Journal of
Marine Science
and Engineering
Article
Parametric Generation of Small Ship Hulls with CAD Software
Francisco Pérez-Arribas *
Citation: Pérez-Arribas, F. Parametric
Generation of Small Ship Hulls with
CAD Software. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023,
11, 976. https://doi.org/10.3390/
jmse11050976
Academic Editor: Md Jahir Rizvi
Received: 31 March 2023
Revised: 25 April 2023
Accepted: 28 April 2023
Published: 4 May 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11050976
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), 28040 Madrid, Spain
Abstract: CAD software is a daily tool in ship design offices and shipyards, and every software
uses NURBS or B-splines curves and surfaces as common foundations. The CAD tools of today
are not static software products and most of them now include parametric design modules, which
enable users to change the shape of an object based on its key geometric feature parameters with
the use of sliders or equivalent controls. Although B-spline techniques are commonly applied to
the representation of the ship hull curves and surfaces, the parametric deformation of the hull
surfaces based on geometric parameters is less used. This paper presents a methodology to define
the parametric definition of a ship hull with the use of a standard and non-specialized CAD software
that is of common use in the ship design offices and universities: Rhinoceros. The presented
parametric design methodology will use specific ship hull parameters or feature parameters with a
clear geometric meaning, such as displacement, waterplane area, LCB, and LCF, together with the
properties of the B-spline curves and the power of Grasshopper, the parametric design tool inside
Rhinoceros, to create parametric ship hulls.
Keywords: computer aided ship hull design (CASHD); parametric design; ship hull design; B-splines
1. Introduction
The ship hull design is one of the first steps of the ship’s design process after the
selection of the ship’s main dimensions and hull parameters. The design of efficient ship
hulls is today an important research topic, due to the development of computer capabilities
together with the CFD tools and optimization algorithms [1,2]. The design is normally
developed using the Design Spiral [3] and repeating the different steps improves the
accuracy and diminishes the design uncertainty during the different stages: concept, basic,
and detailed design.
In the design offices and shipyards, CAD tools used to represent and model in 3D
the ship hull play an important role, since the 3D representation is the first stage for all
the project design and calculations: hydrodynamics, stability, tank definition, etc. The
ship hull representation needs to be accurate to produce a faired set of surfaces, enabling
the generation of geometric variations of the hull in an easier way, e.g., with a reduced
number of parameters or inputs and with a clear meaning between the numerical parameter
and induced surface modification. A key design feature to accelerate the design process
is having a flexible/parametric method to design an initial hull that also enables the
modification of the shape in the next phases.
This paper presents a Parametric Approach (PA) to represent the hull shape within a
CAD model using only CAD software, since today the evolution of these software products
tends towards the parametric design, with a strong integration of computational methods
into the CAD tool. This key innovation enables efficient design solutions and reduces the
overall time of the design process.
NURBS is a common tool in CAD and in ship design. Just refer to the references from
Harries [4,5], following the previous work from Nowacki [6]. These authors introduce
the parametric representation of ship hulls and the use of basic curves of the hull in
the parametric definition. These bases have been widely used in Naval Architecture in
Hydrodynamic hull shape optimization by some authors [7,8].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 2 of 18

The parametric design of ship hulls began in the 1970s with Kuiper [9], who used
mathematics to represent a ship hull surface, improving the use of traditional offsets, a
discrete set of data points presented in tabular form. The works of Nowaki and Harries
have been mentioned previously and set the base of later research, such as the work of
Kim [10], which applied mathematical expressions to the section curves of a bulbous bow,
in a similar way to the reference [11]. The key in parametric design is the implementation
of constraints, mainly area and centroid, into some ship curves. Related to that are the
works from Birk et al. [12] and Zhang [13], both using B-spline curves and surfaces. Other
interesting papers are the ones from Nam [14,15], which also used a constrained design of
NURBS curves to recreate ship hull sections.
The importance of fairing has been mentioned in the introduction, and Sarioz [16]
used optimization techniques based on parameters applied to a ship hull. As mentioned,
PA is limited in the range of ship hull forms that can be reproduced; different hulls such
as catamaran hulls may require specific methods, as can be found in [17]. Two recent
references about the parametric design of ships are [18,19], showing that parametric ship
design is an active subject for the Academy. Rhinoceros and Grasshopper have been used in
parametric design in [20] for the parametric definition of SWATH hulls that can be defined
with the use of equations.
Another option for ship hull design is the use of non-parametric procedures, i.e., [21–23],
that are based on a set of mathematical transformations of an existing parent hull or parent
shapes. This option is out of the scope of this paper. The main characteristic of a PA for
a ship hull is that its definition starts with the creation of the surface itself, and in the
case of non-parametric procedures, the surface is already defined and a set of generic
transformations (scaling, morphing, Lackenby, etc.) are imposed on it.
The use of a PA improves the interactive design process that involves the design
of a ship, which covers from hydrostatics and hydrodynamics to structural analysis and
propulsion. Trends in ship design [24,25] push the idea of eliminating the need for several
iterations and design evaluations. A PA allows shape variations that are common to the
naval architect, e.g., the inclusion of the waterline in the set of basic curves, and its definition
with common parameters for a naval architect such as the waterplane area. This means
that this area, a pure geometric value, can be considered a free variable in the following
optimization process.
This is of great value to the naval architect, who is used to working with such geometric
parameters whose effect on some ship characteristics is known and can now be included in
the digital design of a ship hull shape inside the CAD software environment. Moreover,
this helps to clarify the ideas behind the design of a ship hull and makes the effect of a
single parameter change easier to be identified in the 3D hull surface since it is previously
displayed in the 2D basic curves.
However, there are some drawbacks of the PA in the design of a new hull, which is the
selection of the parameters and basic curves. Since the output of the PA is the hull surface
itself, the designer needs to know in advance the distribution of the geometric parameters
of a hull surface that has not been already defined. In addition, another disadvantage is
the domain of the possible shape variations that are constrained at the beginning of the
PA process.
On the contrary, a non-parametric procedure is easier to set up since it depends on
several transformations to an initial and known hull shape. However, these transformations
need to be carefully controlled in order to get faired hulls which is very important in naval
architecture. This relies on the visual considerations of expert designers rather than on
mathematical formulations related to derivatives. Even if these mathematical methods
are used, a final check from an expert is conducted. This is a drawback of non-parametric
procedures: the transformations of the hull are global and not local shape changes that may
produce an unfaired hull surface.
In order to cover different types of ship hulls, PA may contain a large number of scalar
parameters. In the presented methodology, this is avoided by defining some of the basic
 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

In order to cover different types of ship hulls, PA may contain a large number of
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 scalar parameters. In the presented methodology, this is avoided by defining some3 of of 18
the
basic curves of the hull drawing directly in the CAD software. This simplifies the defini-
tion of the PA and produces more flexibility in the design process. If, for example, the
longitudinal
curves position
of the hull drawingof adirectly
point ininthe
thecenterline
CAD software.profileThis
hassimplifies
not been the
connected to any
definition of
theparameter, there ismore
PA and produces no way to move
flexibility it from
in the its process.
design reference If,location, and the
for example, thislongitudinal
is solved by
obtaining
position of athe point
point directly
in the from profile
centerline the centerline. This connected
has not been curve has beento anysketched
parameter,by the
therede-
is signer
no way into
the CADitsoftware
move and can be
from its reference easily modified
location, and this with the use
is solved of the curve’s
by obtaining the control
point
points.from the centerline. This curve has been sketched by the designer in the CAD
directly
software The presented
and methodology
can be easily modifieduses withasthebasic
use curves the profile
of the curve’s curve
control at the ship’s keel-
points.
line, also
The called Center
presented Line (Zk(x)),
methodology uses asand the curves
basic Deck Line (Yd(x), curve
the profile Zd(x))atthat
the the designer
ship’s can
keelline,
also
drawcalled Center in
manually Line
the(Zk(x)), and the Deck
CAD software curves.Zd(x)) that the designer can draw
Line (Yd(x),
as B-spline
manually Theinmethodology
the CAD software as B-spline
will compute curves.two basic curves, see Figure 1, based on
another
The methodology
geometric parameters: will
thecompute
Designanother
Waterline two(DWL)
basic curves,
at the see Figure
design 1, based
draft, on geomet-
and the Sectional
ricArea
parameters: the Design
Curve (SAC). Waterline
In order to get(DWL) at the design
these curves, draft, andtools
computational the Sectional
availableArea Curve
in the CAD
(SAC).
software are used, simplifying the problem of obtaining a curve that encloses a givenare
In order to get these curves, computational tools available in the CAD software area
used,
and simplifying
with a providedthe problem
centroid.of This
obtaining
requiresa curve thataencloses
solving nonlinear a given
set ofarea and with
equations a
in the
provided
system. centroid. This requires solving a nonlinear set of equations in the system.

Figure
Figure 1. 1. Sketch
Sketch forfor methodology.
methodology.

Novelties
Novelties and
and contributions
contributions ofof this
this paper
paper are:
are:
(1)(1) The
Theuse useofof a hybrid
a hybrid methodology
methodology thatthat combines
combines the of
the use use of atoPA
a PA to define
define the DWLthe and
DWL
and
the SAC,the together
SAC, together
with awith a non-parametric
non-parametric definition
definition of the of the Center
Center line andline andline,
Deck Deck
hence reducing
line, hence the number
reducing of parameters
the number and easing
of parameters rapid modification
and easing of the hull.
rapid modification of the
(2) With hull.these four curves, a wire model with the hull stations can be automatically
defined.
(2) With these As detailed in Section
four curves, a wire 3, the stations
model with thewill
hulluse the starting
stations can beangle at the Keel,
automatically de-
also called
fined. As the Deadrise
detailed angle, k(x),
in Section 3, theand the flare
stations willangle at the
use the Deck, angle
starting αd . The
at distribution
the Keel, also
ofcalled
this angle in degrees
the Deadrise is imposed
angle, k(x), andbythetheflare
designer
angleand enables
at the Deck,local modifications
αd. The distributionofof
the hull.
this angleA final lofting,isalso
in degrees called skinning
imposed of the stations,
by the designer produces
and enables localthe final surface.of
modifications
(3) All thethe calculations
hull. and representation
A final lofting, of the PA
also called skinning offor
thethe ship hull
stations, are produced
produces with
the final sur-
the use
face. of standard and non-specialized CAD software, which is commonly used in
ship design offices and universities: Rhinoceros and its parametric
(3) All the calculations and representation of the PA for the ship hull are produced with module Grasshopper.
theorganization
The use of standard and
of this non-specialized
paper is as follows:CAD software, which is commonly used in
ship design
Section offices and
1 has described theuniversities:
advantages Rhinoceros
of a PA and and its parametric
presented background module Grass-
and refer-
hopper.
ences about parametric ship hull design.
Section 2 will show of
The organization howthisa paper
constrained design of the SAC and DWL can be conducted
is as follows:
inside Section
the CAD1 software
has described the advantages of a PAtechniques
with the use of optimization and presented that background
can set an enclosed
and ref-
area and a centroid to a curve, without
erences about parametric ship hull design. using nonlinear equations.
Section 3 describes how to create hull stations enclosing a submerged area from the
previously defined SAC, and with a half beam from the DWL. When these sets of curves
are defined, a wire model of the ship hull with the displacement, LCB, AWP, and LCF is
achieved. In this section, the way to create the above-water part of the ship is also explained.
This part connects the waterline with the deck.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 4 of 18

Sections 4 and 5 present application examples that show the different hull forms that
can be obtained with the presented methodology.
Section 6 contains relevant conclusions about this work and also mentions the limita-
tions of the present PA that cannot be considered a universal method for ship design.

2. Constrained Design of the SAC and DWL

This section presents the way to define a B-spline curve that encloses a given area with
the abscissa axis X, and with a given longitudinal centroid of this area. The application is
clear for the SAC, where the area of the curve is the ship’s displacement, and its centroid is
the LCB. In the case of the DWL, the area and centroid will be the waterplane area AWP
and LCF.
There are some references to produce a constrained design of a curve, [12,26]. They
include the solution of nonlinear sets of equations to compute the position of the control
points of the constrained B-spline. In this paper, the position is obtained using the compu-
tational capabilities of the CAD software that include optimization methods to compute
the control points of the curves. The first step in any parametric design methodology is
the selection of the parameters and this has to be accomplished in a smart way to avoid a
large number of elements. The properties of the B-spline curves play an important role in
this definition: the curve interpolates the control points at its ends, and the first and last
segments of the control polygon are tangent to the curve, which is very useful in defining
the entrance angle.
Another important property affects the B-spline curves of the second degree: the
B-spline is tangent at the midpoints of its control polygon, for all the legs except the first
and the last ones that interpolate their ends.
The curve will be presented uniformly, which means that it is contained in a square of
1 by 1 units by dividing its abscissa and ordinate by the maximum values of the curve. In
the case of the SAC, this is by the maximum submerged area Ax and the LWL, and in the
case of the DWL, by the maximum breadth Bx and the LWL.
Using the uniform expression for the SAC has another interesting application: the area
enclosed by the uniform curve of Equation (1) is the ship’s prismatic coefficient Cp, which
is clear for a naval architect and indicates if the volume is distributed near the ends of the
ship, high Cp, or near the center with fine ends, low Cp.

R1 A( x ) dx ∆ ( m3 )
Area = Ax · LW L = Ax · LW L = Cp
0
(1)

A sketch is also recommended when working with CAD algorithms, since the variables
can be presented clearly and the geometric properties are easier to understand graphically.
This sketch is presented in Figure 2 and shows a B-spline curve of the second degree with
five control points in red, and its control polygon in blue.
The first control point is P0 and contains the value of the submerged transom area AT
(it is divided by the Ax but this is not written for the sake of clarity of the sketch).
The second and third control points P1 and P2 will use the mentioned property of the
second-degree B-spline that is tangent in the midpoints of its control polygon. This way a
parameter that the designer can impose is the position of the maximum area xMS (again
divided by LWL) that has a clear meaning for a naval architect. A numerical parameter Th
(from Thickness) is used and will be used to easily define the position of P1 and P2 as a
function of xMS as displayed in the sketch.
This Th value can be used to increase or reduce the area of the curve in its middle
part and although it has a clear geometric meaning, it is not used in naval architecture.
Nevertheless, Th is computed automatically by the optimization algorithm when imposing
the area and centroid to the curve.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 5 of 18
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

Figure 2. Sketch for the constrained design of the SAC.

Figure 2. Sketch for the constrained design of the SAC.

Thefourth
The first control
control point
point P is3 P0
is aand contains
function of a the value ofcalled
parameter the submerged
x_f (f from transom
fore) andarea of
anAT (it isα_f
angle divided
that isby the Ax
related to but this is not
the curve’s written
entrance for the
angle sake
at its foreofpart.
clarity of the
While thesketch).
geometric
meaning Theofsecond andisthird
this angle clear,control
as a lowerpoints P1 and
value P2 will
produces use thesections,
sharper mentioned property of
the parameter
x_f is necessary for the definition of P3 and, in a similar way to Th, it will be computed This
the second-degree B-spline that is tangent in the midpoints of its control polygon. by
way
the a parameter
optimization that the designer can impose is the position of the maximum area xMS
algorithm.
(again
Thedivided
fifth andby lastLWL) thatpoint
control has aP4clear meaning
is easy for The
to define. a naval
CADarchitect.
version of A the
numerical
described pa-
rameter
SAC appearsTh (from
in FigureThickness)
3. The left is part
usedofand thiswill be shows
figure used totheeasily
SACdefine
in red thewithposition of P1
five control
and P2
points, as aits
with function
controlof xMS asin
polygon displayed
blue. Theinred theB-spline
sketch. is tangent in the midpoint of the
secondThisandTh value
third legscan be blue
of the usedcontrol
to increase or reduce
polygon. the area
The middle of of
thethe curve
figure in itsthe
shows middle
five
part and although
parameters AT, Th, xMS, it has
x_f,a and
clearα_f,geometric meaning,
which define it is notofused
the position in naval
the control architecture.
points. These
Nevertheless,
parameters are theTh inputs
is computed automatically
for a Python component bythat
the contains
optimization algorithm
the script whenthe
that defines im-
posingpoints
control the area as and centroid
described, andto hence
the curve.the B-spline curve of the second degree, which is
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEERone
REVIEW
of The fourth control
the outputs together point
withP3itsisenclosed
a function of aand
area parameter
centroid,called
whichx_f is (f
thefrom
large fore)
blue6and
of 18of
dot
inside the curve.
an angle α_f that is related to the curve’s entrance angle at its fore part. While the geo-
metric meaning of this angle is clear, as a lower value produces sharper sections, the pa-
rameter x_f is necessary for the definition of P3 and, in a similar way to Th, it will be
computed by the optimization algorithm.
The fifth and last control point P4 is easy to define. The CAD version of the de-
scribed SAC appears in Figure 3. The left part of this figure shows the SAC in red with
five control points, with its control polygon in blue. The red B-spline is tangent in the
midpoint of the second and third legs of the blue control polygon. The middle of the
figure shows the five parameters AT, Th, xMS, x_f, and α_f, which define the position of
the control points. These parameters are the inputs for a Python component that contains
the script that defines the control points as described, and hence the B-spline curve of the
second degree, which is one of the outputs together with its enclosed area and centroid,
which is the large blue dot inside the curve.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. The
The SAC defined in
SAC defined in Grasshopper.
Grasshopper.

The SAC
The SAC isis defined
defined inside
inside Grasshopper,
Grasshopper, the
the parametric
parametric scripting
scripting environment
environment of of
Rhinoceros CAD
Rhinoceros CADSoftware,
Software,using
using Python
Python as can
as can be partly
be partly seen seen
in theinright
the part
rightofpart of the
the Figure.
Figure. how
Notice Notice
thehow the parameters
parameters are introduced
are introduced with sliders,
with sliders, whoseand
whose value value andcan
limits limits
be
can be modified easily, producing a range of different curves as depicted in Figure 4. The
designer can easily interact using the sliders and automatically receive the area (Dis-
placement) and centroid of the curve (LCB).
This fluid behavior that today is natural for a CAD user, previously demanded of
 that work for Grasshopper and in this paper, the optimization module used is Silvereye
[27], which employs a class of optimization algorithms called particle swarm optimiza-
tion (PSO).
Due to the fast increase in computing power today, optimization algorithms such as
PSO are very popular for working out engineering design tasks. These numerical
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 6 of 18
schemes are self-organized, self-adapted, and very robust and efficient, and belong to the
field of swarm and collective intelligence [28], also presenting a “quick” convergence
speed.
modified
With easily,
a PSOproducing
algorithm,a designers
range of different curves
can explore as depicted
hundreds in Figure 4.
of potential The designer
solutions with
canuse
the easily interact using the
of computational sliders and automatically
optimization, receive the
in order to maximize area (Displacement)
or minimize and
a target value
centroid of the curve (LCB).
and consider certain constraints.

Figure 4. Different curves altering the parameters.

Figure 4. Different curves altering the parameters.

This fluid behavior that today is natural for a CAD user, previously demanded of the
parametric environment the execution of external software to compute the curve’s control
points, then the curve’s area and centroid, before going back to the CAD environment to
represent the B-spline to check that everything was correct. This required a certain time
and patience.
However, the power of computational methods is applied when optimization tech-
niques are used. In other words, this technique obtains the value of the parameters (sliders)
to get a given area and centroid. There are several free optimization modules that work
for Grasshopper and in this paper, the optimization module used is Silvereye [27], which
employs a class of optimization algorithms called particle swarm optimization (PSO).
Due to the fast increase in computing power today, optimization algorithms such as
PSO are very popular for working out engineering design tasks. These numerical schemes
are self-organized, self-adapted, and very robust and efficient, and belong to the field of
swarm and collective intelligence [28], also presenting a “quick” convergence speed.
With a PSO algorithm, designers can explore hundreds of potential solutions with the
use of computational optimization, in order to maximize or minimize a target value and
consider certain constraints.
The optimization components can be seen in Figure 5, where Silvereye appears in
green in the middle. Pink arrows indicate the parameters that the optimization uses. In
this example, the ship does not submerge the transom, so its area is zero. The rest of the
parameters are modified inside a range that is constrained by the user and the optimization
minimizes a given function or value.
Optimization algorithms maximize or minimize the output of one single function. In
this particular case where the minimization of the errors of area and centroid are needed,
the proposed methodology uses Equation (2) for minimization:

0.5 · abs( Area − T_area) + 0.5 · abs( LCP − T_LCB) (2)

where T_area and T_LCB are the target values that are searched. The weights of 0.5 can be
changed by different combinations as long as their total is 1. If the user wants to reduce
the error in the area (displacement), increase the first weight and reduce the second one
below 0.5.
The optimization algorithms normally maximize or minimize a single value in order
to be efficient and relatively fast (less than one minute for this example in an Intel Core i7
2600 CPU, 3.4 GHz, 6 GB RAM). For the optimization of area and LCB, the function that
appears in the right part of the figure is used. It depends on the difference of target values
minus the computed values of the B-spline curve.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976
2600 CPU, 3.4 GHz, 6 GB RAM). For the optimization of area and LCB, the function that
appears in the right part of the figure is used. It depends on the difference of target values
minus the computed values of the B-spline curve.
The presented example is based on a real SAC of a sailing ship, and the black dot in
the left part of the figure was obtained for the design condition of this ship. There is a
good agreement between the computed curve and the target values, the error is <0.1%, 7 of 18
and the shape of the computed SAC in red at the left part of the figure is realistic when
compared with the dots obtained from a real ship.

Figure 5. Optimization example to get a target Area (0.550) and LCB (0.458).
Figure 5. Optimization example to get a target Area (0.550) and LCB (0.458).
Another example appears in Figure 6whichis a modification of the previous one that
The presented example Is based on a real SAC of a sailing ship, and the black dot In
maintains the area but displaces forward the curve’s centroid. In this case, the optimiza-
the left part of the figure was obtained for the design condition of this ship. There is a good
tion slightly alters all the parameters except xMS, which needs to be altered forward to
agreement between the computed curve and the target values, the error is <0.1%, and the
obtain the new position of the centroid. In this case, the interval of this parameter (slider)
shape
has to of
bethe computed
increased by theSAC in red at the left part of the figure is realistic when compared
user.
with the dots obtained from
For this particular example,a realanship.
LCB greater than 0.5 is not common in ship design,
and Another
hence theexample appears
alteration of theinintervals
Figure 6iswhich is a modification
an indicator of the previous
that something one that
can be wrong.
maintains the area but displaces forward the curve’s centroid. In this case, the optimization
Mathematics can stand different values but it is the user that needs to judge if the results
slightly
are goodalters
enoughall the
for aparameters
ship design. except xMS, which needs to be altered forward to obtain
the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER new position of the centroid. In this case, the interval of this parameter (slider)
REVIEW has
8 of 18 to
be increased by the user.

Figure 6. Optimization example to get a target Area (0.550) and LCB (0.520).
Figure 6. Optimization example to get a target Area (0.550) and LCB (0.520).
A similar optimization scheme to Figure 2 is used for the waterplane, as depicted in
For7.this
Figure Theparticular example, an
curve is expressed LCB greater
in uniform form,than 0.5 is the
dividing not breadth
commonvalues
in ship bydesign,
the
and hence the alteration of the intervals is an indicator that something
maximum waterplane breadth Bx and all the abscissas by LWL, so the curve is contained can be wrong.
Mathematics
into a squarecanof stand different
1 by 1. values
As in the casebut
of itthe
is the user
SAC, thethat needs to
enclosed judge
area if the to
is equal results
a
are good enough for
non-dimensional a ship design.
parameter well known to the naval architect: the waterplane coefficient
Cw, see Equation (3):
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 8 of 18

A similar optimization scheme to Figure 2 is used for the waterplane, as depicted

inFigure
Figure6.7. The curve example
Optimization is expressed
to getin uniform
a target Areaform,
(0.550)dividing
and LCB the breadth values by the
(0.520).
maximum waterplane breadth Bx and all the abscissas by LWL, so the curve is contained
into a A similar
square of optimization
1 by 1. As inscheme
the case to of
Figure 2 is used
the SAC, for the waterplane,
the enclosed as depicted
area is equal to a non-in
dimensional
Figure 7. Theparameter
curve iswell known in
expressed to uniform
the navalform,
architect: the waterplane
dividing the breadth coefficient
values by Cw,
the
see Equation (3):
maximum waterplane breadth Bx and all the abscissas by LWL, so the curve is contained
into a square of 1 by 1. As Zin 1 the case of the SAC, the enclosed area is equal to a
B( x ) dx Awp(m2 )
non-dimensional parameterArea =well known · to the= naval architect:
= Cwthe waterplane coefficient(3)
Bx LW L Bx · LW L
Cw, see Equation (3): 0

Figure 7. Sketch for the constrained design of the Waterplane.

Figure 7. Sketch for the constrained design of the Waterplane.

As
1 in the case of the SAC, 2the curve is a second-degree B-spline curve and the notation
B( x) dx Awp (m )

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18
Area =
of Figure = as in Figure
7 is· the same = Cw2, except BT which is the (3) submerged transom beam.
The rest B LWL BX ·that
0 ofXthe coefficients
LWLdefine the control points of the B-spline are named the same.
The algorithm in Grasshopper appears in Figure 8 and sets a Cw and LCF with good
Thein
As algorithm
the case in
ofGrasshopper
the SAC, appears
the curveinispresents
Figure 8 and sets a Cw
a second-degree and LCF withand
goodthe nota-
precision. For this example, the waterplane a convex B-spline
shape at curve
the bow, that will
precision. For
tion of convex this example,
Figure waterlines
7 is the same the waterplane
as forepart presents
in Figureof2,the a
except convex shape at the bow, that
BT which is the submerged willtransom
produce
produce convex waterlines
in the
in the forepart
ship.
of the ship.
beam. The rest of the coefficients that define the control points of the B-spline are named
the same.

Figure 8. DWL optimization to get a target Cw (0.73) and LCF (0.42), no transom.
Figure 8. DWL optimization to get a target Cw (0.73) and LCF (0.42), no transom.
This can be corrected by increasing the area at this zone, but if the Cw and LCF have
to be maintained, the only way to do this is to also increase the area at the aft end and
reduce from the mid part of the ship. The mentioned procedure may render it very dif-
ficult to perform manually without a parametric definition of the waterplane, or with the
standard Lackenby transformations, so it will require manual work on the ship hull. The
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 9 of 18

Figure 8. DWL optimization to get a target Cw (0.73) and LCF (0.42), no transom.

This
This can
canbe
becorrected
correctedbybyincreasing
increasingthethearea
areaatatthis
thiszone,
zone,but theCw
butififthe CwandandLCFLCFhave
haveto
be maintained, the only way to do this is to also increase the area at the aft
to be maintained, the only way to do this is to also increase the area at the aft end andend and reduce
from
reducethefrom
midthe
part of the
mid partship.
of theThe mentioned
ship. procedure
The mentioned may render
procedure it veryitdifficult
may render very dif-to
perform manually without a parametric definition of the waterplane, or
ficult to perform manually without a parametric definition of the waterplane, or with with the standard
the
Lackenby transformations, so it will require manual work on the ship
standard Lackenby transformations, so it will require manual work on the ship hull. hull. The solution
The
to this problem
solution is shownisinshown
to this problem Figurein9,Figure
where9,a where
transom a transom BT has been
breadthbreadth BT has fixed
beenand the
fixed
algorithm reduces the
and the algorithm area inthe
reduces thearea
middle and
in the increases
middle andinincreases
the fore inin part to maintain
the fore in part the
to
Cw and LCF.
maintain the Cw and LCF.

Figure 9. DWL optimization to get a target Cw (0.73) and LCF (0.42), breadth at transom fixed.
Figure 9. DWL optimization to get a target Cw (0.73) and LCF (0.42), breadth at transom fixed.
In the next section, the paper will continue describing the parametric way to define
In the next section, the paper will continue describing the parametric way to define
the ship’s stations that enclose a submerged area obtained from the SAC and with a
the ship’s stations that enclose a submerged area obtained from the SAC and with a breath
breath at the design draft T that comes from the DWL.
at the design draft T that comes from the DWL.

3. Parametric Definition of the Ship’s Stations

In the previous section, the SAC and the DWL curves of the ship have been parametri-
cally computed, containing the ship’s main parameters and hydrodynamic coefficients. A
third curve is needed to define the longitudinal profile without appendages. This centerline
profile can be directly selected by the designer from other ships or from a preliminary
general arrangement if available, and it is easily drawn in the CAD software.
This profile has to be smooth and with the same LWL used in the parameterization of
the sectional and half-breadths curves. With this set of three curves forming the basis of
the submerged hull, a suitable formulation to describe the shape of the stations has to be
defined. This formulation must comply with an area imposed by the SAC, a beam imposed
by the DWL, and with the station base point imposed by the centerline profile.
For any submerged part of a station n, this mathematical expression is selected:

z = ( T − Tn ) + k n · y + pn · yqn (4)

In this equation, z is the ordinate measured from the baseline, y is the distance to the
center plane, kn is the tangent at midship (also called deadrise angle), T is the design draft,
and Tn is the draft at the nth station, meaning the distance from the waterplane to the
lowest point of the station, measured from the profile curve. A sketch of such a curve is
depicted in Figure 10.
The reason for this definition lies in the addition of a straight part, kn · y, that defines
the shape starting from the center plane, and a curved zone, pn · yqn , that rises from
the straight zone to match the corresponding beam in the waterplane. The values for
 posed by the DWL, and with the station base point imposed by the centerline profile.
For any submerged part of a station n, this mathematical expression is selected:

z = (T − Tn ) + kn  y + pn  y qn (4)
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 In this equation, z is the ordinate measured from the baseline, y is the distance 10 to
of 18
the
center plane, kn is the tangent at midship (also called deadrise angle), T is the design
draft, and Tn is the draft at the nth station, meaning the distance from the waterplane to
the lowestppoint
coefficients qn the
n and of willstation,
be obtained for anyfrom
measured the n,
station assigning
profile z =ATsketch
curve. and y =ofBsuch
n /2, where
a curve
Bnisisdepicted
the valueinof waterline
Figure 10. breadth, obtained from the DWL defined in Section 2.

Figure 10. Sketch for the definition of a submerged station.

Figure 10. Sketch for the definition of a submerged station.

InThe reasonthe
addition, forhatched
this definition lies in the
area enclosed by addition
the station ofwith
a straight part, knand
the flotation · y, that defines
the center
the shape starting from the center plane, and a curved zone, p n · yqn, that rises from the
plane must be equal to Sn /2, where Sn is obtained from the SAC defined previously. These
straight
two zone to
conditions leadmatch
to thethe
setcorresponding
of Equation (5): beam in the waterplane. The values for coeffi-
cients pn and qn will be obtained for any station n, assigning z = T and y = Bn / 2, where Bn
2
h i
is the value of waterline
qn = ( Tn breadth,
− k n · B2n obtained
) · B2n · Tnfrom· B2n the
− S2nDWL
− k2n defined
· ( B2n ) in −Section
1 2.
In addition, the hatched area enclosed q n by the station with the flotation and (5)
the center
pn = ( Tn − k n · B2n )/( B2n )
plane must be equal to Sn / 2, where Sn is obtained from the SAC defined previously.
These twothat
Notice conditions lead to
the sectional theand
area set breadths
of Equation (5): are nondimensional and their values
curves
have to be multiplied by Ax and Bx to obtain −1 the values of An and Bn used in the definition
Bn  stations.
Bnsubmerged Bn S n Notice
kn that 2
Bn Equation
qn = (Tn − kn  )   Tn  − −  ( )  − 1 (4) produces a discrete set of data points
of the
for the 2 
2 underwater 2 of2the stations.
part 2 2 Once  they have been(5)computed, an interpolated B-
splineBis constructed
Bn qn through them (using the rs.AddInterpCurve() function). This function
pn = (Tn −allows
kn  nthe
) / (selection
) of the knot style and degree as the command InterpCrv in Rhinoceros.
2
An uniform 2 style works well for the cases that have been tested.
knot
Up to now, only the underwater hull shape is defined. This is enough to perform
simple numerical optimizations (i.e., linear free surface calculations) by varying the hull
main coefficients, obtaining the hull very quickly in the CAD software. For a more real-
istic approach to the design or calculations with a non-linear free surface condition, it is
necessary to define the hull shape with its part above the water. There are several options
to connect the DWL part of the stations with the deck line or sheer (Bdn), usually a three-
dimensional curve drawn by the designer directly in the CAD software in a similar way to
the centerline profile.
For the part of the ship above water, a B-spline of the 2nd degree with three control
points is used as depicted in red in the sketch of Figure 11. The first control point P0 is
placed in the DWL and is the end of the underwater station with the tangent direction
provided by the derivative of Equation (4). The third and last point of the B-spline P2 is
placed in the deck at a given height Tdn, and with a given half breadth at the Deck Bdn. The
methodology enables the selection of the flare angle at the deck measured in a transverse
plane, αdn. The intersection of the two lines starting at P0 and at P2 and with the described
angles produces the second point of the B-spline P1 , so the curve is defined once the three
control points are known.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976
placed in the DWL and is the end of the underwater station with the tangent direction
provided by the derivative of Equation (4). The third and last point of the B-spline P2 is
placed in the deck at a given height Tdn, and with a given half breadth at the Deck Bdn.
The methodology enables the selection of the flare angle at the deck measured in a
transverse plane, αdn. The intersection of the two lines starting at P0 and at P2 and with
11 of 18
the described angles produces the second point of the B-spline P1, so the curve is defined
once the three control points are known.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Sketch
Sketchfor
forthe
thedefinition
definitionofofthe
thenth
nthstation.
station.

Oncethe
Once theabove
above water
water station
station hashasbeenbeen defined,
defined, it canit be
canjoined
be joined
to thetounderwater
the underwater
part
parthas
that that
beenhasdefined
been defined
throughthrough
the discretethe points
discretedefined
pointsfollowing
defined following
Equation (4) Equation
defining(4)
a defining a singlecurve.
single B-spline B-spline
Then, curve. Then,surface
a lofting a lofting cansurface can be
be created created containing
containing the differentthe
differentthat
B-splines B-splines
definethat define the
the stations, asstations, as willin
will be shown bethe
shown in the examples.
examples.
Thefollowing
The followingfigures
figurespresent
presentsome someexamples
examplesofofthe thedifferent
differentshapes
shapesthat thatcan
canbebe
obtainedbyby
obtained playing
playing withwith
thethe parameters
parameters thatthat define
define a station.
a station. The pictures
The pictures show show a sec-
a sectional
tional
area area coefficient
coefficient defined defined
as Ca byas Ca by dividing
dividing the sectional
the sectional area by the areasectional
by the sectional draft
draft Tn and
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18
Tn andBbreadth
breadth n , so Ca Bn,
= Snso Can =· BSn
/(T n )./ For
(Tn all
· Bn).
theFor all the
figures, thefigures,
breadth theand
breadth
heightand height
of the deckofare
the
maintained constant. constant.
deck are maintained
In these pictures, the underwater part of the station appears in blue. The maximum
CaInthat
these pictures,
may the underwater
be achieved is 0.95 (aspart of the station
in Figure 12d) andappears in blue.
can rise untilThe maximum Ca of about
a minimum
Ca that may be achieved is 0.95 (as in Figure 12d) and can rise until a minimum Ca of
0.50 (as in Figure 13a). By playing with the value of the flare angle at the deck, convex
about 0.50 (as in Figure 13a). By playing with the value of the flare angle at the deck,
shapes may be obtained (as in Figure 13d).
convex shapes may be obtained (as in Figure 13d).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 12. Examples
Figure of stations
12. Examples without
of stations deadrise
without angles. (a)
deadrise Ca = 0.65
angles. (b) Ca
(a) Ca = 0.75
= 0.65 (b)(c)Ca
Ca==0.75
0.85 (c)
(d)Ca = 0.85 (d)
Ca = 0.95.
Ca = 0.95.
 (c) (d)
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 12 of 18
Figure 12. Examples of stations without deadrise angles. (a) Ca = 0.65 (b) Ca = 0.75 (c) Ca = 0.85 (d)
Ca = 0.95.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 13. 13.
Figure Examples of stations
Examples withwith
of stations deadrise angles
deadrise = 15º.= (a)
angles 15◦Ca = 0.51
. (a) Ca =(b) Ca(b)
0.51 = 0.56
Ca =(c)0.56
Ca (c)
= 0.62
Ca (d)
= 0.62
Ca (d)
= 0.66.
Ca = 0.66.

The following sections present two different application examples. Although the
presented methodology is limited to ship hulls without a bulbous bow and with simple
sterns, there are many hull forms in which this method can be used.

4. Example 1: Sailing Ship

A sailing cruiser of 24 m in length with the dimensions of Table 1 is presented without
a deadrise angle in its stations. For this ship, comfort aspects are more important than
sailing capabilities because during an important part of the operational profile, the ship is
driven by motor. The shape of the hull is a round one that mimics the shape of a cylinder in
order to minimize the wetted surface, maximizing the displacement and hence the ship’s
internal volume.

Table 1. Parameters for the sailing cruiser.

T = 1.26 m LCB = 9.4 m A0 = 0 m2 LWL = 20.3 m

LOA = 24 Awp = 72 m2 Ax = 4.4 m2 Bx = 5.1 m
∇ = 49 m3 LCF = 9.2 m

The ship’s parameters were selected according to the Delft systematic series [28], for
a given speed of 9.5 knots. This series suggests optimum or nearly optimum parameters
based on towing tank tests. Displacement was obtained by studying the influence of
Lwl/∇ˆ1/3 in the residuary resistance from reference [29]. The value of this ratio was
taken as 5.5. Greater values will produce a faster ship but will reduce the comfort and
seakeeping properties. The generated waterline should consider the internal volume
distribution, based on an initial volume study of the internal arrangement of the design.
The same consideration can be made for the deck parameters. Maximum breath is calculated
considering sail area and stability parameters. This way, Awp, Bx, and LCF are obtained.
Applying the parametric methodology for the SAC and DWL explained in Section 2,
the curves of Figure 14 are obtained. Notice that these curves are uniform in [0,1] and have

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976
Lwl/^1/3 in the residuary resistance from reference [29]. The value of this ratio was
taken as 5.5. Greater values will produce a faster ship but will reduce the comfort and
seakeeping properties. The generated waterline should consider the internal volume
distribution, based on an initial volume study of the internal arrangement of the design.
The same consideration can be made for the deck parameters. Maximum breath is cal-
culated considering sail area and stability parameters. This way, Awp, Bx, and LCF are 13 of 18
obtained.
Applying the parametric methodology for the SAC and DWL explained in Section 2,
the curves of Figure 14 are obtained. Notice that these curves are uniform in [0,1] and
to be
have to multiplied
be multiplied AxAx
byby andBx
and Bxtotoproduce
producethe
the appropriate dimensionstotoobtain
appropriate dimensions obtainthethe area
and breadths that are necessary for the parametric definition of the ship’s stations.
area and breadths that are necessary for the parametric definition of the ship’s stations.

Figure 14. Non-dimensional curves for the DWL and SAC of the Sailing Ship.
Figure 14. Non-dimensional curves for the DWL and SAC of the Sailing Ship.
The ship’s stations are computed according to Section 3, once the SAC and DWL of
The ship’s stations are computed according to Section 3, once the SAC and DWL of
Figure 14 have been obtained. The design waterline is divided into ten equal parts, and
Figure 14 have been obtained. The design waterline is divided into ten equal parts, and the
the stations from 01 until 09 are presented in Figure 15. For St 0 and St 10 that are not
stations from 01 until 09 are presented in Figure 15. For St 0 and St 10 that are not showed
showed in this figure and have a zero value for the submerged area and breadth, the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER in this figure
REVIEW
B-splines and
over the have
water ofastations
zero value
1 andfor the used.
9 are submerged area
The basic and breadth,
curves 14the
of 18
Center line andB-splines
over the water of stations 1 and 9 are used. The basic curves Center line and Deck line are
designed to accommodate the internal arrangement and can be seen in Figure 16, together
with the surface
Deck line that contains
are designed the stations
to accommodate of Figure
the internal 15.
arrangement and can be seen in
Figure 16, together with the surface that contains the stations of Figure 15.

St 01 St 02 St 03

St 04 St 05 St 06

St 07 St 08 St 09
Figure 15. Sections for the Sailing Ship.
Figure 15. Sections for the Sailing Ship.
 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 14 of 18
St 07 St 08 St 09
Figure 15. Sections for the Sailing Ship.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 18

Figure 16. 16.

Figure D view of the
D view Sailing
of the Ship.
Sailing Ship.

5. Example 2: High
5. Example Speed
2: High Craft
Speed Craft
This
Thissecond
secondexample
examplepresents
presents aa round-bilged
round-bilged high-speed
high-speedvessel vesselwith
with a transom
a transom stern,
designed
stern, designedto operate in shallow
to operate water
in shallow with
water a reduced
with a reduced draft, andand
draft, a slightly higher
a slightly block
higher
coefficient
block (Cb (Cb
coefficient = 0.51) in order
= 0.51) to accommodate
in order to accommodatea water jet propulsion
a water system.
jet propulsion Parameters
system. Pa-
of this of
rameters example are showed
this example in Table
are showed 2. The2.example
in Table The exampleis based on the
is based onNOVA
the NOVA systematic
sys-
seriesseries
tematic [30] which is a modification
[30] which of the model
is a modification of the100A
model of 100A
the NPL series
of the NPL[31]. The[31].
series coefficients
The
were selected in the range proposed by the NOVA series. Deadrise
coefficients were selected in the range proposed by the NOVA series. Deadrise angle angle varies from
4 degrees in the mid-section and 5 degrees in the transom, with a linear
varies from 4 degrees in the mid-section and 5 degrees in the transom, with a linear var- variation between
stations
iation for the
between NOVA
stations for series.
the NOVA Theseries.
variation
The of the deadrise
variation angle along
of the deadrise anglethealong
stations
the is
selected
stations by the user.
is selected by the user.

Table
Table 2. Parameters
2. Parameters forfor
thethe high-speed
high-speed craft.
craft.

T=T0.89 m m
= 0.89 LCBLCB
= 6.88 m m
= 6.88 A0 =A2.28 m2 m2
0 = 2.28 LWLLWL= 16.4 mm
= 16.4
LOALOA
= 16.82
= 16.82 AwpAwp
= 77=m 2
77 m2 Ax =Ax
4.0= m 2
4.0 m2 Bx =Bx6.09 m m
= 6.09
 = 452
∇=m
3
452 m3
LCFLCF
= 6.87 m m
= 6.87

Applying Section 2, the non-dimensional DWL and SAC of Figure 17 are obtained.
Applying Section
With information on these2, two
the non-dimensional DWLSection
curves and following and SAC of Figure
3, the 17 stations
different are obtained.
of
With information on these two curves and following Section 3, the
Figure 18 are computed. The Center line and Deck line curves follow the NOVA different stations
series of
andFigure
can be18seen
are computed.
in Figure 19The Centerwith
together line and Deck line
the surface curves
that follow
contains thethe NOVA
stations ofseries
Figureand
18.can be seen in Figure 19 together with the surface that contains the stations of Figure 18.
  = 452 m3 LCF = 6.87 m

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976
Applying Section 2, the non-dimensional DWL and SAC of Figure 17 are obtained.
With information on these two curves and following Section 3, the different stations of
Figure 18 are computed. The Center line and Deck line curves follow the NOVA 15 series
of 18
and can be seen in Figure 19 together with the surface that contains the stations of Figure
18.

Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 18

Figure 17. Non-dimensional curves for the DWL and SAC of the High-Speed Craft.
Figure 17. Non-dimensional curves for the DWL and SAC of the High-Speed Craft.

St 01 St 02 St 03

St 04 St 05 St 06

St 07 St 08 St 09
Figure 18. Sections for the High-Speed Craft.
Figure 18. Sections for the High-Speed Craft.

Figure 19. Cont.

 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 16 of 18

Figure 19. Three-dimensional view of the High-Speed Craft.

6. Conclusions
This paper has presented a Parametric Approach (PA) for the definition of a ship hull,
which is based on geometric parameters that are common for a naval architect and whose
effect on some ship characteristics such as stability or hydrodynamics is known.
In the PA presented, there is a clear relationship between a set of basic curves, shape
parameters, and section definition, so it is not difficult to use for non-experienced designers.
By using this PA, the designer can create both local and global variations with the use of
the design variables.
Establishing the basic or feature curves, keel and deck lines, and their relationship
with the stations of the ship hull is the key to applying a PA to a ship hull form as explained
in Section 3. In this paper, stations start in the keel and go through the water line until the
deck line. The keel and deck lines have been sketched by the user inside the CAD software
with the use of B-splines and the water line has been obtained to enclose the AWP and with
a centroid in LCF. This has been described in Section 2.
The presented method can provide the user with many sample ship hulls in a short
time, reducing the time spent on manual modeling and improving the efficiency of the
design. The fairing is achieved if smooth curves are used for the keel and deck, together
with a gentle distribution of the deadrise and flare angles along the ship’s length.
The ship hull representation needs to be accurate to produce a faired set of surfaces,
enabling the generation of geometric variations of the hull in an easier way, e.g., with a
reduced number of parameters or inputs, with a clear meaning between the numerical
parameter, and induced surface modification. A key design feature to accelerate the design
process is using a flexible/parametric method to design an initial hull that also enables the
modification of the shape in the next phases.
1
In order to cover different types of ship hulls, PA may contain a large number of scalar
parameters. In the presented methodology, this is avoided by defining some of the basic
curves of the hull drawing directly in the CAD software. This simplifies the definition of
the PA and produces more flexibility in the design process.
Finally, the presented PA is limited as these kinds of methodologies cannot be consid-
ered universal methods for ship design. In this paper, parametric generation of hull lines is
applied to simple hull forms such as round bilge hulls, normally used in small patrol boats,
some small fishing vessels, or sailing ships. These lines are suitable for this method as far
as they have no bow bulbs, integrated skegs, or other complex parts that are common in
large ships.
Planning boats with sharp edges (chines) are also outside of the scope of this paper
since their stations cannot be well reproduced with Equation (4). An extension of the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 976 17 of 18

present paper could consider the modification of the SAC or WL to include a cylindrical
body that maintains the station’s shape in the central part of the ship.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data available upon request to the author.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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