Research problems and Hypothesis

Research Problems
A research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best
solution for the given problem, i.e. to find out by which course of action the
objective can be attained optimally in the context of a given environment.
There are several factors which may result in making the problem complicated.
For instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the
courses of action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternative courses
of action may be very large; persons not involved in making the decision may be
affected by it and react to it favorably or unfavorably, and similar other factors.
All such elements (or at least the important ones) may be thought of in context of
a research problem
Source of research problem
Research problem/idea originated from sources. Some of them
1. Every day life: It can be drawn from the experience ,
2. Practical Issue: This is the most important source of research problem. especially
for practitioner (Engineering Problem)
3. Past Research (Literature )
4. Theory (Explanation of phenomenon)

The Steps in the identification of a research problem

3. Select The research Topics
4. Generate a specific statement of the Problem
5. Identifying the major variables of interests
SELECTING THE PROBLEM

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a

difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research

guide in this connection.

Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his own salvation for research problems

cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring from the researcher’s mind like a plant

springing from its own seed. If our eyes need glasses, it is not the optician alone who

decides about the number of the lens we require. We have to see ourselves and enable him

to prescribe for us the right number by cooperating with him. The following points may

be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research:

(i) Subject which is overcooked should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task

to throw any new light in such a case.

(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.

(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related

research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the

costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in

selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a

researcher must ask himself the following questions:

(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the

research?

(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?

(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must

participate in research as subjects?

If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one

may become sure so far as the practicability of the study is

concerned.
Variables and Constants of Research study:
After the research problem is identified, the research variables must be stated :

Examples:

The contribution of solar Energy in Economic Development of communities in

Adama Town

Variables: Contribution of solar Energy and Economic development (There are two

variable)

Contribution of solar Energy : is an Independent Variables, it can be measured by some

kind of measurement.

Economic Development: Dependent variable it depends on the independent variable

Constants: Communities in Adama Town

Exercise

Find Independent and Dependent variables and constant for the

following problem statement

The Effect of Level of Education in salary Satisfaction among

office secretaries in the public sector in Addis Ababa Region

 WHAT IS A HYPOTHESIS?
A research hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific
methods, that relates an independent variable to some dependent variable.
For example, consider statements :
“Students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than
students not receiving counseling”
Characteristics of hypothesis:
(i) It attempts to explain, predict and explore the phenomenon of interest.
(ii) Hypothesis must be falseable. Capable of being disprove based on the result of
study
(iii) A hypothesis must make a prediction, (usually about the relation ship two or more
variables)
(iv) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise,
the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
(v) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. A hypothesis “is
testable if other deductions can be made from it which, in turn, can
be confirmed or disproved by observation.”
(vi) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A
researcher must remember that narrower hypotheses are
generally more testable and he should develop such hypotheses.
Categories of hypothesis
Null Hypothesis and Alternate Hypothesis

In research studies involving two groups of participants (e.g. Experimental group

vs control group).

• The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences between

the groups being studied.

• The alternate hypothesis always predict that there will be a difference

between the groups being studied.

• The null hypothesis is generally symbolized as H0 and the alternative
hypothesis as H . l

• The null hypothesis is either confirmed or refuted

Directional Hypothesis and Non-Directional Hypothesis
Non directional Hypothesis: researcher uses when they believe
that the groups will differ, but they do not have belief regarding
how the group will differ(i.e. in which direction they will differ)
Directional hypothesis: researcher uses when they believe that the
groups will differ and they have belief regarding how the groups
will differ (i.e in a particular direction)
EXAMPLE

In a clinical trial of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the new drug is

no better, on average, than the current drug.

We would write H0: there is no difference between the two drugs on average.

The alternative hypothesis might be :

The new drug has a different effect, on average, compared to that of the current

drug.

We would write H1: the two drugs have different effects, on average.

the new drug is better, on average, than the current drug.

We would write H1: the new drug is better than the current drug, on average.
Special consideration to the null hypothesis…
 This is due to the fact that the nullhypothesis relates to the statement being
tested, whereas the alternative hypothesis relates to the statement to be
accepted if / when the null is rejected.
 The final conclusion, once the test has been carried out, is always given in
terms of the null hypothesis. We either 'reject H0in favor of H1' or 'do not
reject H0';
 If we conclude 'do not reject H0', this does not necessarily mean that the
nulhypothesis is true, it only suggests that there is not sufficient evidence
against H0in favor of H1; rejecting the null hypothesis then, suggests that
the alternative hypothesis may be true.
Formulating a hypothesis

The formulation of the hypothesis basically varies with the kind

of research project conducted:

…is important to narrow a question down to one that can

reasonably be studied in a research project.

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Qualitative Approach
Characteristics
• Use of words-what or how. Specify whether the study: discovers, seeks to
understand, explores or describes the experiences.
• Use of non-directional wording in the question. These questions describe,
rather than relate variables or compare groups.
• The questions are under continual review and reformulation-will evolve and
change during study.
• The questions are usually open-ended, without reference to the literature or
theory.
• Use of a single focus
Quantitative Approach
In survey projects the use of research questions and objectives is more frequent In
experiments the use of hypotheses are more frequent

Characteristics
• Independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured
separately.
• To be either writing-questions, or objectives or hypotheses, but not a
combination.
• Consider the alternative forms for writing and make a choice based on the
audience for the research
Type I and Type II errors:
In the context of testing of hypotheses, there are basically two types of errors we can
make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true and we may accept H0 when in fact H0 is
not true.
The former is known as Type I error and the latter as Type II error.
In other words, Type I error means rejection of hypothesis which should have been
accepted and Type II error means accepting the hypothesis which should have been
rejected.
Type I error is denoted by a (alpha) known as a error, also called the level of
significance of test; and
Type II error is denoted by b (beta) known as b error. In a tabular form the said two
errors can be presented as follows:
Type I Error:
• A type I error occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is wrongly rejected.
For example,
A type I error would occur if we concluded that the two drugs produced different effects
when in fact there was no difference between them.
Type II Error:
• A type II error occurs when the null hypothesis H0, is not rejected when it is in fact
false.
For example:
A type II error would occur if it were concluded that the two drugs produced the same
effect, that is, there is no difference between the two drugs on average, when in fact they
produced different ones.
A type I error is often considered to be more serious, and therefore more important to
avoid, than a type II error.
 Research Design
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of

data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with

economy in procedure.

In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is

conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and

analysis of data.

As such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the

hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.

More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?

(ii) Why is the study being made?

(iii) Where will the study be carried out?

(iv) What type of data is required?

(v) Where can the required data be found?

(vi) What periods of time will the study include?

(vii) What will be the sample design?

(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?

(ix) How will the data be analyzed?

(x) In what style will the report be prepared?

In short the design should clearly put in to consideration the following points:

• Sample design: Selection of size of the items and phenomenon to be studied

• Method of research to be studied

• Statistical Design The way data analyzed

• Operational design
Important Features of Research design
• It is a plane that specifies the source and the types of information relevant
to the research problem
• It is the strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing data
• It also includes the time and budgets since most studies are done under
these constraints
• In brief a research design at least contain
 A clear statement of research problem
 Procedures and techniques used for gathering information
 The Phenomenon to be studied
 Method to be used in processing and analyzing of date
Criteria of good Research Design
A good research design is often characterized by factors like flexibilities,

appropriateness,

Efficiency and economy The following minimum requirements which make the

design better.

• Minimum biases in data collection

• Maximum the reliabilities of the collected data

• Gives smallest experimental error

Design/ Planning Strategies of Research

1. Selection of the Topics

 Personnel interest

 Social significance

 Theoretical interest

 Researchabilities

 Ethical questions

2. Getting familiar with previous research on the same them

 What do we know about the them of the research ?What we don’t know?

 How has the them been theoretically tackled (Conceptualized)?

 Is there pre-existing data available?

3. Selection of the theoretical problem.

4. Planning the empirical research process

• Research Design

• Most suitable methods for the research problems and design

• How to obtain data

• Operationalize: measures and indicators

5. Specification of the research problem

• Into question that can be answered by research

• Conceptualization.
Classification of research design
1. Based on the degree of research questions crystallization
a. Exploratory
• Loose of structure with the objective of discovering future research tasks b.
b. Formal based
• Begins from where the exploration leave off
• Involve precise procedures and data source specification
• To test hypothesis or to answer research question
2. Based on the control variables
a. Experimental Design
• Need to control and manipulate the variable in the study
• Needs to see the effect of criterion variables over the other
b. Ex post facto Design
• No needs for control of variables
3. Based on the Purpose of study
a. Decretive
• Concerned with finding out who, where, when…and the purpose is to describe
b. Causal
• Concerned with why and how one variable procedure change on another
• Purpose is to explain causal relation between variables
4. Based on the time dimension
c. Longitudinal
• If the data collection taken place in multiple time points and research is
undertaken in several time period
• Advantageous in tracking of data across time
b. Cross-sectional
• Of data collection taken place in single time point and research is undertaken in
single time period.
Elements of research Design

• Description, comparison, classification, Explanation

• Time dimension: longitudinal or cross sectional, number of measurements,

prospective or retrospective.

• Interventions

• Target population and research units

• Need for generations

• Method of data collection

• Comparisons: good research design enables explanations that contradict

theory/hypotheses

• Logical structure of research and data

WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The Content a research Proposal

All research proposal should contain the following

1. Title

2. Background

• It contain the rationale of the research. Why the research is undertaken,

needed based on the researcher experience or observation.

• It should be demonstrate the knowledge of the literature surrounding the

topics.

• Illustrate how the proposed research will fill the gap.

• It will show how will add and build and add to the existing knowledge
3. Statement of the Problem
• It should briefly explain, including a discussion of the conceptual or theoretical
framework in which it is embedded.
• It include a concise statement about the desired outcomes that will achieved
4. Aim and objectives
The aim is the overall driving force of the research and the objectives are the means
by which you intended to achieve the aim.
5. Significant of the problem
Indicate How the proposed research will refine, revise or extend existing knowledge
in the area under investigation.
When thinking about Significant of the problem ask yourself
 How will be benefited?
 What will results mean to the theoretical framework that framed the study?
 What will be improved/new gain changed as a result of the proposed research?
 How will the results of the study be implemented?
6. Limitation and Delimitation of the problem
Limitation
Identify the potential weakness of the study. About the source of and data,
analysis, internal validity that may have been impossible to avoid.
Delimitation
How the study will be narrowed in scope, that is, how it is bound
 The things that are note done and why they are chosen not to do them?
 The literature not reviewed and why?
 case not seen and why?
 Not used methodology and why?
Limit the delimitation to the reader might reasonably expect the reason.
7. Review of Literature
• It provide the background and context for research problem to be
investigated
It helps relate the hypothesis definitions and operationalize the methodology and
data analysis.
It must address
 Topics/problem area: material related to the problem being studied
 Theory area : provide guideline
 Methodology
8. Research Question/Hypotheses
Research Question
 What are the cause for the observation?
 Could they reliably and consistently predict or determine the outcome?
 What causes are the least likely to affect the outcome?
 What are the best choices?
Hypotheses

A possible explanation for causes and effect of a given situation or setoff, factors

that can be tested and can be repetitively proved right or wrong

Remember a hypothesis is not an observation!!

9. Methodology/Methods

It must describe

 Methods of data collection

 Methods of data analysis

 Ethical Consideration

 Why you have decide to use particular methods?

 Why have you decide your methodology?

 Why other methods are not appropriate?

 10. Time table
Component/Item April May June July August

Literature survey

System Modeling
Material & data
collection

Analysis Control
Design
&simulation
Verification

Practical work
&testing
Writing Research
report
Submission and
defend
11. Budget and resource
No Description Estimated
price(birr)
1 PM motor 1500
2 Cart and its wheels 400

3 Pulley 200

4 Sensor 150
5 Amplifier 100
6 Control 100
 12. Dissemination
The expectation from the study
13. References/Biblography

1. Ackoff, Russell L., The Design of Social Research, Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 1961.

2. Ackoff, Russell L., Scientific Method, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962.

3. Allen, T. Harrell, New Methods in Social Science Research, New York: Praeger

Publishers, 1978.

4. Anderson, H.H., and Anderson, G.L., An Introduction to Projective Techniques and

Other Devices for Understanding the Dynamics of Human Behaviour, New York:

Prentice Hall, 1951.

14. Appendix
It includes
 Data collection tools
 Constants forms
 Latters
 Questioners, Interview and the like
What make a good proposal
1. Relevance, either to the work of funding body or students course

2. Uniqueness, offer new sight

3. The title, aim and objective are clear

4. Comprehensive and thorough background and literature

5. Demonstration relevant background knowledge and experience

6. Time table, resource and budget

7. Useful policy and practical implementation.

Reasons why research proposal fail
1. Unclear objective
2. Mismatch between approach being adopted and issue to be address
3. The overall plan is too ambitious and difficult to achieve in the
timescale
4. Insufficient importance
5. Information about the data collection is insufficiently detailed
6. Information about the data analysis method is insufficiently detailed
7. Time scale is unrealistic
8. Resource and budget have not been carefully through out