EVOLUTION

Unit 3
MODULE 3
BIODIVERSITY
AND
EVOLUTION
 What to Expect:
 This module will give you an idea that maintaining
individual differences and variety of characteristics are
important to ensure the survival of species.

 Will discuss the different sources of possible evidence

for evolution such as fossil records, and developmental
and molecular biology which gave way to the different
concepts about the origin of life.
 Provide a variety of activities to help you understand the
processes and mechanism of evolution.
 KEY QUESTIONS:
 1. Why are evidences important in the study of
origin of life?
 2. Explain how reproduction, variation, and
adaptation are necessary for survival of
species.
 3. How can Natural Selection contribute to
biodiversity or extinction?
Evidence of Evolution
Evolution vs. Creationism
• Creationism – belief that God
created all living things to be
unique
• Evolution – theory that organisms
have changed over time.
 What is
Evolution?
EVOLUTION - genetic change
in a population of organisms
over time
Until the 1800s
• People thought the same types of
organisms on earth were always in
existence
• This changed when scientists
found fossils of organisms no
longer on earth
Scientists observed…
 Fossil evidence
 Many different species
 Variations (differences) within
species
 Change in Thought
 Scientistsbegan to wonder how and
why these changes took place
 2 biologists believed organisms
changed in response to their
environments:
 French Jean Baptiste Lamarck
 British Charles Darwin
Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution
 Tendency toward
Perfection(Giraffe necks)

 Useand Disuse (bird’s using

forearms)

 Inheritance of Acquired Traits

Lamarck’s giraffe example(Don’t Copy)
• Lamarck assumed giraffes had short
necks originally and ate grass
• Grass died due to climate change
• Giraffes ate leaves off trees
• As giraffes stretched necks, necks grew
• Giraffe’s acquired long necks – passed to
future generations
• Scientists questioned this theory…
Lamarck’s Theory
• Theory of Need
• Theory of Use and Disuse
• Theory of Acquired Characteristics
What made Darwin question
previous assumptions on how
different organisms came to be?
Charles Darwin
 Darwin's analysis
of the plants and
animals he
gathered led him
to question how
species form and
change over time.
This work
convinced him of
the insight that he
is most famous for
 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
 Evolution,or change over time, is the
process by which modern organisms
have descended from ancient
organisms.

 A scientific
theory is a well-
supported testable explanation of
phenomena that have occurred in
the natural world.
How do you think
Darwin came up with
his theory?
Charles Darwin
 Born in 1809
 Age 22, went on voyage on HMS
Beagle (British ship) as a naturalist
 Mapping expedition of S. America and
S. Pacific
Evolution by Natural Selection
 The Struggle for Existence-members of
each species have to compete for food,
shelter, other life necessities

 Survival of the Fittest-Some individuals

better suited for the environment
 DO NOW
 What is the difference between natural
selection and artificial selection?
 What is the difference between natural
selection and evolution?
Artificial vs. Natural Selection
• Artificial - breeding for desired traits
• Natural – naturally “desired” traits are
bred more often – causes gradual
change in species over time (evolution)
Voyage of Beagle
 Dates: February 12th, 1831
 Captain: Charles Darwin
 Ship: H.M.S. Beagle
 Destination: Voyage around the world.
 Findings: evidence to propose a
revolutionary hypothesis about how life
changes over time
 Darwin’s Thoughts (Don’t Copy)

• Charles Lyell’s book influenced Darwin -

Lyell said Earth was millions of years old
• Observed fossils of marine animals on
mountains, etc
• Observed changing earth: earthquakes,
volcanoes, etc; saw change in the land
• Thought organisms would have to adapt to
these changes
Darwin’s Studies
• Observed thousands of different
species
• Took careful notes
• Collected specimens
• Studies fossils
 Galapagos Islands (Don’t Copy)
 Off coast of Ecuador
 Observed MANY different species
 Many similar to those on coast of S.
America
 Observed tortoises, iguanas, finches, etc
with slight differences on different islands
 Ex: different beaks of finches
Help from Gould (Don’t Copy)
• John Gould, another British naturalist
• Concluded finches were different
species, and were not on mainland of
S. America
• Darwin though species changed after
reaching islands
 Darwin’s Theory
 Published book: On the Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection with help from
another scientist, Alfred Russel Wallace
 Theory based on 4 main ideas:
 Variations

 Inheritance of traits

 Overproduction

 Survival of the fittest

Variations
• Variations (differences) occur among
members of the same species
• Ex: different breeds of dogs, horses,
cats, etc.
Inheritance of Variations
• Traits are inherited
Overproduction
• Organisms produce more organisms
than can survive and reproduce
• This ensures that some offspring will
survive to reproduce
• Ex: fish, insects, frogs, etc.
Survival of the Fittest
• Organisms with traits that are better for
adapting survive to reproduce
• Pass on these useful traits
• Natural selection – environment
determines which variations will be
selected
 Patterns of Diversity

 Darwin visited Argentina and Australia which

had similar grassland ecosystems.

 those grasslands were inhabited by very different

animals.

 neither Argentina nor Australia was home to the sorts

of animals that lived in European grasslands.
 Patterns of Diversity

 Darwin posed challenging questions.

 Why were there no rabbits in Australia, despite the
presence of habitats that seemed perfect for them?

 Why were there no kangaroos in England?

 Living Organisms and Fossils

 Darwin collected the preserved remains of

ancient organisms, called fossils.

 Some of those fossils resembled organisms that

were still alive today.
 Living Organisms and Fossils

 Others looked completely unlike any creature he had

ever seen.

 As Darwin studied fossils, new questions arose.

 Why had so many of these species disappeared?

 How were they related to living species?

The Galapagos Island
 The smallest, lowest islands were hot,
dry, and nearly barren-Hood Island-sparse
vegetation

 The higher islands had greater rainfall and

a different assortment of plants and
animals-Isabela- Island had rich
vegetation.
The Galapagos Island

 Darwin was fascinated in particular by the

land tortoises and marine iguanas in the
Galápagos.

 Giant tortoises varied in predictable ways

from one island to another.

 The shape of a tortoise's shell could be

used to identify which island a particular
tortoise inhabited.
The Journey Home
 Darwin Observed that characteristics
of many plants and animals vary
greatly among the islands

 Hypothesis: Separate species may

have arose from an original ancestor
 4 Types of Evidence
that scientists have
gathered in support of
evolution
 Fossils
 Comparative Anatomy & Structures

 Embryology

 Biochemistry (Proteins & DNA)

Fossil Evidence
• Show extinct species
• Show relationships between current
and ancient organisms
• Show intermediate species – those in
between ancient and modern species
• Difference in traits – derived vs.
ancestral
 What is a FOSSIL?
 The preserved remains or

traces of an organism that is

no longer living

 Usually found in
sedimentary rocks
 What can fossils show?
 Organisms have appeared and disappeared, and have
changed over time
 Extinction of species
 Transitional forms reveal links between groups:

Archaeopteryx: between reptiles & birds

Eustheopteron: amphibious fish
Seymouria: reptile-like amphibian
Also, mammal-like reptiles & whales with hind limbs
 Reveals ancient climate & environmental conditions
 Indicates development of life from simple to complex
 Indicates life began in water
 1st Evidence: Fossils
 Types of Fossils:
1. IMPRINT – thin, soft object (leaf, feather) is
buried and sediments later harden
2. MOLD – Buried organism disappears and
leaves an empty space
3. CAST – mold filled by
minerals (replica of organism)
4. PETRIFICATION – minerals
replace hard parts (bones, teeth, etc.) of
organism
5. AMBER – entire organism fossilized in tree
sap
6. FROZEN – entire organism frozen in ice
7. TRACE – footprints, trails, etc.
 How can fossil age be determined?
 Depth of fossils help to
determine their age
 Lower layers are older than

those in upper layers

 Radioactive Isotope Dating
 Carbon-14, Uranium-238,

Potassium-40
 Measure the proportion of an

isotope relative to its more

stable form (half life)
Why is the fossil record incomplete?
 1. Soft tissue rarely preserved
 2. Movement of the earth’s crust has
obliterated or covered many fossils
 3. Fossilization takes place only in certain
types of habitats and under favorable
conditions
 4. Paleontologists have not dug up every
place on earth
 Anatomical Evidence
• Similar structures found in closely related
species; have common ancestor
• Diverse vertebrates have similar limb
structures, but may not have same
function –homologous
• Vestigial structures – structures not
currently used by organism; evidence of
an organism’s evolutionary past Ex: hind
limbs of dolphins/whales
 2nd Evidence: Comparative Anatomy
 Study of anatomical structures to find similarities and
differences
 HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES – parts with similar basic
structure (derived from same structures in embryo—same
common descent), but may vary in function
 2nd Evidence: Comparative Anatomy

 ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES – structures that

have the same function (may look somewhat
alike), but have different structures and DO NOT
have a common descent
 Example: wings have developed independently in
insects, reptiles, birds, and bats
 Comparative Anatomy
 VESTIGAL STRUCTURES – reduced
body parts (in comparison to the same
complex structure in other organisms)
that have little to no function; remnant
of an ancestor
 Examples:
 Human appendix (other mammals it is

necessary to aid in digestion)

 Human external ear muscle (useless, but still

there)
 Human tailbone (coccyx)

 Human wisdom teeth

 Bird wings – Penguins adapted for swimming,

ostrich wings for balance and courtship

 3rd Evidence: Embryology

 Patterns of embryological development can

indicate a common ancestry

 Fish, birds, mammals & reptiles all have

gills; only fish retain theirs

 Fish, birds, humans & reptiles all have

tails; ALL but humans retain theirs
 Evidence in Embryos
 Pattern of meiosis (gametes)  fertilization
 mitosis (adults)
 All vertebrate embryos have homologous
structures that may not be in adults:
 Tails (most adults keep their tails!)

 Limb buds – become limbs

 Vertebrates have a common ancestor

 3rd Evidence: Embryology

 Patterns of embryological development can

indicate a common ancestry

 Fish, birds, mammals & reptiles all have

gills; only fish retain theirs

 Fish, birds, humans & reptiles all have

tails; ALL but humans retain theirs
STAGES OD DEVELOPMENT:
BLASTULA, GASTRULA, ORGANOGENESIS
4th Evidence: Biochemistry /
Molecular Biology
 Similarity of proteins, RNA & DNA molecules
 The more closely related organisms are, the
more similar is the biochemical makeup
 Indicates common ancestor
 Universality of genetic code – supports
evolution
 Similar chemistry & structure of chromosomes
among Eukaryotes
 Chlorophyll is the same basic molecule in all
photosynthetic organisms
Molecular Evidence
DNA:
• Basic genetic code for each species
• Ex: humans all have same basic genetic
code
• Species that are similar have many
similarities in their DNA
• Species with a more distant ancestor
have more differences in DNA
Molecular Evidence
Proteins:
• Because of similar DNA, organisms of
the same species have the same basic
proteins
• Similar species – similar amino acid
sequences in their proteins
Biogeography
 Study of distribution of organisms on
earth
 Similar environments lead to similar
adaptations in organisms, even if far
apart
Adaptations
• Traits that allow for survival
• Fitness – way to measure how effective
traits are
• Examples of adaptations:
• Camouflage
• Mimicry
Remember that…
 Not all traits evolve slowly; Ex:
bacteria
 Not all traits increase fitness
 Mutations can be a source of new traits
Natural Selection & Artificial
Selection
 Natural variation--differences among
individuals of a species

 Artificial selection- nature provides the

variation among different organisms, and
humans select those variations they find
useful.
Natural Selection
 Over time, natural
selection results in
changes in inherited
characteristics of a
population. These
changes increase a
species fitness in its
environment
Publication of Orgin of Species
 Russel Wallace wrote
an essay summarizing
evolutionary change
from his field work in
Malaysia

 Gave Darwin the drive

to publish his findings
Ideas that shaped Darwin’s
Thinking
 James Hutton:
 1795 Theory of
Geological change
 Forces change
earth’s surface
shape
 Changes are slow

 Earth much older

than thousands of
years
Ideas that Shaped Darwin’s
Thinking
 Charles Lyell
 Book: Principles of Geography
 Geographical features can be built up or
torn down
 Darwin thought if earth changed over time,
what about life?
Lamarck
Population Growth
 Thomas Malthus-
19th century English
economist
 If population grew
(more Babies born
than die)
 Insufficient living

space
 Food runs out

 Darwin applied this

theory to animals
Population
 Members of same species living in
same area
 All genes in a population = gene pool
 Population Genetics
 Allelefrequency – percent of certain alleles
(gene types) in a population’s gene pool
 Ex: all homozygous red flowers have a 100%
frequency for red alleles
 Usually remains stable in a population
 Changes in the Gene Pool
 Changes can occur in the gene pool, which
could cause evolution
 Kinds or percentages of genes can change
 4 things cause these changes
 Natural selection
 Mutation

 Migration

 isolation
 4 Factors Change the Gene Pool
1. Natural selection
 Well-adapted organisms survive to reproduce
 Pass on genes to next generation, increasing

the gene frequency

4 Factors Change the Gene Pool

2. Mutation
• Adds a new gene to the gene pool
• Can cause small, immediate change, or
go undetected for generations
• Can be helpful, harmful, or neutral
4 Factors Change the Gene Pool

3. Migration
• Movement of organisms into or out of a
population
• Causes gene flow – movement of genes
in or out of populations
4 Factors Change the Gene Pool

4. Isolation
• Organisms become separate from other
organisms (geographic isolation)
• Caused by physical barriers, natural
disasters, etc
• Causes speciation
• Causes reproductive isolation between the
now separate species
Create
• With your group, pick any species, and
create a scenario as to how it may
evolve based on your assigned factor.
Base your predictions on facts about
the species. Describe and/or draw your
predictions, and then present to the
class!
The Rate of
Evolution
Gradualism
 Evolution through slow change
 Believed to be true by Darwin and
many other scientists
 Fossil evidence supports this
Punctuated Equilibrium
• Species remain unchanged for
thousands of years, then suddenly
undergo rapid changes
• Fossil evidence of trilobites –
unchanged for millions of years, then
suddenly died off
Summary of Darwin’s Theory
 Individuals in nature differ from one
another

 Organisms in nature produce more

offspring than can survive, and many of
those who do not survive do not reproduce.
Summary of Darwin’s Theory
 Because more organisms are produce than
can survive, each species must struggle for
resources

 Each organism is unique, each has

advantages and disadvantages in the
struggle for existence
Summary (cont.)
 Individuals best suited for the environment
survive and reproduce most successful

 Species change over time

Summary (cont.)

 Species alive today descended with modification

from species that lived in the past

 All organisms on earth are united into a single

family tree of life by common descent