MINISTRY OF LIVESTOCK AND FISHERIES

FISHERIES EDUCATION AND TRAINING AGENCY (FETA)

LITERATURE REVIEW & HYPOTHESIS

DR. M.E. Machumu

 LITERATURE REVIEW
q One of the most important preliminary steps in the research process is doing
a through review of the scientific literature on the topic that you have
identified for study.

q Reason for reviewing the Scientific Literature

– A literature review is the process of locating, obtaining, reading, and evaluating the
research literature in your area of interest.

– There are several important reasons for conducting a literature review:

• To avoid needless duplication of effort. No matter what topic you choose, chances
are that someone has already done on it.

• By becoming familiar with that area through a literature review, you can avoid
“reinventing the wheel.” Your specific research questions may have already been
addressed and answered.
 Literature review cont’d…
q To the contrary, your literature review may reveal other questions that remain
to be answered.

q By familiarizing yourself with existing research and theory in an area, you can
revise your research project to explore some of these newly identified
questions, to design phase of your research.

q Designing a study involves several decisions as to what variables to include

and how to measure them, what material or apparatus to use, what
procedures to use etc.

q Keep you up to date on current empirical or theoretical controversies in a

particular research areas.
 Literature review cont’d…
q Sources of Research Information

qFrom Popular writing such may provide more reliable information that has
been gleaned from scientific sources, but the information presented
generally lacks the detail that would allow you to determine much beyond
the major conclusion offered.

qMore substantive writing provides more details about the method used to
gather information but still omits important details and may not mention
alternatives interpretations or other evidence for or against
the conclusion presented.

qSources of research findings include books, scholarly journals, convention

and professional meetings, and others such as personal communications
and certain pages of on the World Wide Web.
 Literature review cont’d…
qPrimary versus secondary sources
q A primary source is one containing the full research report, including all
details necessary to duplicate the study.

q A primary sources includes the description of the rationale of the study,

its participant or subjects, materials or apparatus, procedures, result and
references.

q A secondary source is one that summarizes information from primary

sources.

q Secondary sources of research include review papers and theoretical

articles that briefly describe studies and results, as well as description of
research found in textbooks, popular magazines, newspaper articles, etc.
 Literature review cont’d…

q To summarize, use secondary sources, as a starting point in your literature

search. Avoid over reliance on secondary sources and make every effort to
obtain the primary sources of interest to you that have been cited in a
secondary source.

q Only by reading the primary source can you critically evaluate a study and
determine whether the reported results are reliable and important.

q Finally do not rely on secondary source. The author of reviewed article may
not have completely reviewed the literature.
 HYPOTHESIS
q What is Hypothesis?

q Hypothesis is an assumption that is made on the basis of some evidence.

q This is an initial point of any investigation that translates the research

questions into a prediction.

q It includes components like variables, population and the relation between

the variables.

q A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the relationship

between two or more variables.
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
q Hypothesis testing?

q Hypothesis testing is an act in statistics whereby an analyst tests an

assumption regarding a population parameter.

q Hypothesis testing is used to assess the plausibility of a hypothesis by

using sample data.

q We always collect and analyze data

qTo estimate the unknown value of some population characteristics.

qSometimes to decide whether some claim or statement about a

population characteristics is reasonable.
 Hypothesis Testing Cont’d…
q Example:

q A fish farmer may wish to determine that commercial feed is better than
locally made feed.

q Hypothesis: Manufactured feed is better than locally made feed; only

research can prove or disapprove this statement.

q To make decision between two hypotheses wether

qThe claim is true
qThe Claim is false

q Testing hypotheses is about procedures that facilitate choosing the correct

outcome out of two alternatives.
 Hypothesis Testing Cont’d…
q How to State the Null Hypothesis:

qExample Problem: A researcher is studying the effects of corona virus

(COVID 19) on patients. There is a good chance the vaccine/antiviral will
improve recovery time, but there’s also the possibility it will make it worse.

q Average recovery times for patients is 2 weeks.

q Step 1: State what will happen if the experiment doesn’t make any
difference. That’s the null hypothesis–that nothing will happen. In this
experiment, if nothing happens, then the recovery time will stay at 2 weeks.

qH0: µ = 2
qBroken down into English, that’s H0 (The null hypothesis): µ (the average)
= (is equal to) 2
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING Cont’d …

q Step 2: Figure out the alternate hypothesis. The alternate hypothesis is the
opposite of the null hypothesis. In other words, what happens if our
experiment makes a difference?

qH1: µ ≠ 2
qIn English again, that’s H1 (The alternate hypothesis): µ (the average)
≠ (is not equal to) 2

q Null Hypothesis (H0) – It is the presumption that is accepted as correct

unless there is strong evidence against it, also commonly known as
hypothesis of no difference.

q Alternative Hypothesis (H1) – It is accepted when H0 is rejected

 HYPOTHESIS TESTING Cont’d …
Errors in hypothesis testing

q Once Ho and Ha have been formulated we need a method for testing sample
data to determine whether Ho should be accepted or rejected.

q In testing of data, there is some chance that when testing procedure is

applied to a sample data, the wrong conclusion may be reached.

Errors in hypothesis testing

q In reaching conclusion on given data

qTwo different types of errors must be considered:

a) You may accept hypothesis while it is false, or
b) You may reject the hypothesis while it is true
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING Cont’d …

q TYPE I AND TYPE II ERRORS

q While testing a hypothesis, if we reject it when it should be accepted, it

amounts to type I error – (incorrect rejection of null hypothesis).

q On the other hand, accepting the hypothesis when it should be rejected, it

amounts to type II error.

q Any attempt to reduce one type of error results in increasing the other type of
error. The only way to reduce both types of error is to increase sample size.
 SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL (P – Value)
q There is always a probability component involved in the accept or reject
decision in testing hypothesis.

q In choosing a test method for deciding whether or not to reject Ho we would like a small
probability of drawing an incorrect conclusion.
q The probability of a type I error is called the level of significance of the test it is denoted
by α

q P-Value represents the probability of concluding incorrectly that there is a difference

in your sample when no true difference exists.

q In other words, a p-value of 0.05 means that there is only 5% chance that you would
be wrong in concluding that the population are different or 95% confident of making a
right decision.

q For social sciences research a p-value of 0.05 is general taken as standard.

 ONE-TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TESTS
qOne Tailed Test?

qIs a statistical test in which the critical area of a distribution is

one-sided so that it is either greater than or less than a certain
value, but not both.

qTwo Tailed Test?

qIs a method in which the critical area of a distribution is two-

sided and tests whether a sample is greater than or less than
a certain range of values.
ONE-TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TESTS
 ONE-TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TESTS
q conducting research.

q There are two types of hypothesis namely; directional and non-directional.

q A directional hypothesis is tested with one tailed test, whereas a non-

directional hypothesis is tested with a two tailed test.

q Directional hypothesis are those where one can predict the direction eg.
Effect of one variable on the other as positive or negative.

q For example girls perform better than boys, thus hypothesizing and
predicting the outcome before
 ONE - TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TESTS Cont’d …

q Non-directional is tested with two tailed test.

q It is used in hypothesizing those ones which does not predict the

kind of effect but can state a relationship between variable 1 and
variable 2.

q For example, there will be a difference in the performance of girls

and boys (not defining what kind of difference).

q Implies you don’t know which way it will go.

 ONE-TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TESTS Cont’d …

qThe greater than symbol is >. So, 9>7 is read as '9 is

greater than 7'. The less than symbol is <. Two other
comparison symbols are ≥ (greater than or equal to) and
≤

qBroken down into English, that’s H0 (The null hypothesis):

µ (the average) = (is equal to) 8.2
 ONE-TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TESTS Cont’d …

BASIS OF COMPARISON ONE-TAILED TEST TWO-TAILED TEST

Meaning A statistical hypothesis test in which A significance test in which alternative

alternative hypothesis has only one end, hypothesis has two ends, is called two-
is known as one tailed test. tailed test.

Hypothesis Directional Non-directional

Region of rejection Either left or right Both left and right

Determines If there is a relationship between If there is a relationship between

variables in single direction. variables in either direction.

Result Greater or less than certain value. Greater or less than certain range of
values.

Sign in alternative hypothesis > or < ≠

 ONE-TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TESTS Cont’d …

qThere are hree relationships which are only possible between any
two parameters µ1 and µ2

qµ1 = µ2

qµ1 < µ2

qµ1 > µ2
 ONE-TAILED AND TWO-TAILED TESTS Cont’d …

q Directional hypothesis:
qH0: µ1 ≥ µ2 or µ1 ≤ µ2
qH1: µ1 < µ2 or µ1 > µ2

qNon- Directional Hypothesis;

qH0: µ1 = µ2
qH1: µ1 ≠ µ2
Thanks for your Attention !