 commentary: clear linguistic register referencing a range of language levels.
Chapter closer final task indicative content
 appropriate language choices for form/audience/purpose
 commentary showing clear intentions for writing
 commentary referencing a range of choices
 commentary written accurately in a linguistic register
 monologue script: effective use of both stage directions and speech
 radio advertisement: clear sense of audience as listening only
 magazine feature: appropriate address and style
 story: character and setting established
 description: imagery and atmospheric writing
 opinion piece: appropriate address and style.
5.1 Working with data

1. The male students went off topic more than the female students, and it is a relatively significant difference for the
sample size and amount of data. There was no clear link between number of turns and total speaking time.
2. Responses will vary depending on location. For US, Canadian and UK corpora, BYU is a useful central point to check
(https://corpus.byu.edu/) and it also has the iWeb and other joint corpora which combine different national dialects and
online masses of data together – this can be useful to compare to national and local usage. For a much wider
perspective, (http://www.corpora4learning.net/resources/corpora.html) collects corpora for a range of national English
varieties.
3. Results will vary. The point of the activity is for students to experience working with the BNC to see how it operates,
and to get a sense of what corpus linguistics is and begin to appreciate what it can do.
Results will vary widely, but responses should feature some of the following:
 comments seeking to link language features with context
 attempts to apply quantitative methods
 aome qualitative analysis through considering address, intention, self-representation, for example.
5.2 Early Modern English

1. Students should consider the links between context and language, and realise that social and political change is crucial
to the introduction of new words. For example: ‘buffalo’, ‘potato’ and ‘canoe’ derive from Spanish and Portuguese
because settlers into South America did not have words for these unfamiliar objects, so they learnt the words from the
people already familiar with them. Words such as ‘calculate’ and ‘hereditary’ came into English from Latin due to the
interest in classical languages for scientific matters. Students do not need to know the source languages for all of these
– the reasons for their introduction into English is sufficient. Categories such as exploration/discovery,
science/technology, society and war may help to get them started.

different.
The recent borrowings/coinages should be easier for students to group and explain. Categories such as
science/technology, internet culture, food and society are likely to be relevant here.
2. Responses will vary. Having looked at the three images, students should realise that a) ‘Old English’ is a specific term,
not to be used generally for older texts, b) 16th-century texts are quite readable and c) English has evolved a great deal
from its origins.
3. Students are likely to note features such as ligature, long ‘s’, instability in y/i/ie, v/u and double letters, extra ‘e’s, the
length of sentences and yet their relative simplicity, with little variation in connectives. Students’ comments on reasons
for change will vary, but they may consider aspects such as print technology, social change, pace of life/modern
laziness.
4. Those against ‘inkhorn’ terms believed that plainer English words were good enough and fancy Latin/Greek terms were
not necessary. This is a prescriptivist attitude, as it seeks to control language. However, more subtly it can be seen as
benign prescriptivism, as the intention is to control language for the good of the people. Those critical of ‘inkhorn’ terms
believed that they were elitist and unnecessary, and that they overcomplicated things. The attitudes behind the ‘inkhorn
controversy’ are similar to today’s Plain English Campaign in the UK, which seeks to cut overcomplex legalese jargon
out of everyday texts, so that people understand what they are agreeing to when they sign ‘terms and conditions’, for
example.
5. Students are likely to note some of the following:
 Sentences are very long, sometimes seeming incorrect to modern eyes.
 Clauses are often linked by simple ‘and’, ‘and then’ or ‘because’ with little variation. The simplicity of the clause
linking makes the text appear simple and often unplanned to a modern reader, as it feels like the writer has just
written down what they thought as they were thinking it – a contemporary writer would vary their sentence structure
and clause linking much more consciously.
 ‘We were come to Cape de Rey’ is an interesting use of tense/aspect, which would not be seen in a modern text.
This conveys the sense of ‘we had come to/arrived at’, but uses ‘be’ as the auxiliary, which is now archaic in this
context.
 Punctuation appears uncontrolled at times, with the colon, for example, being used in a way which would now be
considered incorrect (as punctuation rules as we know them had not been established).
6. Responses will vary, but students may comment on the cultural significance of Christianity and therefore the Bible in
16th-century England. You may wish to explore the significance of the Bible’s translation into English – this was the first
sanctioned translation, still known as the ‘authorised’ version, as it had the King’s approval. It was a book that many
would have access to through hearing it at church. Shakespeare was also very popular, of course, and many would
have seen his plays or heard about them. His popularity has continued and been supported by his position at the centre
of the English canon.
7. tobacco = Spain (orig. from a native Caribbean language of the Arawaks); canoe = US from Spanish (orig. from native
Arawakan); maize = Cuba from Spanish (orig. from native Arawakan); guru = India from Hindi (orig. Sanskrit); henna –
India from Arabic; chocolate – Mexico from Spanish; lychee – China from Cantonese.
 comments on length and construction of sentences
 comments on use of punctuation and clause linking
 comments on capitalisation
 comments on address to reader and impact of form as recipe book introduction
 comments on standardisation in context as an 18th-century text
 clear organisation in paragraphs
 use of linguistic register, making use of appropriate labels and terms to show knowledge.
5.3 Late Modern English

1. a) None of the words is technically archaic, but some have become lower frequency and would only be used in a very
formal register now, so would sound quite stilted in contemporary English (e.g. ‘unwonted’).
b) Responses will vary depending on the sentence chosen, but the majority are long, multi-clause sentences. ‘In some
spots the Milola … along the bank’ is simple, and the sentence that follows it is compound. However, most are complex
or compound-complex.
c) The tone is much less personal than contemporary travel writing, despite the use of the first person plural. It is mostly
written in a distanced, impersonal way, closer to a contemporary documentary than travel writing.
d) The qualifier ‘popular’ tells us that this was intended for a wide audience rather than being directed specifically at the
scientific or explorer community. Livingstone wanted to excite and inform the general public about his travels and his
discoveries. The sometimes narrative style of the writing helps him achieve this: ‘The dark woods resound with the
lively and exultant song of the kinghunter (Halcyon striolata), as he sits perched on high among the trees.’ Here,

different.
Livingstone uses personification and the present tense to immese readers in the scene, as well as the precise Latin
name of the bird to inform.
2. selfie – society; podcast – media and entertainment (or science and technology); lit – youth culture; dieselpunk – arts
and culture (or media and entertainment); bougie – society; Chinglish – politics and international relations. Students’
own examples will vary and are worth discussing in class.
3. fake news (n) (winner as the Word of the Year): compound; deliberately misleading news item
antifa (n): clipping; an anti-fascist activist
corbynmania (n): suffixation; the phenomenon of overwhelming (and incomprehensible, to some) support for Jeremy
Corbyn
cuffing season (n): analogy/metaphor; a time when people are likely to settle into relationships
echo chamber (n): broadening/semantic shift; a social media space where everyone agrees because everyone has
followed people with similar views
fidget spinner (n): compound; a toy that you hold in your fingers and spin
genderfluid (adj): compound; expressing different gender identities at different times
gig economy (n): broadening/pejoration; a state where many jobs are only offered on a temporary basis
insta (adj): clipping; Instagram
unicorn (n): broadening; a new business that is incredibly successful OR (adj) rainbow-coloured
4. Responses will vary. It may be useful for students to complete the initial task as a homework assignment, then to bring
in their examples for a class discussion, comparison and consolidation.
5. Students could discuss the variation in font and font size as a graphological technique, and contrast this with more
sophisticated techniques available today, including colour and image. In orthographical terms, the text shows ligature
and long ‘s’, but otherwise the spellings are as would be expected today and there are no inconsistancies within the
text. This, of course, is in line with Swift’s prescriptivist views. The pragmatics of the text are really interesting, however
– for example, Swift’s plea to the ‘first minister’ is extremely polite, formal and respectful, and it reads like a speech or
petition with ‘in the Name of all the Learned and Polite persons’.
6. technology labels: DM (verb); email; forum; modem; Tumblr; URL
used to communicate online: #catsofinsta; DM (verb); email; forum; retweet
Discuss students’ own examples. You could also discuss how the words in both categories are used differently within
each category. For example, DM is used as a label outside of Twitter to describe what people do, perhaps in an article
about technology, or in an academic study of online behaviour, while online it would only be seen in short sentences
such as ‘DM me’/’don’t DM me’ ‘I’ll DM you’, ‘DMing now’ (note the construction here, and that in the ‘labelling’ context,
it is more likely to be written out fully as ‘direct messsaging’).
7. tablet – broadening; social media – compound; smartphone – blend; smart TV – compound; streaming media player –
broadening and compound; (social media) profile – broadening; Facebook – compound; WhatsApp – blend; Instagram
– blend; (social media) account – broadening; media literacy – broadening/analogy; navigate – broadening/analogy
8. Responses will vary according to students’ online activities, but many may initially find it difficult to articulate these
aspects. It is likely to be helpful for students to discuss in pairs rather than working individually. It may also help to allow
them to look at their phones and examine their own language use, in order to speak concretely rather than from
supposition.
 a selection of words and phrases with clear explanation of their meanings
 explanation of likely etymology and/or formation processes
 coverage of two different social/political driving forces of change
 coverage of at least three different word-formation processes
 inclusion of words/phrases previously unknown to the student
 discovery of a word/phrase that has come into and fallen out of use
 clear understanding of links between social change and language change.
5.4 Ideas about language change

1. millennial: social change; in wide use internationally; is codified; students’ own examples will vary
2. Responses will vary but students should be thinking about who uses these words, in what circumstances – how far
have they reached, both geographically and socially.
3. All these examples show prescriptivist attitudes, seeming to prefer language how it was. Comment A has a tone of
superiority. B seems to feel that there are many problems within English (shown by the sense of ranking phrases

different.
conveyed by their use of a superlative ‘the most annoying’). C also wishes to appear superior by making their own
example to mock the dictionary compilers.
4. Johnson wanted to sort English out with his dictionary. He states that his goals are to fix pronunciation, facilitate its
attainment, preserve its purity, ascertain its usage and therefore lengthen its duration (i.e. prolong its lifespan). He
seems to have believed, therefore, that constant change was potentially damaging and threatened the language’s
ability to thrive. Clearly, he saw standardisation as a way to keep English alive for longer. He does, however, recognise
the difficulties of this endeavour.
 comments linking language to context
 comments linking language features to intended meaning
 comments discussing language change in relation to the two advertisements
 discussion of graphology
 comments on address and audience positioning
 links between social change and language
 links between technological/scientific development and language change.
5.5 Working with language change data

1. Comparing just two texts can only ever show how those two texts are different. To show anything bigger – whether it is
how language changed across a decade/century, how men/women write/speak, or how different kinds of text present
the same subject – many examples are needed to build up a picture.
2. Responses will vary. The point of this exercise is for students to experience working with a corpus tool; the data
gathered is less important in this task.
3. Students may comment on aspects such as the relative frequencies of different words (i.e. how some of the words
would be more common in current English), subtleties in meanings and how words that may once have been near-
synonyms have shifted to convey shades of meaning (e.g. ‘cordage’, ‘twine’, ‘rope’).
4. Broad internet searches will give you all uses of a word. You can refine by date to see how a word is being used now
for more accurate data, and also to look at , for example, social media sites and forums, or simply exclude news media
to avoid published usage.
5. Discussion of the ‘greenhouse effect’ has reduced from around 1992 to 2000, as has mention of CFCs, while the
phrase ‘greenhouse gas’ continues to be used. It seems that the first two hit the peak of their respsective S-curves
around 1992, with apparently little more to be said about them after that. The phrase ‘greenhouse gas’ appears to have
settled as the overall term of choice to be used as a kind of umbrella term.
6. There are positives to both sets of questions. Numbering is always easier to work with, and in this set participants are
also asked to separately indicate whether they actually use the word or not (but not how often/in what circumstances).
In the second set, the statements themselves are good, but people are asked to select one or more comments, which
will confuse any percentages created. A combination of both sets would be ideal.
 a clear sense of the aspect of language change being studied
 a clear focus in terms of language data source
 a sense of scope (how much data)
 some sense of methodology – how would it be collected
 some understanding of how to make the project work in terms of reliability, generalisability or bias.
 a list of language features to be examined
 a hypothesis or set of ideas to be tested/explored, or a research question.
 comments linking language to context
 comments linking language features to intended meaning
 comments discussing language change in relation to the three texts
 discussion of word formation processes at work in Text A
 comments linking Texts A and B
 comments linking Texts A and C

different.
 discussion of semantic change in key words by linking to Texts B and/or C

 comments on impact of technology in language change.
6.1 Learning to talk

1 milk: I have milk; I want milk; Where’s the milk?; Do you want milk?; this is milk; I like milk
teddy: here’s my teddy; I love teddy; do you want teddy?; I want teddy; where is teddy?; I found a teddy
no: I’m not doing it; I don’t want it; I’m not going; I won’t (get dressed/eat/lie down.)
bye-bye: I’m leaving; are you leaving?; Teddy says bye
2. Consistent application of a sound to an object/idea is generally the agreed-upon definition of a word for linguists in
terms of child language acquisition. The point of the activity is for students to consider concepts such as whether
phonology or semantics/pragmatics are more important, whether others can understand, and which others – if only the
family can understand, does that matter at first?
3. baggy (bag) = addition of the vowel sound; chick-chick (chicken) = reduplication; fower (flower) = simplification by
consonant cluster reduction/removal of the approximant ‘l’; kicken (chicken) = substitution of the affricate ‘ch’ sound
with the simpler plosive ‘k’; puter (computer) = unstressed syllable reduction; wed (red) = substitution of one
approximant (‘r’) with another (‘w’); student’s examples will vary and are worth discussing in class
4. a) Responses will vary but students should be encouraged to think about how any unusual first words (i.e. anything
apart from a version of ‘mama’) relates to their personal context – e.g. an emphasis in the home on particular items or
activities, bilingualism, difficulties with particular sounds.
b) Books appear to have been an important aspect of this child’s early life; ‘mama’ is the most common first word
because the bilabial plosive sound is among the easiest to make, being right at the front of the mouth (control starts at
the front and moves backwards). For most babies, the relationship with the mother is primary as they tend to spend
more time together at first than fathers and babies do.
5. These ten words show quite a lot of social/interactive intention, and few of them would be considered examples of
‘naming’ (‘that one’, ‘horsey’, ‘juice’, ‘toast’ and, depending on context, ‘play’, ‘draw’). The ‘horsey’ example is classic
under-extension, as the child ony recognises a horse in one context. The ‘juice’ example is an over-extension as the
child appears to be using it to mean ‘drink’. These extension issues show that the child is still working out how to
package meanings and has not yet fully assimilated these two words.
6. I standed on it: The child has over-generalised the regular past-tense ending and applied it directly to the base form of
the verb ‘stand’, using the usual pattern. The child has not yet learnt that ‘stand’ is irregular and has a stem change,
going from ‘stand’ to ‘stood’.
She tookened it from me: The child has learnt that ‘take’ has a stem change for the past tense, but has applied two
possible endings ‘en’ and ‘ed’ as well as changing ‘take’ to ‘took’.
Look at my feets!: the child is aware of the stem change to mark plurality in the noun ‘foot’, but has doubled-marked
plurality by applying the regular ending of ‘s’ as well.
7. You want play my room?: This is telegraphic speech, omitting the (particle) ‘to’, which forms part of the infinitive ‘to
play’, and also the dummy auxiliary ‘do’, which would come at the start of the sentence in an adult version. It also
shows the earliest stage of question formation: using intonation alone.
You not take it: This is telegraphic speech, showing an early stage of negative formation. The negative ‘not’ has been
inserted between the subject and verb, but the child has not yet also added an auxiliary, as an adult speaker would.
No dinner. Allgone: The child is at the earliest stage of forming negatives, simply adding a ‘no’ in front of their utterance.
‘Allgone’ is offered afterwards for emphasis.
Did you did get the ball down?: This child is almost at the final stage of question formation. They have learnt to add the
dummy auxiliary at the start of the utterance and to change the tense of the auxiliary (‘did’ rather than ‘do’), leaving the
main verb unmarked (‘get’, not ‘got’), but they have added an extra ‘did’ in by mistake, probably as this was where they
added it at an earlier stage of their development.
Further/alternative comments should also be rewarded.
8. teddy eat = imaginative, agent + action; doll chair = representational, entity + location; get ball = regulatory, action +
affected; no apple = personal or representational, negation + entity; more milk = instrumental, recurrence + affected;
Mama allgone = representational, entity + location (or negation); love teddy = regulatory, action + affected; mine book =
representational, possessor + possessed
 a clear response to the task (i.e. discussing what children can do, not just looking for errors)
 comments on children’s lexical range
 comments linking context to language (e.g. topics of interest to children)

different.
 comments on children’s phonology

 comments on children’s grammar and syntax
 clear and detailed usage of linguistic register.
6.2 Theories of child language acquisition

1. Politeness tokens fits with Skinner’s model of reinforcement, as this is often ritualised practice (e.g. parents insisting on
children saying ‘please’ before receiving desired treats). This is the most likely point to support Skinner. Having an
accent and the phenomenon of melodic utterance also offer evidence of children listening and copying the language
they hear around them. Students may note that more than just copying appears to be happening.
2. ‘I saw some sheeps’ is an utterance that appears to support Chomsky’s theory of a LAD, as the child has clearly over-
generalised the regular plural ending to apply it to an irregular noun. This also does not fit with Skinner’s imitation
theories, as the child would not have heard an adult say this.
The ritualised exchange ‘want sweeties’ – ‘what do you say?’ – ‘want sweeties please’ shows how expected positive
reinforcement can produce desired behaviour. Making the child say ‘please’ and rewarding them with the sweets
reinforces the socially sanctioned behaviour of using politeness tokens (good manners). The behaviourist model works
well for specific types of speech, particularly politeness, but research shows that the majority of parents tend not to
comment on or reward children’s correctness in speech in the early stages, probably instinctively knowing that this is
likely to have little positive effect (parents tend to correct the truth/accuracy of children’s statement rather than the
grammar, and children whose speech is corrected a lot tend to be slower to learn to speak).
3. It is significant that just as children understand the permanence of objects (or the ‘thingness’ of things), they want to
label everything. Once they can grasp the idea that things exist, rather than just noticing them when they are looking at
them, they become interested in knowing more about them – and that starts with naming them.
4. ‘Motherese’ is sexist and somewhat patronising.
‘Fatherese’ supports an idea that mothers and fathers talk differently to children (they really don’t), and that this style of
speech is limited to parents.
‘Parentese’ was an attempt to avoid the sexism, but it is still inaccurate as not only parents speak in this way – older
siblings, grandparents and people who are not related to a child will all address them using this particular speech style.
‘Caretaker language’ is an effective label that describes what the speech does and is preferable to all the others in this
list, but a ‘caretaker’ was traditionally the job title of someone who looks after buildings in the UK, so the connotations
are not ideal. It also implies that only caregivers use this speech, which is not correct.
‘Baby talk’ is the phrase used in lay terms, but there it is limited to formulations such as ‘choo-choo train’, whereas in
linguistics the scope is far broader and incorporates a range of strategies used to engage babies and children. ‘Baby
talk’ is also a phrase used almost exclusively pejoratively.
5. Responses should feature some of the following:
 comments on the mother’s use of interrogatives to engage
 comments on the mother’s use of repetition, reformulation and modelling
 comments on the mother’s use of feedback/reinforcement
 comments on the mother’s use of repeated sentence frames
 comments on the child’s use of phonology
 comments on the child’s use of syntax
 comments on the child’s lexical range
 clear use of a linguistic register.
a) This is too simplistic – the theories theories build on one another. Students may note how Bruner develops from both
Chomsky and Skinner, and how Chomsky’s theory is dependent on Skinner, even as a refutation of it. They may also
note that Chomsky’s theories, although called ‘nativist’, are not claiming that speech is ‘natural’.
b) Students should explore the social elements of both theories. They are likely to refer to Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal
Development and/or More Knowledgeable Other and link this to Bruner’s LASS and the centrality in his theory of others
around the child who can support their development.
c) Responses will vary, but should centre on the LAD’s flexibility to different languages and its ability to recognise
grammatical patterns. Suitable analogies include computing, grids, question maps and switchboxes, but other
possibilities exist, of course, and should be credited.
d) A key difficulty with feral children is that they have been damaged by their experiences, and it is impossible to be sure
what their ‘natural’ capabilities would have been.

different.
6.3 Working with child language data

1. Responses will vary, but students should produce questions/research focuses that:
 are focused on language (rather than e.g. behaviour)
 include some ideas that focus on features (e.g. formation of grammatical structures, production of particular sounds,
understanding of meaning)
 include some ideas that centre on social issues (e.g. comparison of different types of children, longitudinal study,
possibly focused on a particular aspect such as pragmatic development from two to seven years).
2. Nonsense words enable the researcher to be absolutely certain that the child is using their own initiative in applying
endings to the words. If real words were used, the child could have heard them before, so may be in the early stage of
having memorised the fully realised forms without actually learning the rule (top of Brown’s U-shape).
3. In a test for this, children were shown pictures of all the things they labelled incorrectly (for example, horses, cows, for
‘cat’) alongside the actual object and asked to identify the target object. Most of the time they were able to do this,
implying that they were consciously choosing to use the closest word, rather than not knowing they were making a
mistake.
4. Students are likely to make categories such as animals, toys, everyday objects, daily activities, adjectives/descriptions.
They may also want to organise the words by word class. They may want to know more about the child’s context (e.g.
gender, location) and they may be able to make some deductions about the child’s daily life from the data.
Responses should refer to at least some of the following:
 discussion of child-directed speech as theorised by Bruner and use of Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
 use of reinforcement for speech behaviours
 how the older child speaks to the children and to the adults
 the children’s use of syntax
 the children’s use of phonology.
Students should show evidence of the following:
 a thoughtful focus for research question/hypothesis
 appropriate data sources
 appropriate and achievable data-collection methods
 awareness of issues such as bias, validity and observer’s paradox
 close focus on particular language features/aspects
 some sense of likely outcomes.
7.1 English as a global language

1. a) approximately 360 million
b) more than a billion
c) There are many possible answers, including all Inner Circle countries (UK/US/Canada/Australia/New Zealand), as
well as India, Singapore, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Malta, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Nigeria, Kenya,
South Sudan.
d) Responses will vary: e.g. the official language, one offical language, a commonly-spoken language.
2.
Country Date of British Date of Other official Other language(s) commonly

colonisation independence language(s) spoken
USA 1607 1776 US has no Spanish, Mandarin

official language
Canada 1670 1867 French Mandarin
Jamaica 1655 1962 Jamaican Patois

different.
India 1612 1947 Hindi Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu
Pakistan 1612 1947 Urdu Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi
Australia 1788 1901 All others are below 3% of the

population
New Zealand 1841 1907 Maori
Botswana 1885 1966 Tswana Kalanga
Nigeria 1861 1960 Hausa, Yoruba, Over 500 different languages are
Igbo spoken across Nigeria
Malaysia 1867 1963 Malay Mandarin and Tamil
3. a) and b) responses will vary c) the relative size of different languages d) Germanic, West Germanic
4. Responses will vary. Get students to share and discuss these in pairs or groups. Students should consider their own
relationship to English and any other languages they speak. Depending on where they live, this may be a well-
rehearsed topic or something they have never thought about – it can be useful to make this point to the students.
5. a) People should learn English to access education and financial/career opportunities.
b) Malaysia should make English a compulsory second language in the education system.
c) Malaysian students in the UK cannot properly understand their courses and young Malaysians are unable to
progress in their careers.
d) People think that prioritising English weakens the native/national language, but the writer says that this is not true.
Students should respond by constructing arguments and engaging logically with the statements. The ordering task does
not have a right/wrong answer, but students’ explanations should be logical and well-considered, showing an
understanding of language issues in the global use of English. The task is intended to add to their multifaceted
understanding of how English has risen in prominence over time, through a range of sometimes interconnected factors.
7.2 Global variation in English

1. Responses to a) and b) will vary. Answers to c) will change over time.
2. There has been much debate about the plausibility of MacArthur’s ‘World Standard English’, but the variety it seems
closest to at the time of writing is US English, which is accessible to so much of the world through the mass media. As
for learning it, many people in other countries are already beginning to code-shift into a US-influenced English for online
communication, so this may happen naturally without explicit or conscious learning.
3. Responses will vary, and could form the basis of a class discussion. Students may select examples such the
preference for single rather than double letters in words like ‘traveled’, the shift to -er endings in French-derived words
like ‘theater’, or spellings like ‘draft’ instead of the UK ‘draught’. You may also wish to discuss the spelling changes that
weren’t accepted such as ‘tung’ for ‘tongue’ or ‘soop’ for ‘soup’.
4. Pidgin is presented as connecting to a woder audience, particularly to younger people. There are strong hints of
‘moving with the times’ and ‘keeping up’. The article implies that the BBC had a reputation for being old-fashioned and
an association with the British Empire, but that this decision will enable them to move away from these negative
associations.
 coverage of the task brief (i.e. research into one inner-circle and one outer-circle variety)
 notes on the history and official status of each variety
 comments on attitudes to each variety in its context
 linguistic comment on each variety’s features across a range of language levels.

different.
7.3 Attitudes to English issues and Englishes

1. Attitudes to language usually derive from social attitudes, and that can clearly be seen in debates around global
varieties, just as it can with discussions about language change, or complaints about youth dialect. Students’ comments
may explore specific contexts in some detail, to explain the origins of particular attitudes.
2. Students should consider meanings such as ‘standard’ = normal and ‘standards’ = high quality. These two meanings
are at odds, but both may be implicit in the phrase ‘Standard English’ at different times, or by different speakers, which
may lead to difficulties.
3. Responses should consider issues of identity and heritage.
4. Most of these statements present a negative attitude to Singlish, e.g. being grateful they don’t use it at home, or
wishing they used it less. It is largely represented in contrast to ‘proper English’, as though the two things were
opposites, when in reality there is a continuum with Singlish at one end and Standard Singaporean English at the other.
5. Responses will vary, but try to elicit a range of ideas that students could usefully discuss. For example, do they draw on
folklore/myth/other cultural reference to make explanations and comparisons in everyday conversation? Have they
noticed it in the media and pop culture they consume?
6. Responses should feature at least some of the following:
 a focus on the arguments in the text, without straying into analysis
 discussion of the relationship between US English and UK English as presented in the text
 discussion of US–UK Englishes relations from study of language more broadly
 expression of personal views on the topic and on the ideas in the text
 discussion of global English and language change.
Reponses should feature at least some of the following:
 a local focus on English issues (and other languages if relevant)
 an awareness of relevant policies and attitudes
 comments on media representation of language in the local area
 contextualisation of language issues in relation to theory
 comments on representation of speakers of different languages/varieties
 comments on attitudes and their representation, ideally linked to concept/theory.
7.4 Debating English in the world

1. a) According to the writer, language planning can be conceptualised as a problem, a right or a resource.
b) The article presents South Africa’s mistake as the fact that language (specifically multilingualism) is seen as a
problem, so people believe it is better to speak only English, not South African languages, and they are not invested in
their own culture as far as language is concerned.
c) Responses will vary, but language as a right may be seen in terms of opportunities and equality, while language as a
resource may be a slightly less emotive view, where language becomes a practicality.
2. Responses will vary, but it may be worth noting that linguistic research has made use of concepts such as emotion – for
example, Trudgill asked people to recall strong memories of childhood, or particularly resonant/important personal
memories, to get them speaking fluently in their natural dialect – or talking to groups about topics of local interest, such
as Cheshire’s work with school-aged children asking them what there is for children to do in the area and how it could
be improved. There are many possibilities, but the key thing is to get people speaking without thinking, without being
aware of themselves or their speech. In order to gain natural data, it is important that subjects are not aware that the
study is about accent/dialect/variety until afterwards.
Responses should demonstrate at least some of the following:
 an understanding of linguistic methodology
 a sensible topic focus
 a clear sense of that data to be sourced
 some idea of how data would be collected
 an interesting and appropriate research question/angle
 use of a linguistic register to explain ideas.

different.

Responses should include:
 comments on the representation of US English and American individuals as aggressive/attacking
 comments on the use of listing and number of examples to overwhelm the reader
 contextualisation of the issues as relating to identity and heritage
 discussion of language as representing/being associated with national identity.
8.1 Language and learning

1. Response will vary, and could be discussed in pairs or groups.
2. Since these are ideas that scientists struggle to agree on, students will almost certainly struggle to find a definitive
answer. However, they should consider issues such as whether and how symbols represent language, and how far
what the apes are doing is language (for example, they can only learn a certain number of signs and cannot combine
them infinitely, in the way a human child will eventually be able to combine language elements infinitely).
3. Students should note that leave-taking is more complex than it appears, with people often indicating an intention to
leave-take (‘I’d better be going’, ‘Oh is that the time’.) perhaps for several turns before they actually manage to get
away. There are often repeated farewells (‘bye then’, ‘see you’, ‘I’ll call you tomorrow’). Representations of leave-taking
in TV/film tend to be closer to what we think it looks like, with simpler interactions which, if used in real life, may be
considered rude.
4. The nativist view on apes using language appears to be that what they are doing is not language, but a kind of trick that
approximates language, so it does not really count. The flying/leaping analogy shows what a poor substitute Chomsky
thinks it is for the real thing. Both Pinker and Chomsky present animal ‘language’ as a trick, using similar analogies,
because both regard it as fake language and something that detracts from the real question/issues about language.
 a well-organised mind map presenting behaviourist and nativist ideas about language
 links to child language acquisition
 evidence from case studies/examples/research
 connections to own ideas
 clear presentation to help revision and understanding.
8.2 Language and thought

1. Responses will vary. This is a good task for students to complete independently at first, then then to share and
compare answers in pairs as a second stage, before embarking on a full class discussion of the issues raised.
2. a) black, white, green, red, blue, yellow, brown, purple, orange, pink, grey; these are the 11 basic colour words in
English.
b) Responses will vary, but students should find this more difficult than a).
c) Students should discover that people will agree on a) but less so on b).
d) This research will provide some information about theway colours are labelled in different languages – e.g. Welsh
does not distinguish between blue, grey and brown as distinctly as English, having only two terms; some Pacific Island
languages have only two colour terms – dark and light.
3. a) It demonstrated that the way the language expressed time affected the way people laid out cards which had a
chronology.
b) Responses to the first part will vary. English always presents the past as behind and the future as in front.
c) Linguistic determinism seems limiting, but it also lacks some logic because we can think beyond our own language to
understand others and to take on new concepts. Linguistic relativity offers more flexibility because it suggests that
language exerts an influence but has no absolutely limit or control.
4. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis underlies the concept of political correctness. It is based on the idea that, if we can change
the language people are used to using, then we can change the way people habitually think and can, therefore, reduce
racist/sexist thinking. Of course, if linguistic determinism were true, then PC language would not be possible because
we could not get ‘outside’ language enough to make these changes. Specific examples of PC terms will vary.

different.

Responses should:
 demonstrate a clear response to the brief directly by producing a leaflet that explains universalism and relativism
 follow the form of a leaflet
 explain ideas clearly to a wide audience
 presents content clearly and accessibly for revision purposes.
8.3 Language and personal identity

1. Repsonses will vary and are worth discussing in pairs or groups.
2. Responses will vary but are likely to show a range of connections. Students could compare their networks within the
class, and should be encouraged to think about language links they share within their networks. These could be added
in as annotations, either permanently or on sticky notes.
3. Repsonses will vary. Ask students to explain different communities of practice and some of their language peculiarities
to each other. This can be done as formal presentations, or more informally through group work, but it is an effective
way for students to share their expertise and practise applying language knowledge to their existing knowledge of the
world.
4. Responses will vary, but should include:
 lexical examples, possibly with some linguistic description
 grammatical examples, ideally with detailed linguistic explanation of their difference from standard usage
 examples of phonology, described using linguistic terminology.
5. Estuary English shows people moving from both ends of the social spectrum to meet in the middle, so there are former
Received Pronunciation speakers such as politicians seeking covert prestige using EE, as well as upper working class
former Cockney speakers seeking overt prestige by adopting it in order to sound more impressive. Students may apply
other concepts, such as accommodation, or discuss identity, solidarity or status – all of these ideas would be relevant.
Responses should:
 be written in a short essay format, using paragraphs and accurate English
 use linguistic register to describe features of the chosen variety
 address the brief by selecting an appropriate community’s language to describe
 describe at least three linguistic features covering at least two different language levels (e.g. lexis, grammar,
phonology)
 apply at least two theories/concepts to discuss how language is used by that group (e.g. prestige, solidarity,
communities of practice, social networks)
 apply theory to discuss why that group uses language in that way.
8.4 Language and social identity

1. Responses will vary and could usefully be compared within the class. Alternatively, students could pair up to complete
the table and collect data.
2. Several of Lakoff’s ‘women’s language’ features can appear ‘weak’, such as hedges, rising intonation and the
avoidance of swearing (students may also identify superpolite forms and tag questions). Emphatic stress and
intensifiers were felt to be weak because they call more attention to the speaker or her/his words, which suggests that
there was not enough (or would not have been enough) attention in the first place. However, precise colour terms,
hypercorrect grammar and empty adjectives are difficult to see in terms of weakness, even though they fit with
stereotypes of femininity. The hypercorrectness (and simple correctness) has, in fact, often been claimed as a feminine
speech trait due to childcare – it is claimed that women speak more correctly/seek more overt prestige because they
have responsibility for children and need to be better role models. It can also be argued that women seek overt prestige
because they lack other opportunities for social power (and because strong accents and ‘incorrect’ forms of language
are viewed as unfeminine). Students should note that these ideas are all 1970s/1980s attitudes and not intended to be
taken as correct/absolute!
3. Responses will vary, but students are often very convinced by Tannen, whose ideas appeal to common sense and ring
true to many people’s experience of gender in contemporary society. The dangers lie in treating men and women in
homogeneous ways, when in fact gender is only one variable and we are all quite different.

different.
4. Responses will vary, but Cameron’s presentation should make clear that women and men are still represented in quite
different ways, and perhaps in ways that exaggerate differences.
Responses should include comments on the following:
 own use of language/languages
 own use of dialect or local varieties
 extent of influence of social categories such as gender and age
 influence of any relevant communities of practice (clubs/societies, interests.)
 examples, with linguistic description.
8.5 Debating language and the self

1. a) Responses will vary, but should involve students thinking about small differences within their local variety and how
these vary from either the national standard, or comparing the national variety to international Standard English.
b) The reading list allows examination of the ‘careful speech’ register, where speakers are careful to enunciate single
words clearly without them running into the word before/after, as well as controlling the content of the list fully. A
passage tests slightly more fluent ‘careful speech’.
2. Responses will vary, however an example based on the tag question, ‘We liked that, didn’t we?’ might be as follows. A
deficit approach would view the use of the tag question as simple evidence of women’s inferior use of language, by
asking a question that is technically not necessary. A dominance theorist would say this question arises from a female
speaker’s insecurity, caused by patriarchal pressures in society which lead her to check something as simple as
whether she and another person liked something. To a difference theorist, this tag question is an example of the female
speaker’s tendency to act cooperatively. By asking a question, she facilitates the turn of another speaker and hands
over the right to speak. Taking a diversity approach, the question shows how the female speaker performs according to
the norms of femininity in deferring to someone else’s view and in operating within a shared identity. However, it would
be important to know the context in which this was said and to look at the data more broadly before any conclusions
about gender could really be approached.
3. Responses will vary, but should show the following:
 clear engagement with the text’s content
 discussion of genderlect theories
 consideration of methodology in the article and what it suggests about approach
 evaluation of the four genderlect approaches as ways of exploring gendered language.
 clear address to the brief (a short essay assessing the text’s relation to universalism and nativism)
 discussion of linguistic ideas
 reference to the text
 explanation of own ideas
 assessment of the text’s argument(s).
 clear address to the brief (writing in article form for a school/college magazine audience)
 explanation of linguistic ideas
 clear presentation for revision purposes
 reference to a range of suitable ideas
 a lively and interesting writing style
 well-chosen examples, case studies and research references.
 a clear response in essay format, using linguistic register
 a focus on the text’s arguments (rather than an analysis)
 discussion of Boroditsky’s ideas
 links to other aspects studied and own ideas
 evaluative comments on ideas in the text
 discussion of social identity by exploring links between language and thought.

different.
9.1 Text analysis

1. Responses will vary, but should include focused notes on language features with links to meaning, as in the table.
Students may note:
 how the form leads to brevity and shortened, almost note-form or telegraphic-style sentences
 how the structure is simple but very clear for the audience, to maximise the number of potential visitors
 how the language is varied, including some higher register/more complex lexis among what is mostly
everyday/straightforward language; this is because it has a precise subject and needs to show expertise, but also
needs to be understandable.
2. Responses will vary, and could be compared in pairs or groups. Ideally students will improve the specific points
identified as weak in the student book: broad description of audience, vague comments on structure, possibility for
further development in final interpretation. They may also add further points, ideally including more terminology.
3. Responses will vary, but should focus on making links between the language and the context, for example identifying a
specialist audience of film enthusiasts and choosing examples of detailed, specialist noun phrases to exemplify this.
This activity could be usefully combined with Activity 4 as a homework task.
4. Repsonses will vary, but students should produce a fluent and logically-argued paragraph which connects language to
context. They should be encouraged to show the skill of selecting appropriate features here – not simply identifying
something they think is impressive, but selecting something with real meaning and purpose in the context of their
chosen text.
5. The points made in the sample responses are relevant, but there is no detailed explanation or development so it feels
rushed. It is a good idea to open with a clear statement of the form and audience, as the student has done here, as this
can help to keep the answer focused, but it would have been better to then develop this a little more before moving on
to something else.
6. Responses will vary, but students should note the improved cohesion of this response and its superior development of
an argument about how the text is shaped, which is established in the introduction and then developed throughout the
piece.
 clear address to the brief (i.e. an analysis of ‘A Temporary Matter’)
 accurately writing using a linguistic register
 comments on a range of linguistic features across different levels of language
 effective use of textual reference to evidence points
 developed analytical comments and explanations
 well-chosen points to comment on
 effectively structured analysis, showing thought (not just ‘working through the text’) and clustering features/choosing
examples to show patterns/types
 comments on form, structure and language.
9.2 Writing creatively

1. Student A may appear to have written the better opening on the surface, as their responses covers more parts of the
task. However, there is no need to do all this in the first paragraph. Student B addresses the title more precisely.
2. Responses will vary, but should show an awareness of the brief and have some sort of shape and clarity to them, using
one of the planning tables given or a suitable alternative.
3. Responses will vary, but should focus on an environmental problem, with an awareness that small-scope is more
appropriate (so an oil spill on a beach is more appropriate than an at-sea oil disaster).
4. Students’ responses may offers ideas such as:
 inclusion of figurative language such as metaphor or simile
 the addition of brief physical description to help characterise Barney/Joe
 a change in structure – e.g. present without Joe/flashback to planning.
5. Repsonses should show variety between the three plans. They may feature the following:
 a developed plotline
 clear ideas for an interesting (or at least sensible) structure
 a sense of character(s)

different.
 a sense of setting
 a sense of atmosphere.
6. This plan presents a bright and cheery atmosphere, so the new plan should contrast with this, probably by invoking
misery.
7. Responses should feature at least some of the following:
 use of imaginative writing
 accurate writing
 a clear and intentional structure
 imagery
 dialogue
 varied sentence forms
 varied and effective vocabulary choices.
 use of imaginative writing
 accurate writing
 clear address to the brief (either a description that creates atmosphere using sound and movement or a narrative
that creates a sense of conflict and tension)
 a clear and intentional structure
 imagery
 dialogue
 varied sentence forms
 varied and effective vocabulary choices.
9.3 Writing for an audience

1. leaflet (form) advise (purpose) students (audience) – students might identify features such as subheadings, modal
verbs, bulleted lists, diagrams, rhetorical questions
speech (form) inform (purpose) students (audience) – students might identify features such as repetition, direct
address, comparatives/superlatives, discourse markers/connectives to flag argument
opinion article (form) inform (purpose) local community (audience) – students might identify features such as anecdote,
personal address, rhetorical questions, modal verbs.
2. clear use of address: ‘Good afternoon everyone.’
financial metaphor: ‘pay you back with interest’
euphemistic reference showing understanding: ‘those difficult times that are somewhat inevitable within a large
community of teenagers’
repetition of quantifier: ‘more students’
request and rhetorical question: ‘just indulge me for a second’ and ‘If you can’t bring it out and show it off on occasions
like this, when can you?’
triple patterning/listing: ‘they enjoy’ x3
3. Responses will vary, but should include clear attempt to match audience, form and purpose with appropriate style of
language.
4. Responses will vary, but should feature some of the following:
 a full introduction that outlines where the argument will go
 bullet-pointed paragraph points to outline key ideas
 a full conclusion drawing the essay together and pinpointing the main argument
 coverage of both sides of the debate
 a clear sense of own views
 some sense of detail/depth in the bullet points (sensible use of note form).
5. Responses will vary, but should be full skeleton answers featuring some of the following:
 a full introduction that outlines the text’s direction
 bullet-pointed paragraph points to outline key ideas
 a full conclusion closing the text

different.
 some sense of detail/depth in the bullet points (sensible use of note form)
 review: a clearly expressed opinion that comes through the whole piece
 leaflet: clear sense of a family audience.
Responses should include at least some of the following:
 clear writing that addresses the brief
 speech: coverage of both sides of the problem
 speech: suggested solutions
 speech: appropriate address
 speech: use of rhetorical and persuasive features
 restaurant review: appropriate tone and address
 restaurant review: coverage of different aspects e.g. courses, choice, décor, service
 restaurant review: use of emotive and descriptive language
 script: sense of writing for a listening audience
 script: use of voice/different voices
 script: use of persuasive techniques or narrative/imaginative writing.
9.4 Directed response

1. Responses will vary but should result in notes and then a review of a film that uses the standard features of a film
review as outlined above the task. Students could peer or self assess by checking against the list provided. If/where
they have deviated from this list, is it to good effect? What does it achieve? If they missed things from the list, would
adding them improve their review?
2. form: speech
audience: school administration
key information from the text: no longer running trips in school time; disruption to lessons and teaching; counter-
arguments are educational value of trips, varied experience of different teachers managing cover lessons
structural features: clear discourse markers
language features: parallel sentences, repetition
Students’ responses may vary widely, especially in terms of the features suggested/planned.
3. The second response uses more rhetorical features and feels more ‘speech-like’, but is less appropriate for the precise
context established by the task – presenting the student body views at a meeting. Although the second text reads more
impressively, the first addresses the brief better and covers more detail.
 clear organisation in leaflet form (using subheadings, bulleted lists.)
 appropriate language choices such as interrogatives, imperatives, direct address
appropriately selected information about sleep and its importance.
 clear letter format, including introductory and concluding paragraphs
 clearly stated problem and requested solution
 clear explanations
 appropriate language choices, such as modal verbs and rhetorical interrogatives
 clear organisation with appropriate use of discourse markers and connectives.
9.5 Reflective writing

1. Students may comment on the following:
 the effective and convincing use of the first person, showing ownership of the writing
 the clear links between features and effect/meaning
 ‘plural first-person perspective’ linked to ‘form of a speech’ and then its purpose in detail

different.
 ‘synthetic personalisation’ similarly analysed in some depth

 ‘rhetorical techniques’ is a bit vague initially, but then made more precise and explored in some detail, and is clearly
linked to purpose and form
2. Responses will vary, but students should focus on explaining the likely intended effect of features using the first person.
They may select features such as colloquialism, present tense, rhetorical question and tone, and should aim to link to
the theme ‘be the change’ and/or the form of a story and/or the teenaged audience.
3. The table should show:
source text: form = letter; audience = parents; purpose = to inform
new text: form = speech; audience = school administration; purpose = persuade.
The features chosen will vary.
4. Responses will vary, but should feature at least some of the following:
 a clear comparative focus highlighting where the texts are similar and different
 explanations for similarities and differences by reference to audience, purpose and form
 clear identification of language features, using linguistic terminology
 evidence offered from both texts.
 letter: clear letter form, including introduction and conclusion
 letter: clear arguments offering reasons for views
 letter: use of anecdote/case study/statistics to provide evidence
 letter: persuasive and/or emotive language
 reflective commentary: first person expression
 reflective commentary: clear links between language and intention
 reflective commentary: clear links between language and form/purpose/audience.
9.6 Analysing for language change

1. Walton claims that his books in not intended to teach people to fish, as that is not something you can learn from a book,
but he does hope that anyone who enjoys fishing will learn something from it. He also presents fishing as a big subject,
something that can never be fully known by anyone. His attitude appears modest rather than all-knowing or arrogant –
he does not present himself as an expert, and the tone is friendly and gentle in its attempt to teach.
2. The n-gram graph that is Text B shows how the frequency of a word (‘laugh’d’) in the text has changed over time, and
contrasts it with a different version of the same word (‘laughed’), which is more common today. The collocates table in
Text C, however, presents the top five collocates for two words from the text that are of semantic importance. They
appear to be chosen to show how the connotations of these words may have changed over time, or the way they are
used in the text has perhaps become less common. Students should note the tentative nature of the expression of
these ideas, as without performing a similar collocates search for the time of the text we cannot be certain that this
usage was any more common then than it is now.
3. This opening feels rushed. It does not take the time to explain or develop anything and it reads more like a list of quick
ideas than a detailed consideration of the task. The first sentence is also inaccurate – it mentions grammar but then
talks about commas, although the point is really about syntax. If the sentence referred to clauses or even just
sentences sooner, this would be avoided. Students may also comment on other aspects of the opening, but a lack of
development is the main issue here.
 detailed use of linguistic terminology to label language features
 links between language usage and context, especially historical context
 connections between language and meaning/intent
 links between Texts A and C.
 comments on sentence length and construction
 comments on old-fashioned/archaic/less-frequent vocabulary (e.g. ‘lineament’, ‘visage’, ‘sweetmeat’)
 discussion of word order and syntax (e.g. ‘I was but ten’)
 links between Texts A and B
 links between Texts A and C

different.
 comments linking language choice and context

 comments linking language choice and form/purpose or meaning.
9.7 Analysing child language acquisition

1. Students may identify the following features of the interaction or come up with their own ideas:
Lexial features: The children’s lexis is very focused on the game and very narrow in range.
Grammatical features: Zoe’s grammar shows some telegraphic speech, with missing auxiliaries and determiners (‘I play
other game’), overgeneralised pluralisation (‘mouses’) and a middle-stage question with a wh-word added but subject
and verb not inverted (‘how I do’).
Pragmatic features: Adam’s use of requests and directives are more subtle than Zoe’s, due to his older age (‘lets play
another game’ as opposed to ‘I play other game’)
Features of caregivers’ speech: Freya uses many interrogatives, often in a supportive and reassuring way (e.g. the tag
‘isnt it’) and both Freya and Mum use names and endearments to soften commands and call attention in a non-
threatening way (‘darling’, ‘Adam’) as well as explicit feedback to Zoe (‘good girl’).
Relevant theories and links to the data: Zone of Proximal Development may be applied, as Zoe is clearly given more
explicit direction and more support/feedback due to her younger age; Chomsky’s LAD or the wug test (Berko) could be
compared to Zoe’s virtuous error on ‘mouses’.
2. Responses will vary, but should show clear development into a full analytical paragraph from the points provided.
 clear analysis of language features using linguistic terminology
 evidence by quotation from the text
 reference to knowledge of linguistic theory, concepts and/or research
 consideration of the mother’s use of child-directed speech e.g. questions, sentence frames
 links to Bruner and/or Vygotsky’s social theories
 comments on the child’s phonological development
 comments on the impact of context (i.e. clear familiarity of bedtime reading)
 additional examples of children’s language from own knowledge, with linguistic comment.
9.8 Writing in response to language topics

1. Responses may note a range of issues, including:
 English is the most important language in India.
 Learning English does not mean you cannot also speak another language.
 If other languages have been disadvantaged in India, that has other causes, not related to English.
 Links to world English concepts: English and empire/colonialisation, the status of English in different countries,
English as causing/being linked to language death, circles theories (India as Outer Circle).
2. Responses will vary, but students should consider a range of factors. It may be useful for them to compare tables from
Activity 1 before producing their plans, to ensure the maximum possible exposure to a range of ideas.
3. Knowledge and understanding of concepts and theories are shown well here, but this opening does not engage well
with the text – it moves away from it very quickly. The task should not be seen as a springboard from the text into a
general essay, but rather as a way of engaging with the text.
4. Students’ tables may note a range of ideas, including the following:
 Political correctness is a growing ‘problem’ in the world today.
 Some people are prone to represent being politically correct negatively.
 Political correctness has its roots in the Sapri-Whorf Hypothesis.
 There are links between PC language, the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and the novel 1984 (Orwell).
 People who are against political correctness often liken it to a dystopian novel.
 Links to language and the self concepts: language as controlling/affecting thought, linguistic relativity, attitudes to
language and language change (if PC seen as new).

different.
Students’ full answers should reflect the concepts as outlined above. The finished essay should feature some of the
following:
 clear arguments linking the article’s content to studied language concepts
 a clear evaluation of the article’s arguments as arguments (avoidance of analysis)
 a clea and logical structure and good, accurate English
 examples from wider study with linguistic comment
 clear links to theory/concept/research.
Students should produce a sensible plan for revision that takes into account a range of factors. They could spend class
time discussing and comparing these plans to help fine-tune them. Advice might also be given, based on when topics could
be/will be revised in class.
10.1 Practice Paper 1: Reading

Indicative content
1. a) Responses should feature the following:
 key factual information about the event: venue, date, time.
 rhetorical techniques: questions, triplets, direct address, opinions, alliteration, rhetorical questions, emotive
language, exaggeration, colloquial language, anecdote, facts and statistics, humour, lists, quotations.
b) Responses might feature analysis and comment on the following elements.
Form:
 the typical text conventions used in the original review and the candidate’s own publicity flyer
 the ways in which the different purposes affect the content and style of the two texts
 the ways in which the book review and publicity flyer appeal to their respective intended audiences (e.g. through the
register used in each text)
 the ways in which headings, sub-headings and short/long paragraphs or sections are used in each text.
Structure:
 The opening paragraph sets the scene for the book review and establishes the reviewer’s position.
 The opening paragraph first describes the two ‘extremes’ of the tropics, but ends with the reviewer’s opinion that
Frater’s book strikes the right balance between these – ‘he acknowledges these extremes yet locates his tropics
somewhere between the two’.
 The subsequent three paragraphs provide biographical details about Frater and a chronology of his career – the
‘journey’ of the book’s creation is developed through these paragraphs, and links to Frater’s life/career journey.
 The final two paragraphs develop the reviewer’s complementary stance towards Frater and his book, concluding
with the reviewer’s overall assessment of the book: ‘Tales From the Torrid Zone is Frater’s love letter to the region.’
Language:
 Use of the present tense for immediacy places the reader in the tropics at the beginning of the review.
 Use of lists in the first paragraph to describe the tropics.
 Positive and negative language is used in the first paragraph to create contrast.
 Use of the past tense helps the reader picture Frater’s early life and formative years.
 The inclusion of factual information about Frater positions the reviewer as a credible authority on the subject of his
review.
 Use of first person plural pronouns, fronted adverbials and discourse markers set Frater apart – both from the
reviewer and his readers, therefore contrasting Frater with the rest of ‘us’ and presenting him as quite an
extraordinary figure: ‘For those of us who…’, ‘Whereas most of us are obliged…’.
 The tone is respectful and admiring.
 The formal register pitches the text at an audience of broadsheet-reading adults interested in travel and culture.
 Opinions present the reviewer’s view of Frater as a skilful writer, ‘The obvious satisfaction that Frater drew from his
job is apparent on every page … as are the skills he has honed over the years’, ‘long, entertaining narrative’.
2. Responses might feature analysis and comment on the following:
Form:
 the typical text conventions used in the novel’s opening (e.g. establishing setting, character, time, atmosphere,
mood)
 the ways in which the purpose affects the content and style of the text (e.g. narrative perspective/voice, description
of place, introduction of themes, characterisation)
 the ways in which the extract appeals to its intended audience (e.g. through the register used in the text)

different.
 the ways in which the extract fits within a particular genre of fiction (magic realism)
 any other relevant aspect of the text’s form.
Structure:
 chapter heading sets the scene – a river in Alaska, 1920
 non-chronological sequence mirrors Mabel’s consciousness – her shifting thoughts/reflections
 the slow pace of the text establishes and sustains a melancholic mood
 the direction of the text takes the reader backwards and forwards in time to present Mabel’s situation
 shifts in perspective focus the reader in on external/internal details – both in the physical sense (outside/inside the
house) as well as the psychological (Mabel’s outward presentation/internal thought processes)
 any other relevant structural feature in the text.
Language:
 figurative language – simile, metaphor, personification;
 imagery – light, sound, colour, sensory, weather.
 sound effects – onomatopoeia, alliteration
 repetition of ‘no’ and ‘not’ emphasise all that Mabel doesn’t have/is missing
 word classes
 semantic fields – children, play, environment, landscape, emptiness.
 tense shifts enable the reader to empathise with Mabel’s character
 any other relevant language feature used in the text.
10.2 Practice Paper 2: Writing

Indicative content
Responses might feature the following, although the comments below are not intended to be exhaustive. Students may
make other valid comments that should be credited.
1. a)
 Text should be presented with clear paragraphing.
 Content may cover aspects such as time management, deadlines, expectations of others at home and at school,
and the possible effects of exam stress on relationships with peers and with family.
 The speech should be in the second person (‘You should…’), and include a range of structures for giving guidance
and advice.
b) The reflective commentary should address the style, form, structure and language used in the text of the speech,
explaining the choices made and how they create meaning.
2. Responses should include the following:
 narrative language with a clear structure
 use of imagery
 a changing sense of mood of the character.
 letter structure, including an introduction and conclusion
 clear views, with reasons given in some detail
 examples of teenagers’ behaviour (good or bad) from 20 years ago and from now.
 engaging language to address audience of young people
 clear structure, including an introduction and conclusion
 clear guidance and advice in a friendly tone, which may be informal
 speech should be in the second person (‘You should…’), and include a range of structures for giving guidance and
advice.

different.
10.3 Practice Paper 3: Language analysis

Indicative content
Section A – language change
1. Responses might feature the following, although the comments below are not intended to be exhaustive. Students may
Lexis:
 The adverb ‘yet’ is used instead of ‘already’: ‘he is in bed yet’.
 The preposition ‘of’ is used instead of ‘about’: ‘telling of one she had sent by the other post’.
 The adjective ‘bemazed’ is used instead of ‘amazed’: ‘seemed bemazed’.
 The phrase ‘to strive with it’ is used instead of ‘battle against it’.
 the verb ‘hooted’ is used to describe the sound that the owl made. Students should refer to Text C and analyse the
word’s change in use, having undergone semantic broadening to include the meanings ‘to shout or laugh in a
derisive manner’ and to describe ‘the sound of a train’s whistle’.
 The ampersand (‘&’) is widely used in Text A instead of the word ‘and’. Today it is only used in informal writing but
was common in the 1800s in both formal and informal writing .
Grammar and punctuation:
 One of the sentences is not complete: ‘Came in’. This shows the informal nature of the writing, which was not
originally intended for publication.
 There are examples of archaic sentence construction, for example ‘none were come’ (using ‘were’ instead of ‘had’)
and when telling the time: ‘It wants only 10 minutes of 10’ instead of ‘10 minutes to 10’.
 There are several places where common nouns are capitalised (e.g. ‘Basket of Lettuces’, ‘little Birds’).
 The use of commas does not conform to modern usage. They are sometimes used in Text A for sentence
separation: ‘it had come under the Bench where he was sitting & then flew up to his leg, he thoughtlessly stirred
himself’.
 Listing commas are not used where they would be today in ‘A sweet grey mild morning’.
 Different word order occurs in some phrases (e.g. ‘delay of mine’, instead of ‘my delay’).
 The short, note-like form of William’s name (‘Wm’) is used sometimes Wm, but not consistently, as the full version,
‘William’, is used most of the time. This again shows the informal nature of the writing.
Spelling:
There is one difference to note from today’s spelling. ‘Sate’ is an archaic spelling of ‘sat’. Students should refer to Text
B and analyse the change in use over time: ‘sate’ was more common until about 1680; ‘sat’ was much more common at
the time of writing of the journal although ‘sate’ was still in use until about 1950.
Graphology:
The text is in two paragraphs, one for each journal entry.
Section B – child language acquisition
 child-directed speech (e.g. Poppy’s mother’s use of questions to elicit response)
 other uses of ‘caretaker’ speech
 theorists and theories, such as Skinner (behaviourism/reinforcement), Chomsky (innateness/language acquisition
device), Piaget (cognitive development), Vygotsky, Bruner et al.
 poppy’s developmental stage and linguistic competence:
 There are many examples of complex syntactical structures beyond the telegraphic stage (e.g. ‘theres some
music going to come on now’) and of compound sentences (e.g. ‘the ballerina isnt real cause its made from
icing’).
 There are several grammatical errors in her speech (e.g. ‘im going to make (.) a cake (1) and a ballerina on the
top and it got six on her (1) umm on her skirt’).
 evidence of at least five of Halliday’s functions of language:
 regulatory: ‘sing happy (.) birthday’
 interactional: ‘was that nice (.) song’
 representational: ‘theres some music going to come on now’
 personal: ‘im six (.) and im going to make (.) a cake’
 imaginative: ‘and now (1) one for you (.) one for you (.) one for you’
 the structure of the exchanges: overwhelmingly fulfilled adjacency pairs, with little evident interruption or overlap
 turn-taking in conversation, no evident interruption or overlap.

different.
10.4 Practice Paper 4: Language topics

Indicative content
Section A – English in the world
 the notion that varieties of English can lead to the ‘formation of identities, cultural protests and unique means of
expression’, with the related covert prestige that these bring
 the idea that language learning and social integration ‘should not be a one-way street’
 the idea that ‘linguistic evolution…ought to be celebrated’
 how other languages have added musicality and freshness to English and new ways of conceiving of language
 examples from wider study of ‘creoles and dialects that have bent, broken and downright flipped the bird at the
rules’ as a result of linguistic intermarriage
 examples from the text of syntactic rule-bending: Singlish with its topic-prominence, Irish English with its ‘liberal use
of the definite article’ and Seaspeak with its ‘simple, grammar-free phrases’
 examples from wider study of how language can reflect social identity
 specific examples of the lexis, grammar syntax or phonology of any regional dialect or slang
 comments on a prescriptive approach to language with its ‘rigid rules of traditional grammar’ and a ‘staunch
protectionism’
 how English grammar has ‘always been in flux’ and the related descriptivist approach to language
 the concept of code-switching between varieties of English.
Section B – Language and the self
 the notion of how social identity is constructed by language
 the idea that linguistic diversity should be celebrated
 how dialect prejudice is so prevalent
 the idea that prejudice remains socially acceptable in language use
 the historical precedent of Shakespeare and other authors
 how the use of words changes over time (e.g. ‘like’, ‘whatever’, ‘literally’)
 the concept of code-switching, how we adjust our language to fit the situation and how regional dialects and slang
need not be displaced by formal English – we can have both
 how learning different Englishes gives us command of different domains
 how Standard English is a prestige dialect
 how slang lends covert prestige and the relevance of the concept of covert prestige, the idea of language as an
expression of self, identity and culture-specific values
 comments on the prescriptive idea that nonstandard means substandard
 development of the idea that dialects and slang are part of our identities, connecting us to time, place, community,
and self-image
 examples from wider study of how language can reflect social identity
 specific examples of the lexis, grammar syntax or phonology of any regional dialect or slang.

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Cambridge AS & A Level English Language – Answers to Student’s Book Activities

1.1 Sentences and clauses

1.2 Words and phrases

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

3.1 Approaching texts in their context

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3.2 Approaching texts on a pragmatic level

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

 comments on the effect of pragmatic features such as appeals to shared resources

3.3 Approaching texts on a lexical level

3.4 Approaching texts on a semantic level

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

Personification: conniving cat; the trees whispered.

3.5 Approaching texts on a phonological level

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

Final task indicative content

3.6 Approaching texts on a grammatical level

verb to walk, to be, indicates dynamic/ takes endings to pronouns or nouns

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

4.1 Writing analytically

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

4.2 Writing narrative

Key benefits Key drawbacks

Present tense has more immediacy can be harder to manage

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

8. Responses should demonstrate at least some of the following:

4.3 Writing descriptively

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

4.4 Writing critically

4.5 Writing discursively

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

4. Paragraph 1: the final sentence sets out the topic clearly.

4.6 Writing reflectively

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 first person expression/ownership of the writing

5.1 Working with data

5.2 Early Modern English

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5.3 Late Modern English

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5.4 Ideas about language change

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

5.5 Working with language change data

Cambridge AS & A Level English Language © HarperCollinsPublishers Limited 2019

 discussion of semantic change in key words by linking to Texts B and/or C

6.1 Learning to talk

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 comments on children’s phonology

6.2 Theories of child language acquisition

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6.3 Working with child language data

7.1 English as a global language

Country Date of British Date of Other official Other language(s) commonly

USA 1607 1776 US has no Spanish, Mandarin

Canada 1670 1867 French Mandarin

Jamaica 1655 1962 Jamaican Patois

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India 1612 1947 Hindi Bengali, Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, Urdu

Pakistan 1612 1947 Urdu Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi

Australia 1788 1901 All others are below 3% of the

New Zealand 1841 1907 Maori

Botswana 1885 1966 Tswana Kalanga