Immanuel Kant 1724 -1804

Introduction :
• Kant was born in Konigsberg in 1724 in Germany. He was the son of a Saddler
and he was reared in a religious surroundings, as his parents were also pietists.
He spent his entire life as a student, teacher & writer within the boundary of his
native city.
• He belonged to the age of reason and the glorious period of enlightenment and like
many he wanted to reconstruct society based on principle of reason He wanted
have maximum individual freedom but also regulation of freedom by state. He was
in favour of political progress and also moral progress.
• To him civilization would be attained when humans break away from natural state
& accept externally imposed Law & this will pave the way for moral autonomy.
When human being perform duty for the sake of duty.

1. His problem : -
Kant was a rationalist thinker. So his fundamental problem was to discover them
meaning of goodness, right & wrong and duty and the implications of our moral
knowledge & how shall we define duty.
• So moral theory which the Kant developed is based on fundamental den of
categorical imperative [ fujis{k vkns’k ].
• So fundamental basis of his moral Idea is based on pure/absolute sense of duty
rather than wishes desires or emotion of the humans. So, it has nothing to do the
consequence of human actions so, moral conduct is one which is universal means
in a given condition equally applicable to all.

2. Outline of Goodwill : -
• Kant has contemplated in his moral philosophy about Goodwill which goodness is
independent of Time space, situation & emotion of people so, will is rational
therefore different from emotion, sentiment or feelings of the people. So, goodwill
is one which inspires & person towards performance of duty. It is not momentary.
As Kant says that nothing is absolutely Good in this worked except Good will. A
will is good when it is determine by respect for moral law in the consciousness of
duty.

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• So good will is the end in itself and also absolute good. But apart from good will
there are many things good in the universe & like knowledge. Fortitude course,
self-control, pleasure, wealth power, respect but determined. By situation on. [As
power is good but if misused – it is bad . If knowledge is used to deprive other of
their rights]
So clear that goodwill is good not for its result but in itself. Even no result may come
out of it but like precious will remain illuminated above.

3. Significance of Duty : -
• Kant says that a will guided by a sense of duty is a good will. So Kant says that
people are in capable to perform duty as their sentiments, emotion & feelings acts
as handles.
• Kant says that human duty should be the basis of moral act. But duty may be of
three types.
i) performed under emotion, sentiment or wishes.
ii) performed under influence of selfish motive.
iii) Duty performed for the sake of duty.
• So if duty performed under emotion or selfish interest – morally have no my earing
b/c when people’s duty under greediness, avarice, revenge or anger is hot duty so
ender pity, sympathy or empathy as per Kant Duty should be dove for the sake of
duty.
• So if a person perform duty under emotion to help a person in pain or suffering is
good but not moral b/c it is duty not for duty.
• So duty for duty is a “categorical imperative” or It commands categorically,
absolutely or unconditionally. Say it does not say do your duty or do this if your
would be happy or successful or perfect but do it b/c it is your duty.
• So categorical imperative is univers of necessity of law, a priori & inherent in human
reason.
• Payment of debt
• No suicided
• Helping people in need
• Phy + nentual Dev.
• Thus if everybody obey C. I – a society of rational beings would result. It would be
a society of rational purposes that is to say kingdom of ends.
• So, an man is governed by moral Law is free & The brutes are the playball of its
wants & instincts

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• So morality is a kind of serious business it involves choosing duty not wants,
motives or consequences.
• Further he did not recognized result or consequences of action as held by
utilitarianism. So people should perform duty without being worried about is
consequences. Protected from stronger.
• So, state is to protect people from the evil effects of others act. So state is the
promoter and protector of freedom which is essential for morality & duty. So Kant
has given importance to human will [tuUbPNk] in the existence ab state. So state
has been right to keep them controlled and organized but no right to revolt because
it is against general will.
• State is therefor, necessary for moral life. So it is a positive good & not a necessary
evil & people should subordinate before state.

Rights & Duties : -

• So, Kant says that Rights & moral freedom are synonymous term. So being part of
humanity. Duly basic right which people have is the freedom. & freedom is doing
such an act that do not harm your neighbour.
• So, rights are essential for human progress and but associated with human duty
that is to say both are inseparable. But
• Kant says that duty is more important than rights. If everybody follows his duty
rights will be available automatically. So duty is self imposed, obedience to it comes
from inside. So duty is the part of conscience.
• And Kant says we have three moral duties
i) Duty to oneself.
ii) Duty to others [ukxfjdksa ds çfr]
iii) Duty to state

Kant on international Ethics : -

• Kant favoured word peace & Law of progress so, Kant say that if human progress
is to be made possible. They should develop rationality & morality.
• Kant says that man can not Live alone that is also against nature. In isolation a
man lies & cheats & in group or society do not do it because of fear of social
evaluation. By nature good but isolation corrupts. So wanted to see all humanity
together (cosmopolitanism). Possible not under uncontrolled freedom. Like
individuals states also have selfish tendency. So they have to be addressed.

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• The state involved in its boundary expansion & enforcement of its will is not moral.
• So For permanent inf. Peace.
i) A state should respect another state’s sovereign rights.
ii) Standing army should be reduced or removed.
iii) constitution of every state should be democratic.
iv) Enactment & enforcement of international laws.
• A part from categorical imperative, Kant also talked about Hypothetical imperative
that is optional. It lays down conditions to perform if one wants to attain an end or
purpose (if to get through UPSC do hard work). So it is not moral. Duty under
emotion & interest fall under it.

Thus main moral norms : -

• Thus, Kant has suggested that on the basis of categorical imperatives, source my
oral laws should be such that they should be compulsory for everybody. There are:-
i) Norm of universality :- That is say moral laws should be objective,
impractical & impersonal. Can be applied for all (like law, honesty etcs.) or
conduct should be capable to be universalized (Theft, lying, modern can not
be universalized)
ii) Norms of Treating Humanity as an end : - Should treat human beings as
an end in themselves rather than means to an end.
Because everybody has histher own freedom and dignity. So respected &
not violated or mistreated. (It I work to serve you, of can means to your
service but Law not violated b/c I freely devide not a compulsion)
iii) Norm of kingdom of ends : - work or act as if one is a member of an
ideal kingdom of ends – in which everybody would at the same time
sovereign& subject.
iv) Freedom of will : - Moral Law not to be imposed externally but self-
motivated. So it is independent from pressure or fear. But if governed by
outside force & or by emotion, It is not moral.
• So clear that for Kant moral conduct is Duty based and Rule based.

Kant on state : - State is to hinder the hinderances of freedom.

• For Kant a state is a union of a group of man under Laws be to treated on the
principles that we out to be treated as ends not means. Sovereign has both rights
and duty. It is his duty to treat her people as an end in itself. He rejects utilization

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 politics that purpose of politics or state is to make people happy but should be
organized political arrangement where people could feel happy. So freedom &
equality two principles be followed.
• So state is to : - ensure rights to all people. Some people have selfish Handedly.
Externally they are equal but unequal in passions & motives. So weaker to be.

Application of his theory : -

i) Medical Ethics : - A patient must be able to make fully informed decision of
treatment. So it makes in moral to test on unknowing patients [medical research].
ii) Sexual Ethics : - No body can be used as means for another body (As in
prostitution) so, also marriage. Women used as sexual object.
iii) Animal Ethics : - It is part of categorical imperative so, do it make anyone object
of your lying.

Criticisms : -
i) more demanding : - Every where equal behaviour & no exception. (Never lying
but some times ok to save life). So ordinary people can’t follow it.
ii) every human action reduced to duty & action dove in sympathy, empathy have
not morality but good is not right.
iii) cant rejects consequences of action. But without it action can’t be judged moral.
iv) Law of universality is also negative (Helping a poor)

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