6 Stages of Moral Development:

a. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation - This stage is characterized by a focus on avoiding
punishment and obedience to authority figures. For example, a child might refrain from stealing a cookie
because they fear being scolded or punished by their parents.

b. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange - At this stage, individuals start considering their own interests
and understand that others have their own interests as well. An example could be a person engaging in a
fair trade or negotiation to ensure they receive something in return for their actions.

c. Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships and Conformity - Moral decisions are influenced by the desire to
gain approval and maintain good relationships with others. For instance, a teenager may avoid cheating
on a test to preserve their reputation among their peers and maintain trust in their relationships.

d. Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order - Individuals at this stage focus on upholding social order and
following the rules and laws of society. An example would be someone choosing not to engage in illegal
activities because they believe it is important to uphold the stability and functioning of society.

e. Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights - This stage emphasizes the recognition of individual
rights and the importance of social contracts. For example, a person may engage in peaceful protests to
advocate for the protection of civil liberties and human rights.

f. Stage 6: Universal Principles and Ethical Principles - The final stage involves making moral decisions
based on universal ethical principles, such as justice, equality, and human rights. An example would be a
person refusing to participate in an unjust system, even if it means facing personal consequences.

Intrinsic & Instrumental End:

Intrinsic End: An intrinsic end refers to a goal or value that is pursued for its own sake or inherent worth.
It is something that is considered valuable in and of itself, independent of any external consequences or
rewards. For example, the pursuit of knowledge, happiness, or personal growth can be seen as intrinsic
ends.

Instrumental End: An instrumental end, on the other hand, refers to a goal or value that is pursued as a
means to achieve something else. It is valuable because it leads to or helps accomplish a desired
outcome. For instance, money can be seen as an instrumental end as it is often pursued to acquire other
goods or fulfill various needs.

7 Deadly Sins:

a. Lust: Excessive desire or craving for physical pleasure or gratification.

b. Gluttony: Overindulgence or excessive consumption of food or drink.

c. Greed: A strong desire for material possessions, wealth, or power, often at the expense of others.

d. Sloth: Laziness or reluctance to exert oneself physically or mentally.

e. Wrath: Intense anger, hostility, or vengeance towards others.

f. Envy: Resentment or jealousy towards someone else's possessions, qualities, or achievements.

g. Pride: Excessive self-esteem or arrogance, considering oneself superior to others.

Telos & Summum Bonum:

Telos: In philosophy, telos refers to the ultimate purpose or goal of a thing or being. It represents the end
towards which something naturally strives. For example, the telos of an acorn is to grow into a fully
developed oak tree.

Summum Bonum: Summum bonum is a Latin term that translates to "the highest good." It refers to the
ultimate or highest achievable good in life, often associated with moral or ethical considerations. It can
vary among different philosophical or religious perspectives but generally represents the most desirable
and fulfilling state or goal.

Principle of Moderation:

The principle of moderation, also known as the principle of the mean, suggests that virtue lies between
extremes. It promotes finding a balanced and moderate approach rather than succumbing to excess or
deficiency. For example, courage is considered a virtue, but excessive recklessness or extreme timidity
would be seen as undesirable. The principle of moderation advises finding the appropriate balance
between these extremes.

Definitions of a Just Law:

a. Legal Positivism: According to legal positivism, a just law is one that is created and enforced by a
legitimate authority, regardless of its moral content. The focus is on the formal legality and adherence to
established procedures rather than the moral quality of the law.

b. Natural Law: From a natural law perspective, a just law is one that aligns with inherent moral
principles derived from human nature or divine law. It emphasizes the connection between law and
morality, suggesting that an unjust law contradicts fundamental moral principles.

c. Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism defines a just law as one that maximizes overall happiness or utility for
the greatest number of people. The emphasis is on the consequential outcomes of the law rather than
its inherent moral quality.

Natural Law:

Natural law refers to a theory that posits the existence of inherent and universal moral principles that
are accessible to human reason. It suggests that these principles are derived from the nature of
humanity and the world, rather than being determined solely by human-made laws or social
conventions. Natural law theory often emphasizes principles such as justice, fairness, and human rights
as objective and universal standards for evaluating the morality of laws and actions.

Approaches to Moral Decision-Making:

a. Deontological Ethics: Deontological ethics focuses on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions
based on ethical rules, duties, or obligations. It emphasizes following moral principles or rules, such as
"do not lie" or "do not kill," regardless of the consequences or outcomes.
b. Consequentialism: Consequentialism evaluates the morality of actions based on their outcomes or
consequences. The primary concern is maximizing overall happiness, well-being, or utility. Utilitarianism
is a well-known consequentialist approach.

c. Virtue Ethics: Virtue ethics emphasizes the development of moral character and virtues as the
foundation for ethical decision-making. It focuses on cultivating virtues such as honesty, compassion, and
courage, and making decisions in accordance with these virtues.

Reason & Impartiality:

a. Reason: Reason plays a crucial role in moral decision-making by providing a rational basis for
evaluating actions and their consequences. It involves logical thinking, critical analysis, and the
consideration of ethical principles or norms. Reason helps individuals weigh different factors and make
informed choices that align with moral values.

b. Impartiality: Impartiality refers to the idea of treating all individuals fairly and without bias or
favoritism. It involves setting aside personal preferences, interests, or prejudices when making moral
judgments. Being impartial allows for a more objective evaluation of actions and ensures fairness in
ethical decision-making processes.