Biology – study notes (part of) Mod 3/4

Investigate, through secondary sources, the observations and

collection of data that were obtained by Charles Darwin to
support the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection, for
example:
o Finches of the Galapagos Islands
o Australian flora and fauna

Date and reason for the voyage –

o Darwin departed England in December 1931 and returned in
October 1836.
o The HMS Beagle voyage was about to conduct an expedition
to conduct a hydrographic survey of the coasts in the
southern parts of South America and was invited to join
the voyage as a naturalist.

Finches of the Galapagos –

 When Darwin first examined the variety of birds found
across the Galapagos Island, he was unaware that most of
the finches belonged to the same family.
o He used the observations of the varying beak size and
length, as well as the types of food available in each
island to develop --> theory of evolution by natural
selection.
- He proposed that the varying forms of the beaks were
characteristics that are altered by natural
selection.

Research the observations made by Darwin’s on his short visit

to Australia:
- Members of a population of the same species vary in
their traits.
- Traits can be inherited, or passed from parents to
offspring.
- Populations can produce more offspring than the
environment can support.
- Due to a lack of food or other resources, many
offspring do not survive.
o The data collected by Darwin allowed him to formulate and
support his proposal for evolution by natural selection.

 The observations of the finches of the Galapagos Islands

led him to the conclusion that long ago, the island had
been populated by birds from a neighbouring Island. On
each island the finches might have gradually adapted to
local conditions over long periods of time and could have
led to the formation of different species on each Island.
Gather information from secondary sources of Darwin’s
observations and collected data of the finches of the
Galapagos Islands:

What are Darwin’s finches/Darwin observed variations in the

finches species.
 Darwin’s finches are a classical example of an adaptive
radiation. They played an important role in helping him
recognise the reality of evolutionary process.
o The finches’ ancestors arrived on the Galapagos about two
million years ago.
o During the time that has passed, the finches have evolved
into 15 recognised species differing in body size, beep
shape, song and feeding behaviour.
o Changes in the size and form of the beak have enabled
different species to utilise different food, resources
such as insects, seeds, nectar from cactus flowers, all
driven by Darwinian selection. Darwin called -->
differences among species natural selection, which is
caused by the inheritance of traits, competition between
individuals, and the variation of traits. Offspring with
inherited characteristics that allow them to best compete
will survive and have more offspring that those
individuals with variations that are less able to
compete.
o Large, billed finches feed more efficiently on large hard
seeds, whereas smaller billed finches feed more
effectively on small, soft seeds. When small, soft seeds
become rare, large, billed finishes will survive better,
and there will be more large-billed birds in the
following generation.

 Use V.E.R.A to explain:

Variation
Environment changes
Reproduction
Adaptation

Australian Fauna and Flora –

 When Darwin visited Australia, he noticed that organisms
varied greatly to those he found in South America
(Iguanas + maybe people) and in the Galapagos Island.
o He observed that platypus and the English water rat lived
in a similar niche but had fairly different
characteristics.
- This observation led him to the conclusion that
animals in distinct regions could look different,
even if they existed in a similar environment.
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection –
 Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection is the
theory that only the organisms that are best adapted to
their environment tend to survive and transmit their
genetic characteristics to their offspring while those
less adapted tend to be eliminated. There are four main
components of Darwin’s theory:
1. More offspring are born than can survive.
2. Traits are passed from generation to generation.
3. Individuals of a species are not identical.
4. Only the survivors of the competition for resources will
reproduce.

16. Investigate the modern model of natural selection.

a. Outline how genetic variation causes variation in
population and how this relates to the process of natural
selection.

 Natural selection: Natural selection is defined as a

process by which species of animals and plants that are
best adapted to their environment survive and reproduce,
while those that are less well adapted die out.
o In genetic variation, the genetic makeup of organisms
within a population changes. This is important to the
processes of natural selection and biological evolution.
The genetic variations that arise in a population happen
by chance, but the process of natural selection does not.

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

Inquiry question: What is the relationship between evolution
and biodiversity?
- Explain biological diversity in terms of the Theory
of Evolution by Natural Selection by examining the
changes in and diversification of life since it
first appeared on the Earth:

Timeline --> diversification of life overtime –

o The Earth was formed roughly 4.5 billion years ago, and
life began on Earth around 3.5 to 3.9 billion years ago.
o The early Earth’s atmosphere had a low concentration of
oxygen compared to today.
o Electric storms would be frequent and erupting volcanoes
would release vast quantities of ash, lava, and gases.
o Energy from UV light would have caused methane and
ammonia to decompose, and the atmosphere would consist of
mainly carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
o Since there was no ozone layer at this point in time,
organisms on Earth would live either in the water or
underground.
 o Around 500 million years ago, there was a rapid increase
in the atmospheric oxygen content due to how the ancient
relative of cyanobacteria evolved to conduct
photosynthesis.
o The ozone layer began to form after the concentration of
oxygen increased, allowing organisms to evolve to survive
on the surface of the ocean and on land.

- Analyse how an accumulation of microevolutionary

changes can drive evolutionary changes and
speciation over time, for example:

Evolution of the horse –

 Fossils provide evidence of the accumulation of micro-
evolutionary changes.
o Initially, the ancestral horse genus from 53 million
years ago ate mainly soft leaves and fruits.
o The legs were much shorter compared to modern horses,
with the leg and wrist joints being flexible.
o They had five toes on both feet and the teeth was
fairly flat.
o They remained unchanged until 20 million years later,
where changes in the Earth’s environment caused them to
evolve.

ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION –
 Species separate into two separate groups --> isolated
from one another.
o E.g., Galapagos Island finches
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION –
 Splitting of ancestral species in 2> reproductively
isolated groups w/o geographical isolation.
o E.g., resident + transident Orca in northeast
Pacific
– Orca grps living in same habitat do NOT
interbreed.

- Examine diagrams of the evolutionary tree of the

horse and identify the changes in the horse that the
fossil record has shown us over time:

 During the evolution of the horse, the number of toes

touching the ground has decreased and the teeth has
changed from short crowned without cement to higher
crowned cement covered.
o Horses also began to have an increased body mass and
grew larger.
o They had proportionally larger brains and improved
running ability via loss of outer toes.

- Identify and describe the most likely selection

pressures that brought about changes in the horse.

 The climate change was responsible for major changes over

time in the horses’ diet, which were reflected in their
teeth.
o Researchers were able to follow horses’ shift from
eating fruit to grazing on grass in response to their
environment in North America.
o Tooth height also continued to increase, likely in
response to harsher, colder climate and the continued
spread of grasslands.
o The increase of body size in horses is most likely
caused to help the horse defend against predators on
the open plains and the shift in diet.
o The loss of the toe may have been developed to support
the larger weight of the horse and to move faster.

Evolution of the Platypus –

 Platypus are classified as monotremes (type of mammal)

- Australia has unique mammals as a result of
Australia’s long period of isolation from other
continents. This isolation has allowed animals in
Australia to have evolved in distinctive ways.
 - Identify palaeontological finds that provide
evidence for the evolution of the platypus.

 The oldest palaeontological evidence of the platypus’

ancestor was found in NSW, 1985, and dates to around 110
million years ago during the Cretaceous period. There was
also a 62-million-year-old tooth found in Argentina.
o The oldest fossil of the modern species is around
100,000 years ago. These fossils suggest that
platypuses evolved in Australia while the continent was
still connected to South America and Antarctica.
o A population of platypus relatives had survived in
South America for a time but eventually died out.
o However, soon afterwards platypuses were confined to
just Australia and continued to evolve from there.
o There is also evidence from a 100 million year old
jawbone of the platypus that suggests that platypuses
may have evolved more slowly than other mammals.

- Explain, using examples, how Darwin and Wallace’s

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection accounts
for:
o convergent evolution
o divergent evolution

Define the different types of evolution: Coevolution,

Parallel, Convergent and Divergent.

Coevolution –
 Coevolution refers to the evolution of one species in
response to another, usually occurring in a predator-prey
relationship.
- For example, flowers evolve bright colours to
attract birds and birds evolved longer beaks to
gather pollen from the flowers.

Parallel –
 Parallel evolution is when 2>/ species continue to evolve
similar characteristics even after their divergence from
a common ancestor.
- For example, large ears can be found in a number of
Australian microbats, which are used for
echolocation.

Convergent –
 Convergent evolution occurs when 2>/ unrelated species
adopt similar adaptations in response to similar
environmental conditions.
 - An example of this is how birds and butterflies
don’t share a common ancestor but have both evolved
to fly.

Divergent –
 Divergent is the evolutionary pattern in which 2>/ evolve
from a common ancestor but have different characteristics
from one another.
- An example of this are the species of finches found
on the Galapagos islands which all have variations
in their beak shapes or sizes since they have
adapted to different diets. They all have a common
ancestor.

Microevolution –
 A change in the gene pool of a population which would
result in small changes to an Organism.

Macroevolution –
 A change in an organism that are significant enough that
over time, the newer organism would be considered an
entirely new species.

- Distinguish between Divergent and Convergent

evolution:

The main difference between convergent and divergent

evolution:
 Convergent evolution occurs between two species with
different ancestral origins.
 Divergent occurs between two species with a common
ancestor.
- Convergent evolution also showcases how species have
evolved separately but have similar characteristics.
- Divergent evolution demonstrates how species can
have common anatomical structures which have evolved
for different purposes.

- Describe the similarities between convergent and

divergent evolution:

 Convergent and divergent evolution both have contributed

to the development of present organisms from the past
organisms and generate variation, which aids species to
perform their niche in the environment.

- Explain how punctuated equilibrium is different from

the gradual process of natural selection

Punctuated equilibrium –
  A theory that states that evolution occurs primarily
through short bursts of intense speciation, followed by
lengthy periods of stasis or equilibrium.

Gradual process of natural selection –

 A species evolving and accumulating small variations over
long periods of time until a new species was born.

Explanation:

Punctuated equilibrium is a proposed modification to the

process of natural selection. It predicts that over geological
time, the main selection pressure on a species would be
stability. Once an organism is well adapted to its
environment, selection acts to maintain the well-adapted
traits. However, such periods of stability are punctuated with
short bursts of rapid change to a new stable form. Punctuated
equilibrium suggests that when evolution does occur, it would
occur rapidly due to sudden change in environment. Conversely,
natural selection is considered to be stable and gradual
process with no periods of sudden change and rapid
evolutionary change.

 Identify the different types of Isolating Mechanisms

- Prezygotic mechanisms: geographic barriers such as
large distances, geographical movements, island
formation, climate change, river action, Human
activities e.g. Highways and creating corridors:
temporal, behavioural, structural or morphological
gamete mortality

Types of prezygotic isolating mechanisms –

1. Geographical isolation: Populations may be separated by

physical and geographical barriers like oceans and
deserts.
2. Temporal isolation: Breeding cycles or active times of
the population doesn’t overlap.
3. Behavioural isolation: This occurs only with animals when
behaviours such as mating calls and courtship rituals are
different.
4. Structural isolation: The reproductive organs of
different species are physically incompatible, and
individuals are unable to meet.
5. Gamete mortality: This occurs after mating has taken
place and the egg and the sperm fails to fuse in
fertilisation.
Evolution – the Evidence

Inquiry question: What is the evidence that supports the

Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection?
Students:
o Investigate, using secondary sources, evidence in support
of Darwin and Wallace’s Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection, including but not limited to:
- biochemical evidence, comparative anatomy,
comparative embryology and biogeography
- techniques used to date fossils and the evidence
produced.

o Explain modern-day examples that demonstrate evolutionary

change, for example:
- the cane toad
- antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria

o Investigate, using secondary sources, evidence in support

of Darwin and Wallace’s Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection, including but not limited to:

Biochemical evidence –
 Determines the relatedness between species using
molecules.
 Chemical processes within living organisms can be used to
find how related one organism is to another.
- Structural + functional similarities were the main
evidence used to determine relatedness.
- Anatomical similarities can result from shared
ancestry/independent evolutionary paths.
- Important role in clarifying uncertain evolutionary
relationships.
o Example: DNA sequences
- Two pop. Have been isolated, will accumulate
different mutations in DNA.
- More mutations that accumulate in DNA sequences,
more time there has passed since they diverged from
their common ancestors.
o Example: difference between Frog and Dog

Comparative anatomy –
 Pentadactyl limb --> comparative structure
- Anatomical features that are similar in basic
structure despite being used in different ways.
 - It also implies that organisms with the pentadactyl
limb have a common ancestor.

o How it supports theory of evolution:

- Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and
differences between the anatomic structures of
animals. It supports the theory of evolution as it
provides evidence that organisms have a common
ancestor. Comparative anatomy assumes that organisms
with similar anatomical features are assumed to be
relatively closely related which would mean they
have a common ancestor.

Comparative embryology –
 The embryological similarities are explained by common
ancestry.
- Darwin’s theory of evolution noted that all
vertebrates have gill slits and tails in early
stages of embryo formation, even though these
features may be lost or modified later.
o For example, human embryos have a tail that becomes a
tail bone. This pattern indicates that all vertebrates
stem from a common ancestor that developed that way, and
everything diverged from there.

Biogeography –
 Biogeography is the study of the geographic distribution
of organisms and the factors that influence this
distribution.
 Geographical isolation is one of the primary reasons that
animals are unique to particular continents. This refers
to when a population of organisms are separated from
exchanging genetic material with other organisms of the
same species.
- After an organism is isolated, they are only able to
reproduce within their own population which would
inevitably result in the organisms becoming an
entirely separate species overtime.

Use secondary sources to describe the Wallace line and outline

its significance in biogeography –

The Wallace line is an imaginary boundary that runs between

Australia and the Asian countries. This boundary marks the
point where there is a difference in species on either side of
the line.
- To the west of the line, all species are similar or
derived from species found on the Asian mainland.
 - To the east, there are many species of Australian
descent.

Describe the fossilisation process –

 Fossilisation is the preservation of the hardened remains
or traces of organisms in rock formations. The stages of
fossilisation generally occur as follow.

1. Death of organism
2. Soft tissues --> organism decay through decomp/being
scavenged by predators. Hard body remains --> buried by
sediments of sand/silt.
3. Sediments continue to accumulate overtime.
4. Erosion/movt of earth plates --> fossils to be
displaced/return to surface.

- Techniques used to date fossils and the evidence

produced

Impression –
 Two-dimensional imprints
- Formed when remains decay completely.
- Leave impressions in sediment.

Mineralised –
 Fossils --> materials replace spaces in structure of
organism (i.e. bone)
- Minerals --> eventually replace entire organism =
replica of original fossil

Traced –
 Preserved evidence of animal’s activity/behaviour
- Footprints – w/o containing parts of organism.

Mummified –
 Fossil --> organism = fully preserved
- Can include: skin + organs.
- Occur in dry areas with 🏼 moisture.

1. Index fossil
o Animal/plant preserved in rock record of Earth.
- Characteristic --> particular span of geological
time/environment
- Useful index fossil -->
1. easily recognisable/abundant
2. wide geographic distrib
3. short range through time.

2. Stratigraphic correlation
 o Comparison of layers of sedimentary/igneous rocks =
same age
- Relating them to subdivision on single
stratigraphic scale.

EXAMPLE QUESTION/s -->

1. Investigate and compare at least two techniques (relative

dating and absolute and radiometric dating) used to date
fossils.

Relative Dating –
 Dating geological deposits --> relative layers of rocks
and fossils within layers (if present)
- Assumed that deepest layer = oldest
- Upper layer = youngest
- Age of fossil --> estimated relative to known age
of layers of rock below layer which fossil is
found.

Absolute/radiometric Dating –
 Absolute = Quantitative method determining age of
rock/object --> radioactivity
 Radiometric Dating = absolute dating --> calculates age
of rock/minerals --> radioactive isotopes.

DIFFERENCE –
1. Relative dating --> age determined in relation to other
objects
2. Absolute dating --> find exact age of artifacts/fossils
- Absolute dating = More precise
- Relative dating = Estimate/ not as precise

o Explain modern-day examples that demonstrate evolutionary

change, for example:
- the cane toad
- antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria

Cane toad –
 Introduced in 1935 to combat beetles affecting sugar cane
farmers
- 10km range p.a.--> 1940s-60s
- Now 50km range p.a.
o Toads inheriting longer leg gene --> move faster/first to
arrive in new areas.
- More endurance + travel 0.5km in three-day period
- Changes in body shape/behaviour/dispersal activity =
heritable
 Ability to move faster/disperse in a range of areas
eliminates competition for food/other resources.
Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria –
 When bacteria are initially exposed to antibiotics -->
will die quickly
- Any survivors of antibiotics --> pass on resistant
features to succeeding generations
o Become resistant by:
- Mutations altering cellular targets of antibiotics.
- Acquiring resistance genes from other bacteria (HGT)
--> important driver of evolution
+ Responsible for development of antimicrobial
resistance
 EXAMPLE --> Myxomatosis in rabbis --> introduced in 1950
-

Past Ecosystems
Inquiry question: How do selection pressures within an
ecosystem influence evolutionary change?
Students:
o analyse palaeontological and geological evidence that can
be used to provide evidence for past changes in
ecosystems, including but not limited to:
- Aboriginal rock paintings
- rock structure and formation
- ice core drilling
o investigate and analyse past and present technologies
that have been used to determine evidence for past
changes, for example:
- radiometric dating
- gas analysis

Inquiry question: How do selection pressures within an

ecosystem influence evolutionary change?
Students:
o analyse palaeontological and geological evidence that can
be used to provide evidence for past changes in
ecosystems, including but not limited to:
- Aboriginal rock paintings
- rock structure and formation
- ice core drilling

Palaeontological –
 Study of history of life on Earth based on fossils.

Geological –
 Study of Earths physical structure and substance.
 a) Aboriginal rock paintings
 Examining artefacts of Indigenous Australians --> info
collected about Australia’s natural history.
- Insights gained into changes occurred in past
Australian ecosystems.

b) Geological evidence
 Earth arr into sedimentary layers --> young stratum on
top of old stratum
- Relative age/evolutionary history of fossils -->
traced by mapping relative ages of strata =
different fossils found

c) Ice core drilling

 Special equipment --> retrieve cylinder shaped sample =
ice core
- Obtained --> revealing annual changes in properties
of snow (like rings of tree)
o Mechanic drills --> rotating barrel with cutters at
digging end
o Electrothermal drills --> heating element at head which
heats ice around core being drilled

 Chem analysis of ice core – info on following:

1. Bubbles --> Air bubbles trapped in ice = past climate
change
2. Impurities in snow --> solid/dissolved impurities in
water
3. Isotopes of H2 + O2 --> Ratio of isotopes of H atoms and
Isotopes of O make up water molecules in ice
- Shows changes in temp over time, rainfall, ocean
volume, atm circulation + particles were in atm
(E.g., dust, pollen, volcanic ash)

Radiometric dating –
 Date materials like rock or carbon --> trace radioactive
impurities selectively incorporated when formed.

Gas analysis –
 Extract information from tiny bubbles containing
atmospheric gas that becomes trapped in the ice cores.