1923 – Austro-Japanese count Richard Nicolaus Coudenhove Kalergi published his famous book Pan-

Europa about the plan for political and economic unification of Europe

1930 – Briand memorandum – French stateman Aristide Briand proposed European cooperation
within the League of Nations

December 1930 – Oslo convention – trade agreement about no increase in existing import tariffs
without prior consultation signed between Norway, Sweden, Denmark, The Netherlands, Belgium
and Luxembourg

July 1932- Ouchy Convention – three Benelux states signed agreement about not raising and not
implementing new tariffs on the goods, first serious custom union in Europe

17 December 1946 – creation of the Union of European Federalists, club of people believing in the
vision of united Europe

August 1950 – creation of the European Payment Union EPU

September 1944 – Benelux governments in-exile signed treaty calling for a post-war custom union

9 May 1950 – Schumann Declaration – French Foreign Minister Robert Schumann issued a
declaration about Franco-German reconciliation and cooperation

Structure of the ECSC:

 High Authority – nine members, cadency lasting four years, supranational body, supervised
the execution of the treaty of Paris (1951)
 Council of Ministers – was to represent the general national interest in relation to steel and
coal
 Common Assembly – 78 members were delegated by their national parliaments, forerunner
of European Parliament
 Consultative committee
 Court of Justice

1952 – Dutch Foreign Affairs Minister proposed Beyen Plan – creation of one huge economic union

June 1955 – Conference of Messina, during which ministers of foreign affairs from some of the
member states of ECSC (Benelux countries) discussed deepening of European integration. Results of
the conference:

 Plan for a new sectoral community in the field of atomic energy

 Plan for a broad common market (strictly spoken no sectoral community)

What is the European Union?:

 International organization - Its institutions have little or no autonomy, and the EU makes its
most important decisions through negotiations and bargains among governments.
 Regional integration association - It is comparable with other regional blocs such as the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) or the African Union, again using
international relations approaches.
 Unique (sui generis) - It emerged out of a unique set of circumstances, has unique qualities
and goals, might never be replicated elsewhere, and might not even have emerged in Europe
if the process of integration had started much later than it did.
  Political system in its own right - It is a European superstate, and its structure and operating
principles can be compared with conventional states. Best understood using the approaches
of comparative politics, with a particular focus on federalism and confederalism
 Hybrid – mix of all above

Federation – system of administration involving two or more levels of government with

autonomous powers and responsibilities, while term federalism refers either to the practice of
federal government or to advocacy for the idea of federation.

Unitary administration – one in which there may be multiple levels of government, but all real
power lies in the hands of the national government

Types of federations:

 Dual federalism – national and local levels of government are distinct from each other,
with separate responsibilities
 Cooperative federalism – layers are intermingled and it is difficult to see who has
ultimate responsibility
 Picket fence federalism – national and local government each have policies which they
alone are responsible

Confederation – administrative system, in which independent states come together for

reasons of security, efficiency or mutual convenience, retaining the powers they consider
best reserved to themselves and working together through joint institutions on matters best
dealt together such as foreign policy or trade

Is EU a confederation or federation:

 Confederation
a. It is a union of states, not the United States of Europe
b. Interests of citizens as represented indirectly through their national governments
c. EU member states are distinct political units, they have their own policies and
defense forces
 Federation
a. Existence of EP and ECB takes the EU beyond a confederation
b. EU has a separate executive/bureaucracy, a separate legislature and court
system
c. There are at least two systems of law – the European and the national
d. EU had treaties that are functional equivalent of a constitution

Treaty of Rome in details:

 Voting procedure – in its first year, Council of Ministers had to take all decisions
unanimously, later by qualified majority. Germany, France and Italy received four
votes, Belgium and the Netherlands two and Luxembourg one.
 European Commission – nine members who were independent, larger countries
appointed two commissioners, smaller only one and term lasted four years. The only
responsible body for making new proposals of regulations and directives.
 European Court of Justice – place where both EC and member states could appeal in
the case of violation of the treaties and laws
 European parliament (name used only after 1962) – 142 members elected by and
from national parliaments, they were monitoring the work of EC
  Economic and Social Committee – body consisting of representatives from all sectors
of economic and social life

CAP – Common Agricultural Policy – policy of regulating and subsidizing that was already conducted
by national governments. Farmers received a price for their products guaranteed by EEC so that their
incomes were not dependent on the market situation

European Court of Justice in 1960s:

 Van Gend & Loos case – Dutch transport company brought against Dutch government on
account of increase in the import tariff on chemical products that company transported –
citizens are able to make an appeal before court on the grounds of the Rome Treaty
 Costa/ENEL case – Layer Flaminio Costa sued Italian government regarding the
nationalization of the electricity company ENEL and Costa believed that the nationalization
went against several stipulations of EEC treaties – EEC law always take precedence over
national law

1960 – the establishment of European Free Trade Zone (EFTA), what was a British initiative.

1960 – Charles de Gaulle presented his plan for the EEC to become a part for future political union.
His vision of united Europe was Europe of the states – contrasted with federalists like Schumann or
Monnet.

November 1961 – presentation of Fouchet Plan for a political union of the member states of EEC

1963 – Yaounde Convention – agreement between EEC and 18 African countries, which constituted a
follow-up to the association arrangements for former colonies

December 1969 – summit conference at the Hague – conference between presidents and PMs of
member states. They accepted three directions for later cooperation under the heading “completion,
deepening and enlargement”

October 1970 – EC presented a plan for an economic and monetary union (EMU), known as Werner
Plan. It described three steps:

1. Reproachment in economic and monetary policy

2. Fixing the exchange rates of the various EEC currencies
3. Common central banking system

1 January 1973 – first enlargement of EEC. New members were Great Britain, Denmark and Ireland.

Eurosclerosis – increasing rigidity of the European economic order

The Tindemans Report – report made by Belgian PM about three goals for realizing a EU – joint
activities in relation to foreign and security policy, joint policy in economic and monetary areas,
strengthening EEC’s political institutions

Committee of Wise Man – committee appointed by European Council in 1978, made of Robert
Marjolin ( former president of EC), Edmund Dell (former British PM) and Barend Biesheuvel (former
Dutch PM). They were to make proposals for improving the consultation and decision-making
structure.

European Social Fund – organization created in 1960s by EEC in order to conduct an aid policy for
promoting job creation in economically weaker regions and sectors
European Fund for Regional Development – created after first enlargement, was to reduce economic
disparities via money, more powerful than ESF

1985 – Greenland has left EEC, but remained associated as an oversea territory

Genscher-Colombo Plan – plan urging the member states to commit to a European Union by means
of strengthened community entities and more efficient decision-making processes

1983 – Draft Treaty Establishing the European Union was prepared

February 1984 -EP accepted the treaty proposal by a large majority

Dodge Committee – commission established in order to deal with institutional barriers that stood in
the way of smooth decision making in the Council of Ministers. Under the leadership of former Irish
ministers, James Dodge, and experts acting on behalf of member states

White paper – document created by Dodge Committee, which contained a guide for completing the
internal market

Intergovernmental Conference – established in September 1985, organization, which mission was to

set in motion the completion of internal market, institutional reforms and implementation of
European foreign and security policy

July 1989 – the creation of an aid programme PHARE (Poland and Hungary Assistance for
reconstruction of Economy), which later was expanded to the remaining states

December 1990 – negotiations for the dual package of monetary and political union

Three-phase of monetary union plan presented by the European Council:

1. The economic and monetary policies of member states were to be aligned

2. The establishment of the European Monetary Institute – precursor of ECB
3. Meeting of convergence criteria

Subsidiarity – decisions are taken at the lowest possible level of administration

1994 – Partnership for Peace programme – expanded cooperation between NATO and East-Central
countries

December 1998 – compromise from Saint-Malo between French president and British PM, in which
they agreed that EU should undertake autonomous actions as well as have military capacity to do so

Agenda 2000 – program prepared by EC one month after signing Treaty of Amsterdam, which
included revisions of agriculture and cohesion policy

Finalite – phrase used by German Foreign Minister Joschka Fisher during his speech in Berlin
Humboldt University in 2000 about new type of integration – first deciding on the ultimate objective
of the integration process and second breaking it down into concrete measuers

Spring 2005 – France and the Netherlands through referendum did not accept the European
Constitutional Treaty

13 December 2007 – Treaty of Lisbon was signed, which was a revision of two existing treaties –
Rome and Maastricht

Treaty of Lisbon:
  EU replaced the European Community as a legal entity
 The primacy of European law over national law was relegated to annex
 For first time, there were arrangements for and orderly exit from EU in the treaty
 Right for one million citizens from a quarter of member states to request a legislative
initiative
 One third of the national parliaments was given the power to stop a legislative initiative
 Election of the president of European Commission by parliament
 Creation of the post of president of European Council

1993 – France had introduced the Balladur Stability Pact to promote regional cooperation and
bilateral agreements

1997 – Stabilization and Growth Pact (SGP), on Germany’s instigation in particular, was introduced in
order to force member states to commit to budgetary discipline

May 2010 – European Council installed a European Financial Stability Facility as a support mechanism
for the countries in crisis

Neo-realism concludes that states are compelled to take care of themselves and will therefore
always give priority to the national interest.

Europeanization – process through which laws and policies in the member states are brought into
alignment with EU law and policy through gradual and asymmetric adaptation

Benchmark – measurable target set by the European Commission in order to provide a focus for
applicant states as they work to meet the terms of entry into the EU

Arguments used by Eurosceptics:

 Expansion of the European single market has meant more immigration within the EU, causing
the charges of the abuse of welfare system
 EU is becoming a federalized superstate at the expense of the self-determination of its
member states
 EU institutions are undemocratic, elitist and bureaucratic
 EU promotes policies unpopular with the political left (free market) and the political right
 Too many decisions are taken by national leaders without referendums

Transactionalism – theory of integration that emphasizes the importance of building

communication among people before moving on to political integration

Communitarianism – view that individual rights should be balanced with those of the community,
and that community interest can sometimes outweigh those of individuals
 President of the European Parliament:

 Open, chair and close EP debates during plenary sessions

 Apply the rules of parliamentary procedure
 Sign the EU budget and all legislative proposals decided by codecision
 Pass proposals to committees
 Represent parliament in legal matters and relations with other institutions
 Preside over meetings of the Conference of presidents and the Bureau of EP

EP is managed by three different bodies:

1. Conference of President – major administrative body of the EP, consisting of President and
the heads of political groups, and responsible for managing plenary sessions and the EP
committee system
2. Bureau of the EP is responsible for administrative, budgetary, organizational and staff issues.
Consist of president and 14 vice-presidents
3. Conference of Committee Chairs discusses organizational issues, watches the progress of
legislative proposals
Consultation procedure – original legislative procedure used in the EP, by which it could comment on
proposals from the Commission but had little more than power of delay

Cooperation procedure – legislative procedure introduced by the Single European Act, giving the EP
the right to a second reading on selected proposals

Ordinary legislative procedure – the most common legislative procedure now used in the EP, under
which it has the right to as many as three readings one legislative proposals

European ombudsman – official appointed and monitored by the EP and charged with investing
complaints of maladministration by any of the EU institutions except the ECJ

Mutual recognition – EU law guarantees that any product or service sold lawfully in one EU member
state can be sold in another

Judicial authority – power given to judges to interpret and apply law, and adjudicate disputes
Direct effect – principle that EU law is directly and uniformly applicable in all EU states

Supranationalism – decision-making is delegated to an institution working above the level of the

states involved, and involving some degree of loss of sovereignty by the states involved

Advocate-general – officer of the Court of Justice who delivers a preliminary opinion to the Court on
cases, the laws that apply and possible action

General Court – subsidiary court created in 1989 (as the Court of First Instance) to review less
complicated cases before the Court of Justice

Preliminary ruling – ruling by the Court of Justice on the interpretation or validity of an EU law that
arises in a national court case

Direct actions – case in which there are two parties: a complainant (usually an individual, corporation
or member state) and a defendant (usually member state or EU institution)

Eurosystem – monetary authority of the euro zone, made up of the ECB and national central banks,
and charged with encouraging financial stability in the euro zone

Decentralized agency – standing body set up under EU law with technical, management and/or
informational responsibilities

Eurojust – juridical cooperation unit that works to improve the effectiveness of investigations and
prosecutions across EU member states

Eurocorps – multinational military force set up among several EU states, outside EU structures, that
some see as the seed of a common European military
Interest groups – organization that represents and promotes the political, economic or social
interests of its members, which may be individuals, cultural or social groups, professions or industries

First-order and second-order elections – elections with different stakes, the former for executives
and legislatures with significant powers and the latter for less powerful institutions such as local
government and the European Parliament
Exchange Rate Mechanism – arrangement under which member states of the EEC undertook to keep
the values of their currencies stable relative to one another

Stability and Growth Pact – agreement reached In 1997 by which euro zone governments undertook
to control their budget deficits in the interests of currency stability

ERM II- reformed Exchange Rate Mechanism designed to help improve the stability relative to the
euro of currencies in EU states outside the euro zone

Reserve currency – foreign currency held by central banks and ither major financial institutions as a
means of paying off international debt obligations, or in order to influence domestic exchange rates.

Cohesion policy – policy aimed at redistributing wealth and creating new opportunities in poorer
parts of the EU with the goal of closing the income gap

Regional policy – policy aimed at reducing the economic disparities among the regions of the EU,
focusing on job creation and economic growth

Social dumping – process by which business cut production costs and attempts to build competitive
advantage by either using lower paid migrants or temporary workers, or by moving jobs, services and
money to other countries with weaker labour standards

Social Charter – EU charter of social rights for workers, adopted in 1989 and merged into the treaties
in 1997

Bologna Process – agreement along European states (not limited to EU) under which requirements
for higher education qualifications have been standardized, increasing their transferability

European Higher Education Area – area within which university education would be comparable and
transferable, and students and academic stuff could move freely in order to pursue a job or
undertake more study

1990 – the establishment of the European Environment Agency with its headquarters in
Copenhagen, which main job was to gather and process environmental information from member
states and to help improve the quality of EU and national environmental policies
Emissions Trading Scheme – free-market mechanism for reducing greenhouse gases, using emission
caps and tradable emission allowances

20-20-20 Strategy – programme introduced in 2007 that set the target of cutting the EU’s CO^2
emissions by 20% (on 1990 levels), improving energy efficiency by 20 % and generating 20% of its
energy from renewable sources by 2020

Justice and home affairs – policy dealing with issues such as international crime and terrorism,
asylum, immigration, and police and judicial cooperation

1967 – Naples Convention signed by EEC member states about cooperation between the custom
authorities

1975 – the establishment of TREVI group, set up to coordinate anti-terrorist activities, its mandate
expanding after 1985 to include drug trafficking and organized crime

2003 – Dublin Convention, which regulated that asylum-seekers have since had to apply the member
state through which they first enter the EU

Hague Programme from 2004:

- Strengthening of fundamental rights and citizenship

- Comprehensive response to terrorism
- Development of a balanced approach to dealing with authorized and unauthorized
immigration
- Integrated management of the EU’s external borders
- Creation of a common asylum procedure

EU policy towards migration since 2004:

- 2005 – Frontex created

- 2008 – European Refugee Fund opened; helps EU countries receive and resettle refugees and
deal with sudden increases in arrivals
- 2010 – European Asylum Support Office opened; helps develop the CEAS and aids EU
countries receiving the most asylum application

European Judicial Network – network of contact points created in 1998 in order to help improve
cross-border cooperation within EU on civil and commercial matters

European arrest warrant – warrant by which member states can request the transfer of suspects or
criminals from another member state

European evidence warrant – warrant by which member states can request access to documents and
other evidence in cross border legal cases

2004 – post of EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator was created and year later established its goals:

- Prevent people from turning to terrorism by addressing the roots of radicalization

- Pursue terrorists across border and globally
- Better prepare European authorities to respond to attacks