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Introduction – Key Concepts

Key Concepts in Ethics

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that studies morality or the rightness or wrongness of human conduct.
Morality speaks of a code or system of behavior in regards to standards of right or wrong behavior.

As a branch of philosophy, ethics stands to queries about what there is reason to do. Dealing with human actions
and reasons for action, ethics is also concerned with character. In fact, the word “ethics” is derived from the
Greek word “ethos,” which means “character,” or “manners.”

Some questions that are ethical in nature are: What is the good? Who is a moral person? What are the virtues
of a human being? What makes an act right? What duties do we have to each other?

Also called “moral philosophy,” ethics evaluates moral concepts, values, principles, and standards. Because it
is concerned with norms of human conduct, ethics is considered a normative study of human actions.

I. The Importance of Rules to Social Beings

Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct within a specific activity or
sphere. Rules tell us what is or is not allowed in a particular context or situation. In many ways, rules serve as
a foundation for any healthy society. Without rules, society would likely fall into anarchy.

Rules benefit social beings in various manners:

a. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior. Rules build boundaries that place limits on
behavior. Rules are usually coupled with means to impose consequences on those who violate them.
One of the reasons people follow accepted rules is to avoid negative consequences. For instance,
cheating on tests or schoolwork can lead to serious repercussions, from failing grades or dismissal from
the course, loss of scholarship, or expulsion from the college or university. Happiness depends on your
willingness to live an authentic life where your behavior lines up with your values. If you see yourself as
an honest person, you’ll be the happiest when your behavior exemplifies your beliefs.

b. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom. Rules form frameworks for
society. Nations are generally nations of laws and the governing principles are outlined in what is called
constitution. Because the majority has agreed to follow and consent to be governed by such a
constitution, the freedoms outlined exist. One of the advantages of such a system is that each person
is guaranteed certain rights as the government is limited in its power to ensure that it does not become
powerful enough to suppress liberty. Rules on divisions of power and checks and balances further
protect individual liberty. For example, each of us has the right to freedom of opinion and expression.

c. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings. Rules are needed to keep the strong from
dominating the weak, that is, to prevent exploitation and domination. Without rules, schemes in which
those with the power control the system, would take over. In effect, rules generate a stable system that
provides justice, in which even the richest and most powerful have limitations on what they can do. If
they transgress rules such as laws and ordinances and take advantage of people, there are
consequences both socially and criminally. For example, all human beings have the right to be treated
with dignity and respect. Such dignity and respect are afforded to people through the enjoyment of all
human rights and are protected through the rule of law.

d. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system. Without rules regulating business, power would
centralize around monopolies and threaten the strength and competitiveness of the system. Rules are
needed to ensure product safety, employee safety, and product quality. Copyright and patents help
protect people's intellectual property. Rules and regulations also keep the banking system stable so as
to avoid depression and the like. For example, some company regulations protect more than the

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physical well-being of employees—they protect employee rights. Obeying rules that govern employee
conduct make the workplace a more pleasant and enjoyable environment.

II. Moral vs. Non-moral Standards

Morality may refer to the standards that a person or group has about what is right and wrong, or good and evil.
Accordingly, moral standards are those concerned with or relating to human behavior, especially the distinction
between good and bad (or right and wrong) behavior.
Moral standards refer to the norms which we have about the types of actions which we believe to be morally
acceptable and morally unacceptable. Specifically, moral standards deal with matters which can either seriously
harm or benefit human beings. The validity of moral standards comes from the line of reasoning that was taken
to back or support them, and thus are not able to be formed or changed by particular bodies of authority. Some
ethicists equate moral standards with moral values and moral principles.
Non-moral standards refer to the rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations. Basic examples
of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in games, and various house rules.
Technically, religious rules, some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws and ordinances) are non­moral
principles, though they can be ethically relevant depending on some factors and contexts.
The following characteristics of moral standards further differentiate them from non-moral standards:
a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits. Moral standards deal with matters
which can seriously injure or benefit human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral standards.
For instance, following or violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does not
necessarily affect one's life or well-being.

b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values. Moral standards have overriding character
or hegemonic authority. If a moral standard states that a person has the moral obligation to do
something, then s/he is supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards even
self-interest. For example, a person may be aesthetically justified in leaving behind his/her family in
order to devote his/her life to painting, but morally, all things considered, s/he probably not justified. It
may be prudent to lie to save one’s dignity, but it is morally wrong to do so.

c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures. Moral standards are not invented, formed,
or generated by authoritative bodies or persons such as nations' legislative bodies. Ideally instead,
these values ought to be considered in the process of making laws. In principle, therefore, moral
standards cannot be changed nor nullified by the decisions of a particular authoritative body. The validity
of these standards lies on the soundness or adequacy of the reasons that are considered to support
and justify them.

d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability. Simply put, it means that everyone should live
up to moral standards. To be more accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all
who are in the relevantly similar situation. Example of this is the golden rule “Do unto others what you
would them do unto you.”

e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. Moral standards do not evaluate standards
on the basis of the interests of a certain person or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests
to a universal standpoint in which each person's interests are impartially counted as equal.

Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in morality requires that
we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all concerned parties. For instance, the
fact that you will benefit from a lie and that person will be harmed is irrelevant to whether lying is morally
wrong.

f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary. Prescriptivity indicates the
practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards. These moral standards are generally put forth as
injunction or imperatives (“Do not kill,” “Do no unnecessary harm,” and “Love your neighbor”). These

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principles are proposed for use, to advise, and to influence to action. Retroactively, this feature is used
to evaluate behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to produce feelings of satisfaction or of guilt.

III. Moral Dilemma

Ethical dilemma, also known as moral dilemma, is a conflict in which you have to choose between two (2) or
more actions and have moral reasons for choosing each action. What is common to the two well-known cases
is conflict. In each case, an agent regards him/herself as having moral reasons to do each of the two (2) actions,
but doing both is not possible.
The key features of a moral dilemma are these: (a) the agent is required to do each of two (2) (or more) actions;
(b) the agent can do each of the actions, but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions. In a moral dilemma,
the agent thus seems condemned to moral failure; no matter what s/he does, s/he will do something wrong, or
fail to do something that s/he ought to do.
IV. Three (3) Levels of Moral Dilemmas
Moral dilemmas can be categorized according to these levels: (a) personal, (b) organizational, and (c) structural.
a. Personal Dilemmas. These dilemmas are experienced and resolved on the personal level. Since many
ethical decisions are personally made, most moral dilemmas fall under this level.
b. Organizational Dilemmas. These dilemmas refer to ethical cases encountered and resolved by social
organizations. This category includes moral dilemmas in business, medical field, and public sector.
c. Structural Dilemmas. These dilemmas refer to cases involving network of institutions and operative
theoretical paradigms. As they usually encompass multi-sectoral institutions and organizations, they
may be larger in scope and extent than organizational dilemmas.

V. Only Human Beings Can Be Ethical

Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only human beings can be truly ethical. Most philosophers hold
that unlike animals, human beings possess some traits that make it possible for them to be moral:
a. Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and self-conscious. The qualities of rationality,
autonomy, and self-consciousness are believed to confer a full and equal moral status to those that
possess them as these beings are the only ones capable of achieving certain values and goods. These
values and goods are something that outweigh the types of values and goods that non-rational, non-
autonomous, and non-self-conscious beings are capable of realizing. For instance, to attain the kind of
dignity and self-respect that human beings have, one must be able to conceive of him/herself as one
among many, and must be able to consciously select his/her actions rather than be led by blind instincts.

b. Only human beings can act morally or immorally. Strictly speaking, an animal which devours
another animal cannot be said to be immoral. In the same manner, no matter how good an animal's
action seems to be, it cannot be technically said to be moral.

Only human beings can act morally or immorally. This is important in ethics because only beings that
can act morally can be required to sacrifice their interests for the sake of others. Not able to truly act
morally, animals could not really sacrifice their own good for the sake of others, but would even pursue
their good at the expense of others.

c. Only human beings are part of the moral community. The so-called moral community is not defined
in terms of the intrinsic properties that beings have, but rather in terms of the essential social relations
that exist between or among beings. Distinctively, only human beings can possess or practice values
such as love, honor, social relationships, forgiveness, compassion, and altruism.

Moreover, only human beings can communicate with each other in truly meaningful ways, can engage
in economic, political, and familial relationships with each other, and can also form deep personal
relationships with each other. These kinds of relationships require the members of such relationships

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to extend real concern to other members in order for the relationships to continue. These relationships
are what constitute our lives and the values contained in them.

References
Bulaong, O., Calano. M., & Lagliva, A. (2018). Ethics: Foundations of moral valuation. Sampaloc, Manila: Rex
Book Store, Inc.
Cariño, J. (2018). Fundamentals of ethics. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc.
De Guzman, J. (2017). Ethics: Principles of ethical behavior in modern society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing
Houze, Inc.
Leaña, R. & Gubia A. (2018). Ethics for college students CHED curriculum compliant. Intramuros, Manila:
Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Ocampo, M. (2018). Ethics primer: A young person’s guide to moral reasoning. Quezon City: Abiva Publishing
House, Inc.

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